Chapter II: Governing the Pitch of the Tones

The Ring-Shield Muscles, } STRETCHING assisted by the Back Ring-Pyramid } Muscles } THE VOCAL LIGAMENTS.

THESE ARE OPPOSED BY--

The Shield-Pyramid } SLACKENING Muscles } THE VOCAL LIGAMENTS.

=The Pocket Ligaments= (called "False Vocal Cords," pl. XII, 1 and 2) are a pair of horizontal projections running above and parallel with the vocal ligaments (pl. XII, 3 and 4). The pocket ligaments are, like the vocal ligaments, attached in front to the shield and behind to the pyramids. They may be described as two ledge-shaped pads mainly formed of glands. They are very sensitive and movable, and ready on the smallest incitement to meet with great rapidity in order to protect the vocal ligaments from any harm. They must, therefore, be chiefly regarded as safeguards of the vocal apparatus, though it is probable that by breaking the stream of air passing through the chink of the glottis, they also exercise considerable influence upon the _quality_ of the tone emitted. It may be affirmed, however, without the slightest hesitation, that they have absolutely nothing to do with the _production_ of tone. We shall see these glandular ledges again during our observations upon the living subject, and I shall therefore say no more about them at present.

VIEW OF THE VOICEBOX, OR LARYNX, WHICH HAS BEEN CUT OPEN FROM BEHIND.

1, 2. POCKET LIGAMENTS (FALSE VOCAL CORDS).

3, 4. VOCAL LIGAMENTS (VOCAL CORDS).

5, 6. SHIELD (THYROID) CARTILAGE.

7, 8. CARTILAGES OF SANTORINI.

9. LID (EPIGLOTTIS).

14, 10 & 15, 11. FOLDS OF MUCOUS MEMBRANE (ARYTENO-EPIGLOTTIC FOLDS).

12, 13. WEDGES (CUNEIFORM CARTILAGES).

14, 15. CARTILAGES OF WRISBERG.

16, 17. PYRAMID MUSCLE (ARYTENOIDEUS TRANSVERSUS).

18, 19. RING (CRICOID) CARTILAGE.

20, 21. TONGUE (HYOID) BONE. ]

The space between the pocket ligaments and the vocal ligaments (pl. XII, 1, 2, 3, 4) is the entrance to two pouches or pockets which extend outwards and upwards. The dimensions of these pockets vary very much in different individuals. As a rule their height does not exceed two-fifths of an inch, so that their terminations do not reach the upper borders of the shield cartilage (pl. XII, 5 and 6). But there are instances in which the pockets are nearly three-quarters of an inch high, and where such is the case they, as a necessary consequence, reach beyond the shield. Sometimes they are so high as nearly to touch the root of the tongue. Their outer walls are chiefly formed of loose fatty cellular tissue, and the pockets are almost entirely surrounded by a large number of small glands.

Now these are the "Laryngeal sacculi" which, according to Mr.
Illingworth, produce the falsetto voice by "acting in the same way
as a hazel-nut can be made to act as a whistle, when the kernel has
been extracted through a small hole in the shell," &c. I think,
however, that the reader will, from the description given above,
agree with me that the acoustic properties of the pockets of the
voicebox cannot be very great, and that, at all events, there is a
vast difference between their construction and that of a hazel-nut,
either with or without the kernel. Then there is this additional
difficulty, that even if one could whistle upon the pockets in the
manner suggested, there are two of them, covered, let it be
remembered, with a multitude of glands, continually producing
moisture, and liable to enlarge or to diminish. How, I should like
to know, could two such cavities be so tuned as under any
circumstances to produce exactly the same tones? Would not rather
frightful discords be the inevitable result? And again, what
provision is there in the pockets for the gradations of pitch? But
quite apart from these considerations, this and other similar
theories are completely disproved by the fact that every tone which
the human voice is capable of producing can be produced by
_inspiration as well as by expiration_. The tones sung by
inspiration are, as might be expected, wholly devoid of beauty,
because the vocal apparatus is, as it were, put upside down, and
the position of bellows and resonator reversed. But that does not
alter the question. The fact remains, and clearly proves that the
pockets have no more to do with the falsetto than with the chest
voice, because in inspiration the air strikes the vocal ligaments
_after it has passed_ the pockets, and yet the result is, beauty of
tone apart, exactly the same.

The function of the pockets, in my opinion, is this: They are the means of isolating the vocal ligaments, thus enabling them to vibrate freely and without hindrance. They also allow the sound-waves to expand sideways, thereby materially adding to their resonance. Lastly, they with their many little glands produce and supply the vocal ligaments with that moisture without which, according to the investigations of J. Mueller,[H] the production of tone cannot be carried on.

Above the pocket ligaments there is a kind of tube which is formed by the upper part of the pyramids (surmounted by two little bodies called the cartilages of Santorini, pl. XII, 7, 8) behind; the lid or epiglottis (pl. XII, 9) in front, and sideways by two folds of mucous membrane running up from the pyramids to the lid (pl. XII, 14, 10 and 15, 11). These folds are in many cases supported by two small cartilages, which we will call the Wedges (pl. XII, 12, 13). These, according to Madame Emma Seiler, are the chief factors in the formation of the highest register of the female voice. In some physiological works they are treated as of very little consequence, and in others they are not mentioned at all.

These wedges are two thin strips of cartilage running in front of the pyramids (pl. XII, 12 and 13) where they are embedded in a number of glands. Their upper ends terminate in the cartilages of Wrisberg (pl. XII, 14, 15), and their lower ends gradually dwindle away in the direction of the vocal ligaments.

Madame Seiler says that they "reach to the middle of the vocal
chords, by which they are enveloped."[I] She comments in the same
book on the fact that German anatomists have been reluctant to
admit the existence of these cartilages; and she adds on page 61,
"It was, therefore, a great satisfaction to me to find them
described under the name of the cuneiform cartilages in Wilson's
'Human Anatomy.'" It must be confessed, however, that Wilson's
description of them is totally different from Madame Seiler's. He
says, "The cuneiform cartilages are two small cylinders of yellow
fibro-cartilage, about seven lines in length and enlarged at each
extremity. _By the lower end or base_ the cartilage is attached _to
the middle of the external surface_ of the arytenoid (the pyramid),
and by its upper extremity forms a prominence in the border of the
aryteno-epiglottidean fold of membrane"[J] (_i.e._, the fold
running up to the lid). According to Seiler, therefore, the wedges
reach from the pyramids to the middle of the vocal ligaments, but
according to Wilson their bases are attached to the middle of the
outer surface of the pyramids, so that they cannot even touch the
vocal ligaments. As Madame Seiler assigns very important functions
to these wedges in the formation of the highest register of the
female voice, and as she quotes Wilson in a manner that must lead
the reader to suppose he gave a similar description to hers of
these cartilages, I have thought it right to give Wilson's
statement in full.

But there is a description of these cartilages by Dr. Witkowski
which corresponds very closely with Madame Seiler's. Speaking of
some of the glands of the voicebox, he says in the work mentioned
before, on p. 12--"They are arranged in the form of an L, whose
vertical branch goes along the arytenoid cartilages (the pyramids),
_the horizontal branch following the direction of the vocal cords_.
_There is often found situated in the midst of this group of glands
the cuneiform cartilage of Wrisberg_, sometimes reduced to a mere
cartilaginous granule."

Dr. Elsberg also describes them on p. 37 of the treatise before
mentioned as "elongated nodules" in the hinder portion of the vocal
ligaments, and says they are found "more often in the female than
in the male sex." He calls them the "posterior vocal nodules," and
gives on p. 36 a diagram which shows them most clearly and
unmistakably. This point would therefore seem to be settled.

=The Resonator.=--We now come to the last part of our instrument, namely, the resonator, which is formed of (1) the pockets of the larynx; (2) the tube above the pocket ligaments; (3) the upper part of the throat; (4) the mouth; and (5) the nose. Before giving a description of the resonator, it will be necessary to make a few introductory remarks on certain laws of the philosophy of sound, which have been so clearly demonstrated that they admit of no contradiction.

=Tone=, as we have seen, is the result of rapid periodic vibrations.

The =Loudness= of tone depends upon the _amplitude_ of the vibrations. This is easily shown by drawing a bow over the string of a violin: while the vibrations of the string are largest, the tone produced is loudest, and as the vibrations get smaller, so the tone becomes fainter.

The =Pitch= of tone depends upon the _number_ of vibrations in a given period of time. The greater the number of vibrations the higher the pitch, and _vice versa_.

The =Quality= of tone depends on the _form_ of the vibrations, "which also determines the occurrence of upper partial tones."[K]

Now, to make the sound of any tone-producing element more intense, and to give it some special quality, is the work of the resonator. If we simply fix a fiddle string at either end, and, after giving it a certain amount of tension, draw a bow across it, we shall certainly produce a tone, but a very poor and faint one. Put the same string with the same amount of tension upon a cheap violin, and the tone will be intensified, and its quality changed, though that quality may be of a very unpleasant kind. Repeat the experiment upon an Amati or a Straduarius, and not only will the tone be more powerful still, but it will also have a full, round, and beautiful quality. Something, it is true, depends upon the string and upon the bowing, but we are here supposing the same string and the same player, our object being to show how the _resonator_, which, in this case, is the body of the violin, intensifies the tone of the string, and affects its quality.

Illustrations exemplifying the same thing might be multiplied to any extent, but the one I have just given will suffice. As with the string, so with the vocal ligaments. Cut a larynx out of a dead body, put it in proper position on the top of a bellows, and force the air through it, and you will produce tone, but faint and poor tone. Now add a resonator to the larynx, and the tone of the vocal ligaments will be intensified, and its quality altered according to the kind of resonator you make use of.

It is clear, therefore, that the human voice does not only depend upon the vibrations of the vocal ligaments, and the corresponding vibrations of the air passing between them, but also upon the resonator as defined on p. 9. According to the natural formation of our resonator, and according to the infinite variety of shapes which every one has it in his power to give to it, our voices will be, always supposing the conditions of the vocal ligaments to be the same, either full, round, sonorous, and _beautiful_, or they will be poor, cutting, muffled, guttural, nasal, and _ugly_.

As we have, or may easily acquire, absolute command over the resonator, or, at least, over the greatest part of it, it is a comfort to know that so very much depends upon it, and I trust my readers will now, with some amount of pleasure, look with me at this part of the vocal apparatus.

The 1st and 2nd divisions of the resonator--namely, the pockets of the larynx and the tube above the pocket ligaments--have been fully described on pp. 52, 53, and no more need be said on the subject here.

The upper part of the throat, called in scientific works the "Pharynx" (pl. I, P), is a cavity, the largest part of which may be seen through the arch at the back of the open mouth. Its hinder wall is formed by the spinal column, and it extends upwards as far as the Eustachian tubes (pl. I, E) which communicate with the middle part of the ear. Here it joins--

The =Cavities of the Nose= (pl. I, N), which have for their base the hard and soft palate (pl. I, H and S), and which are divided by a bone partition.

The only part of the =Mouth= which requires a particular description is the soft palate. This is a movable partition by means of which either the mouth or the nose can be completely separated from the throat. If the nose is to be shut off from the throat the soft palate is _raised_, and pressed against the back of the pharynx. If the mouth is to be shut off the soft palate is _lowered_, and rests closely upon the back of the tongue. This partition plays a most important part in vocalization. In the formation of all pure vowel sounds it is _raised_, thereby closing the nasal cavities, and it has been found that the closure is loosest for "ah" (as in "father") and tightest for "e" (as in "bee"), the intermediate vowels being "a" (as in "name"), "oh" and "oo" (as in "food"). This has been clearly shown by Czermak in the following manner. Lying down on his back, he had the nasal cavities filled with tepid water. He then uttered the various vowel sounds, and ascertained from the quantity of water required to force open the closure formed by the soft palate the degree of tightness for each vowel. He afterwards constructed a very ingenious little apparatus, by means of which, in one of his lectures, he demonstrated this fact to his audience. It will be easily understood from the above explanation that, if the closure of the nasal cavities is sufficiently imperfect to allow any considerable amount of air to pass through the nose, the result will be a nasal tone.

I am aware that the very opposite is taught by some. There are
those who maintain that nasal tone arises from the air _not_ being
able to get through the nose. I am even informed that in some parts
of England where nasal tone seems to be a general affliction, it is
the practice of teachers of singing to cause their pupils to bathe
their noses in hot water in order to relax the muscles which are
supposed by their contraction to produce nasal tone. I would,
however, in support of my statement, draw attention to the
following indisputable facts:--(1) It is quite possible to
completely close the nostrils, and yet to produce pure vocal tone.
(2) Persons who are either partly or entirely without the soft
palate can _under no circumstances_ utter a single sound without
the most pronounced nasal quality. It seems to me that these facts
sufficiently speak for themselves; but if any of my readers are not
convinced by them, let them try this experiment: Take a thin mirror
and hold it flat against the upper lip, with the glass upwards. Now
sing a pure vocal tone, and the mirror will remain perfectly
bright. Sing, on the contrary, with nasal quality, and the mirror
will at once be completely dimmed. This shows conclusively that
nasal sound is produced by singing _through_ the nose, and this
cannot be done without lowering the soft palate. Teachers of
singing know well enough that guttural tone is caused by the
obstinate arching up of the tongue, and if they understand their
business they eventually succeed in teaching a pupil labouring
under this disadvantage to get perfect control over his tongue. But
nobody thinks of the soft palate, though that can be brought under
subjection just as well as the tongue. Let singing masters see to
it, and young ladies will no longer be laughed at for having to
put their noses into hot water before charming their friends with
a song.

It now only remains to be added that the interior of the windpipe and of the voicebox, as well as that of the throat, the mouth, and the nose, is lined with a thin mucous membrane of a pinkish colour. This concludes my description of the Vocal Organ as a musical instrument.

DIFFERENCES OF THE VOICEBOX, OR LARYNX, IN CHILDREN, WOMEN, AND MEN.

The voicebox of a newly-born baby is about one-third the size of that of a grown woman. It is therefore rather large in proportion to other parts of the body, with the exception of the head, which comparatively is larger still. The horizontal outline of the shield cartilage is a very gentle curve, and the upper horns are short, in consequence of which the voicebox is close to the tongue. The wedges, according to Merkel, are strongly developed; the vocal ligaments are short and thick, and the pockets deep. Up to the third year the voicebox grows very considerably, but no particular alterations take place from that time to the period of puberty, which generally occurs at the age of 14 or 15, rather earlier in girls than in boys. This period of change lasts from six to twelve months, or sometimes even two or three years. During this time the vocal organs undergo a marked change. In boys, the angle at which the two plates of the shield meet becomes more and more acute, and the length of the vocal ligaments increases only in the proportion of five to ten. In girls, on the other hand, the horizontal outline of the shield does not lose its evenness, and the length of the vocal ligaments increases only in the proportion of five to seven. The cartilages would seem, especially in boys, to grow more rapidly than the muscles, so that the slowly-growing muscles do not, at first, control the newly-developed cartilages. This accounts for the unmanageable state of the voice at this period. The changes which take place in the female voicebox are very imperceptible, so that they do not materially affect the character of the voice. In the male voicebox, on the contrary, the alterations are very marked, and the result is that the high voice of the boy is changed into the tenor or the bass of the man. While, therefore, before the period of puberty the voicebox is materially the same in both sexes, there are, afterwards, considerable differences noticeable, not only with regard to size, but also with regard to shape. This seems, indeed, sufficiently obvious, and any one can see it by simply comparing the outside of the throat of a man with that of a woman.

Nevertheless we are told by Mr. Lunn[L] that "Anatomy teaches us
that there is no difference between the male and female larynx save
in size;" and by Dr. Garrett (on page 13 of the book quoted before)
that "The male larynx does not differ anatomically in the least
from that of the female, except in size."

My readers may judge for themselves whether these statements are
borne out by facts or not.

It must further be observed that the whole upper part of the shield in the female voicebox is less developed than in the male. The upper horns are short, so that the voicebox is more closely attached to the tongue-bone, and its position in the throat is altogether higher in woman than in man. To show more clearly still the difference in the proportions of the male and the female voicebox, I give below some average measurements (taken from Luschka's great work on the Larynx) which I have, for the convenience of English readers, reduced, as nearly as possible, from centimetres and millimetres to inches.

MALE. FEMALE.

Height of the voicebox in } 2-4/5in. 1-9/10in.
front, with the lid raised } (7 cent.) (4.8 cent.)

Greatest width between the } 1-3/5in. 1-2/5in.
plates of the shield cartilage} (4 cent.) (3.5 cent.)

Depth between the lower }
border of the shield cartilage, } 1-1/5in. 1 in.
and the opposite point } (3 cent.) (2.4 cent.)
of the ring cartilage. }

Length of the vocal chink ... 1 in. 3/5 in.
(25 mm.) (15 mm.)

According to this eminent anatomist, therefore, the differences between male and female larynges are as follows: In height, 9/10; in width, 1/5; in depth, 1/5; in the length of the vocal chink, 2/5 of an inch. As it is plain that if there were "no difference between the male and the female larynx save in size," all their proportions would be alike, I think I may safely assume that I have proved my point, which is a rather important one, as the reader will see when the registers in the male and female voice come up for discussion.

We will now consider the question how the various classes of voice--_i.e._, Sopranos, Contraltos, Tenors, and Basses--are to be accounted for by corresponding differences in the voicebox. We know that tone is produced by the vibrations of the vocal ligaments. It is clear, therefore, that a voice will be high or low according to the number of vibrations which the ligaments are capable of producing, or in other words, according to their dimensions and their tension. This difference is easily seen by comparing the voicebox of a soprano with that of a bass, because there the proportions are so manifestly smaller in the one than in the other. There are similar distinctions between soprano and contralto on the one hand, and between tenor and bass on the other, but they are not so striking. Neither can they, for various reasons, be demonstrated with the laryngoscope; but they exist nevertheless.

It is true that the vocal ligaments of a soprano are sometimes longer than those of a contralto, just as the ligaments of a tenor are occasionally longer than those of a bass. But I maintain that the longer ligaments of sopranos and tenors are correspondingly thinner, and that their tension is greater, owing to the ring-shield or stretching muscles being more powerful than their opponents--the shield-pyramid muscles. Where this is the case the ligaments are more slanting than they would be otherwise, and the consequence of this is that less power of blast is required to make them speak. With this mechanism the higher registers are very readily united with the lower ones, and the voices so produced are of a light and flexible kind. Where, on the contrary, the vocal ligaments of contraltos and basses are comparatively short, they are also thick in proportion, and the shield-pyramid muscles are more powerful than the opposing ring-shield muscles, so that there is less tension. I shall be asked how I can prove this tension theory, and my reply is this: The diameter of the vocal ligaments depends in a large measure on the magnitude of the shield-pyramid muscles. If, therefore, the ligaments are exceptionally thick, the muscles just named must of necessity be very powerful, and can easily resist the pulling of the ring-shield muscles. If, on the contrary, the ligaments are exceptionally thin, it is equally certain that the shield-pyramid muscles are weak in proportion, and then the stretching muscles can easily overcome their resistance.

* * * * *

I may add that I came to the above conclusions about the various classes of voices years ago, when commencing the study of this subject. Not only have I never since seen any reason to alter my views--although I have not failed to notice and carefully examine the theories of others denying my doctrine--but I am more than ever convinced that my explanations are correct. I have now the gratification of seeing my theory confirmed by so great an authority as Dr. Merkel, of Leipzig, who most elaborately explains the subject in his latest work on the larynx, to which I have already alluded in these pages.

* * * * *

Besides the factors enumerated above, there are, no doubt, others which are also of consequence in determining the particular kind of voice to be produced by this vocal apparatus or by that; as, for instance, the windpipe, or the resonator, or both. The capacity of the chest--nay, the structure of the whole body, may have a more or less direct influence upon it. But there are absolutely no statistics to proceed upon, and in the absence of these it is vain to indulge in any speculations on the subject.

MOVEMENTS OF THE VOICEBOX, OR LARYNX, WHICH CAN BE SEEN OR FELT.

The voicebox in a man is situated almost exactly in the middle of the throat; in woman its position is, for reasons partly explained on page 64, considerably higher. It moves downwards in inspiration, and upwards in expiration; and the more vigorously we breathe, the more marked are these movements. In the act of swallowing the voicebox rises quickly, and in yawning it goes down so completely that the whole windpipe may vanish into the chest, and even the part of the ring cartilage may disappear.

When singing in what is called chest-voice the voicebox rises gradually with each higher tone. Changing the mode of tone production, and singing--say an octave higher--in falsetto, the voicebox makes quite a leap upwards, and then again rises gradually with each higher tone, just as in chest-voice, but in a lesser degree. The voicebox, however, does not stand so high for the lowest falsetto as for the highest chest tones.

It is possible, of course, to limit these movements to a minimum,
but a teacher who insists upon his pupils keeping their voice-boxes
perfectly still commits a serious mistake, because it is always
injurious to do violence to nature. It is one thing to keep the
voicebox steady, thereby facilitating the working of some of those
muscles which act immediately upon the vocal ligaments; it is quite
another thing, as will be seen below, to attempt to prevent
movements which have to serve a great purpose.

In _whispering_, the voicebox occupies a different position in the throat for each vowel. I invite the reader to try the following curious experiment. Let him take the larynx gently between the thumb and the first finger, and then _whisper_ OO (as in "food,") OH, AH, A (as in "name,") and E (as in "bee"). He will find that the voicebox rises with every succeeding vowel until at last it has completely slipped away from between the finger and thumb. Each one of these _whispered_ vowels has, as first ascertained by Helmholtz, its exact pitch, whether uttered by a little child or by an old man, and the effect of the rising of the voicebox is to shorten the resonator, whereby the raising of the pitch is produced.

I stated on page 41 that the vocal ligaments were capable of being stretched by the ring-shield muscles, and that the pitch of the tones produced by their vibrations depended mainly on their tension. As we are now taking note of such movements of the voicebox as may be either seen or felt in the throat, we will take the opportunity of trying whether my statement can be verified. Let the reader, therefore, do as follows:--(1) Place the finger on the shield cartilage, and press it vigorously backward. (2) Sing loudly any high tone that is well within your compass. Hold this tone steadily, and _be quite sure you do not alter its pitch_. (3) Now suddenly remove your finger, continuing to sing as before. What is the result? Your tone is raised by a third, or even more, according to the amount of pressure you exercised on the shield. And how did this result come about? In this way: By pressing the shield backwards you elongated the ring-shield muscles, thereby counteracting their stretching influence, and at the same time slackening the vocal ligaments. The tone you sang while doing this was, we will say C'. By releasing the shield you enabled the ring-shield muscles to contract again, thereby putting the vocal ligaments on the stretch as they were at first. That changed your C' to E', or higher still. Have I proved my assertion?

Now one more test, if you please. I pointed out to you on page 34 an opening between the shield and the ring. You will see it on plate V, No. 10. Please sing a low tone; place your finger gently on the shield, and move it downwards. You will soon discover a little hollow which corresponds with the opening I just mentioned, and into which you can easily put part of the tip of your finger. Now sing up the scale, and take care to keep the tip of your finger in the hollow. Remember that in singing up the scale your voicebox will rise, which movement you must follow, or you will lose the place. If you do this carefully, you will find that the hollow gets smaller and smaller by degrees until at last it closes entirely, and you can no longer find a trace of it. Now sing down again, keeping your finger on the same spot. You will soon notice the hollow again, and it will continue to get larger and larger until you arrive at the bottom of your scale.

This, of course, is but another way of showing the mechanism by which the pitch of your tones is raised or lowered, and we have proved the same thing by our preceding experiment. But I asked you to try this chiefly because it will enable you to put a check upon my statements with regard to the registers of the voice, a subject which I propose to discuss in another chapter.

THE LARYNGOSCOPE, AND HOW TO USE IT.

The Laryngoscope in its simplest form is a thin circular mirror, about three-quarters of an inch in diameter, set in a metal frame, and fastened at an angle of 120 deg. to a piece of wire from three to four inches long, which is put into a small wooden handle not much thicker than a pencil, and about the same length as the wire. By help of the laryngoscope we can either see our own larynx or that of another person. The easiest experiment is upon the larynx of some one else. In this case, the person to be operated upon sits facing the sun, the head slightly bent backwards, and the mouth wide open. If he has not sufficient control over his tongue to prevent it from arching up, he must gently hold its protruding tip with a pocket handkerchief between his thumb and forefinger. The mirror is now slightly warmed to prevent its becoming dimmed by the moisture of the breath, and then, holding it like a pen, the operator introduces it into the throat so that it touches the uvula. This must be done lightly yet firmly, care being taken not to bring the mirror into contact with the base of the tongue. The rays of the sun falling upon the mirror are reflected downwards into the voicebox, the image of which is clearly visible in the mirror. In making observations upon oneself, a second mirror in the shape of an ordinary hand looking-glass is necessary to reproduce the image in the small mirror. This is the way in which the renowned professor of singing, Senor Manuel Garcia, made those famous "Observations on the Human Voice," communicated to the Royal Society by Dr. Sharpey, on May the 24th, 1855. Similar attempts had been made before; for instance, in 1827 by Babington, in 1838 by Baumes, in 1840 by Liston, and in 1844 by Warden and Avery. But they had all ended in failure, an occasional glimpse of some parts of the voicebox being the only result obtained. Garcia, however, brilliantly succeeded where all his predecessors had failed, and was the first not only to see the vocal ligaments, but to see them in the act of singing, and to see them so clearly as to be able to give an account of their minutest movements. The instrument has since been greatly improved, and the process of investigation has become a science. Medical men all over the world have laid hold of it, and suffering humanity is daily benefited by it. But Garcia is the man who produced the first results, and to him, therefore, is due the credit of being practically the inventor of the laryngoscope.

It is almost incredible, but it is true, that this splendid invention was received coldly and with distrust in this country, and had it not been for Dr. Johann N. Czermak, Professor of Physiology at the University of Pesth, the matter would, in all probability, have been forgotten. But this gentleman recognized the value of Garcia's invention, and he at once went enthusiastically to work, and pushed on vigorously in the way which Garcia had opened for him. He constructed an apparatus which enabled him, by making use of artificial light, to work without interruption and without waiting for the sun to shine. He then made his first attempts on himself in order to become acquainted with the conditions which have to be fulfilled by the observer as well as by the person to be operated upon. In this way he soon became a master of the new process, which he immediately brought under the notice of the profession by giving lectures and demonstrations in the chief towns of Europe.

More than twenty years have passed since then, and the laryngoscope has, during that time, been made excellent use of, not only for the alleviation of suffering, and the cure of disease, but also for its original purpose--_i.e._, the exploration of the mechanism of the human voice.

My own connection with the matter has arisen through my desire to sift contradictory statements made by various observers. Having read many English, German, and French books on the subject, I was in position to pick up a hint here, and to get some good advice there, and the consequence was that I was able to pursue a course which made me familiar with the use of the laryngoscope in a very short time. As my experience may be useful to others, I will briefly relate how I proceeded.

I made my first attempts upon a skull, to which I attached a plaster-of-Paris model of the voicebox, the whole being fastened to an iron stand. The instrument I used was a concave reflector on a spectacle frame. The reflector had a hole in the centre, and was capable of being moved in various directions. The next thing was the little mirror described on page 73, and lastly, a gas lamp on the principle of the well-known "Queen's" reading lamps, which can be raised or lowered at pleasure. I placed the skull to the left of the lamp, and looking with my right eye through the hole in the centre of the reflector, practised throwing the light swiftly and with certainty into the upper part of the throat. I then introduced the little spy mirror, and tried to see and to recognize the various parts of the voicebox, which, let it be remembered, present a somewhat different appearance in the looking-glass from what they do if seen without it. Then I got a friend to mark my artificial voicebox, unknown to me, in various ways, and endeavoured quickly to discover what he had done. In this way I soon acquired a considerable amount of skill in handling the instrument, and also became thoroughly familiar with the image of the voicebox in the mirror.[M] Having thus to a large extent mastered the mechanical part of my work, I proceeded to make observations upon myself. I placed to the left of the lamp an ordinary bedroom looking-glass, in which now appeared my own face instead of the skull which hitherto occupied this place. I opened my mouth, and by the help of the reflector directed the light into the image of it in the looking-glass. I then continued in every way as I had done with the skull, with this difference, however, that I had first, as pointed out before, to warm the little spy mirror in order to prevent its becoming dimmed in the throat.

An instrument has since been designed by the late Dr. G. D. Foulis, of Glasgow, which for simplicity, general excellence, and cheapness, far surpasses the above contrivance, and which I strongly recommend to intending students of laryngoscopy. It consists of a plain stand on which is placed a glass globe filled with water, the whole being surmounted by a small square mirror. The rays from a lamp or candle, placed behind the globe, are concentrated into the open mouth of the observer, who is seated in front of it, enabling him, by the use of an ordinary throat mirror, to inspect the movements of his own vocal ligaments.

This apparatus, as shown in the annexed drawing, including a throat mirror, and safely packed for transmission, may be had from Messrs. W. B. Hilliard & Sons, 65, Renfield Street, Glasgow, for the very small sum of 7s. 6d.

Let not the reader who tries laryngoscopic investigations be discouraged if, at first, violent retching is the result. It does not so much arise from sensitiveness of the parts touched, as from awkwardness in introducing the mirror. If he perseveres he will soon be rewarded by a view of the pearly white vocal ligaments, and a little repeated practice upon himself will enable him also to operate upon others without causing them discomfort.

I close this chapter by again reminding amateur laryngoscopists that in the vast majority of cases where the touch of the mirror causes retching and gagging, it is due less to the sensitiveness of the person operated upon than to the want of skill on the part of the operator. He should in that case renew his experiments upon himself, and continue them until he has fully mastered the use of the instrument, as it is not fair to make others suffer for his own clumsiness.

THE TEACHINGS OF THE LARYNGOSCOPE.

On introducing the mirror into the throat we first see the back part of the tongue, which has a very uneven surface, and which is, as a rule, covered with greyish phlegm. We next notice a hollow space between the tongue and the lid, which is divided by an elastic band forming a little bridge between the two. Next comes the upper free part of the lid, the shape of which greatly varies in different individuals. It hangs over the voicebox, which it almost completely hides from view; but during the production of a high tone on the vowel A, as in "sad," it takes an almost perpendicular position. When the lid is so raised (pl. XIV, L) we can see right down to the bottom of it, where we observe that it bulges out a little. Extending from either side of the lid to the pyramids are two folds of mucous membrane, in the hinder part of either of which are to be observed two little elevations representing the cartilages of Santorini (pl. XIV, S S), and the upper points of the wedges, called the cartilages of Wrisberg (pl. XIV, W W). Looking down the kind of tube which is formed by the parts just enumerated, we next notice two horizontal projections running from front to back, which are the pocket ligaments (pl. XIV, P P). Everything we have seen so far is of a pinkish colour. Below the pocket ligaments, right at the bottom of the tube described above, we see the main object of our investigation, namely, the vocal ligaments (pl. XIV, V V). These, being almost of a pearly white, form a strong contrast to all their surroundings, and it is quite impossible to mistake them.

* * * * *

In quiet breathing the vocal chink is of a triangular shape, of which, however, we can only see the hinder part, the front part being hidden by the lid (pl. XIII). In exaggerated efforts at breathing this space gets considerably larger, so that, with a well-directed light, we can see into the windpipe, of which the rings are plainly noticeable. It is even possible to see the lowest part of the windpipe, where it is divided into the two branches entering the lungs.

* * * * *

For the purpose of studying the movements of the vocal ligaments in the act of singing, the vowel A, as in "sad" will be found the most favourable, because the formation of the mouth, and the position of the tongue which it necessitates, enable us to get a complete view of the interior of the voicebox, which during the emission of other vowel sounds is more or less hidden.

Mr. Lunn objects that all investigations with the laryngoscope are
valueless on account of the supposed necessity of holding the tip
of the protruding tongue. He says, in a letter to the "Orchestra"
(January, 1880): "One of our most promising singers told me he
could not rightly produce his voice when under laryngoscopic
investigation. It is a moral impossibility for all!" (A physical
impossibility would be more to the purpose.) "Let the reader pull
his tongue out with a napkin as far as he can, and sing, and he
will get some notion of the tone producible." There is no
foundation for this objection, because if a singer has his tongue
under proper control there is not the slightest occasion to put it
out and to hold it. As to pulling it out as far as one can, that
should not be done under any circumstances, and no man having the
slightest knowledge of laryngoscopy would suggest such a ridiculous
proceeding. In my own case the vocal ligaments can be seen from one
end to the other while I keep my tongue in its natural position,
and I am willing to demonstrate this fact to any one who has any
doubt in the matter.

As soon as we produce a tone, the pyramids, and with them the vocal ligaments, meet, so as to touch each other more or less closely, while there still remains a large space between the pocket ligaments above. Every time we take breath, the pyramids with the vocal ligaments recede, to meet again as before, every time we strike a new tone. The vocal ligaments, thrown into vibrations by the stream of air passing between them, cut, as it were, this stream of air into regular waves, and thus (as more fully explained on p. 38) tone is produced.

We notice here that this tone-production may be originated in three different ways:--(1) The vocal ligaments may meet _after_ the air has commenced to pass between them. Of this an aspirate is the result. (2) The vocal ligaments may meet _before_ the air has commenced to pass between them. This causes a check or a click at the beginning of the tone. (3) The vocal ligaments may meet just at the very moment when the air passes between them. In this case the tone is properly struck. There is nothing to make it indefinite as in case No. 1, and nothing to impede it as in case No. 2. Production as in case No. 3 causes the tone to travel much farther than production as in cases Nos. I and 2, and it is this way of striking a tone which is known under the name of "Coup de Glotte" or "Shock of the Glottis."

"But it is not a shock of the glottis at all," says Mr. Lunn, on
page 68 of the book quoted before. "It is an audible result arising
from the false cords [pocket ligaments] releasing condensed air
imprisoned below them, which air in its release explodes." I beg
leave to observe that condensed imprisoned air thus released could
produce a puff, but not a musical tone. The matter is, moreover,
capable of being demonstrated to the eye. The process takes place
as described above, and I am ready at any moment to show that the
pocket ligaments _never_ meet in singing. There can, therefore, be
no possibility of condensed air being imprisoned below them, and we
need not enter into any further argument on the subject.

LARYNGOSCOPIC IMAGE. BREATHING.

T. TONGUE.

L. LID.

V. V. VOCAL LIGAMENTS.

W. W. CARTILAGES OF WRISBERG.

S. S. CARTILAGES OF SANTORINI.

]

LARYNGOSCOPIC IMAGE. UPPER THICK.

T. T. TONGUE.

L. LID.

P. P. POCKET LIGAMENTS.

V. V. VOCAL LIGAMENTS.

W. W. CARTILAGES OF WRISBERG.

S. S. CARTILAGES OF SANTORINI. ]

LARYNGOSCOPIC IMAGE. UPPER THIN.

T. T. TONGUE.

L. LID.

P. P. POCKET LIGAMENTS.

V. V. VOCAL LIGAMENTS.

W. W. CARTILAGES OF WRISBERG.

S. S. CARTILAGES OF SANTORINI. ]

LARYNGOSCOPIC IMAGE. SMALL.

T. T. TONGUE.