Chapter XVII: The Watch Officer

The Officer of the Watch or the Watch Officer, as he is usually termed in the Merchant Service, is the deck officer who has charge of the vessel while under way at sea. On other occasions, if stopped through trouble, or because of communication with other vessels, or on occasions requiring special maneuvering, as in coming in and out of port, rescues at sea, etc., the Master assumes full charge.

+The Watch Officers.+ The watch officers are usually the Chief, Second and Third Mates, on vessels of moderate tonnage. In larger craft different watches are arranged. Then the Chief Mate may stand no regular bridge watch, and the Second, Third, and Fourth Mates take this duty.

In some liners it is the custom to style the watch officers, all "second" officers; namely Senior, Junior, and Extra, Second Officers. These are usually all master mariners. Junior officers of the watch are also on the bridge, attend to the conning of the course, the working of navigation and bearings, and the keeping of the bridge log, which is signed by the senior watch officer at the end of the watch.

+Importance of Watch Duty.+ For a long time a slipshod method of keeping watch prevailed in certain steamers, the outgrowth of second-rate sailing-ship practice, where thrifty, but ill-informed, masters, insisted on their watch officers keeping "busy" during the day.

It was thought advisable by these gentlemen to have the officer on the bridge "with nothing to do" attend to a bit of sewing on canvas, or help out with the painting, and what not. Of course such masters were doomed to the scrap heap where they belong. A few miles added to the coal bill, through slovenly daytime steering, with kinks in the course as well as in the seams sewed by the misused officer, soon brought about reform. Added to this a certain danger, such as running down submerged hulls, and the like—with the thing happening once or twice, helped to wake up owners. Also, the bumping of two of these "economical" (and lubberly) craft, may have helped too.

FROM NAVIGATION LAWS OF THE UNITED STATES

The board of local inspectors shall make an entry in the certificate of inspection of every ocean and coastwise seagoing merchant vessel of the United States propelled by machinery, and every ocean-going vessel carrying passengers, the minimum number of licensed deck officers required for her safe navigation according to the following scale:

That no such vessel shall be navigated unless she shall have on board and in her service one duly licensed master. (Mar. 3, 1913; sec. 2.)

Three watches.

That every such vessel of one thousand gross tons and over, propelled by machinery, shall have in her service and on board three licensed mates, who shall stand in three watches while such vessel is being navigated, unless such vessel is engaged in a run of less than four hundred miles from the port of departure to the port of final destination, then such vessel shall have two licensed mates; and every vessel of two hundred gross tons and less than one thousand gross tons, propelled by machinery, shall have two licensed mates.

That every such vessel of one hundred gross tons and under two hundred gross tons, propelled by machinery, shall have on board and in her service one licensed mate; but if such vessel is engaged in a trade in which the time required to make the passage from the port of departure to the port of destination exceeds twenty-four hours, then such vessel shall have two licensed mates.

That nothing in this section shall be so construed as to prevent local inspectors from increasing the number of licensed officers on any vessel subject to the inspection laws of the United States if, in their judgment, such vessel is not sufficiently manned for her safe navigation: _Provided_, That this section shall not apply to fishing or whaling vessels, yachts, or motor boats as defined in the Act of June ninth, nineteen hundred and ten.

Rest before going on watch.

It shall be unlawful for the master, owner, agent, or other person having authority, to permit an officer of any vessel to take charge of the deck watch of the vessel upon leaving or immediately after leaving port, unless such officer shall have had at least six hours off duty within the twelve hours immediately preceding the time of sailing, and no licensed officer on any ocean or coastwise vessel shall be required to do duty to exceed nine hours of any twenty-four while in port, including the date of arrival, or more than twelve hours of any twenty-four at sea, except in a case of emergency when life or property is endangered. Any violation of this section shall subject the person or persons guilty thereof to a penalty of one hundred dollars. (Sec. 3.)

+Master Liable.+ The improper keeping of watch comes clearly under the head of negligence, or even misconduct, and the law governing this is of importance. The penalty, when death results from such negligence, misconduct, etc. is TEN THOUSAND DOLLARS FINE or IMPRISONMENT FOR TEN YEARS, +OR BOTH+.

The law is given below:

Death from negligence, misconduct, etc.

Every captain, engineer, pilot, or other person employed on any steamboat or vessel, by whose misconduct, negligence, or inattention to his duties on such vessel the life of any person is destroyed, and every owner, charterer, inspector, or other public officer, through whose fraud, neglect, connivance, misconduct, or violation of law the life of any person is destroyed, shall be fined not more than ten thousand dollars, or imprisoned not more than ten years, or both: _Provided_, That when the owner or charterer of any steamboat or vessel shall be a corporation, any executive officer of such corporation, for the time being actually charged with the control and management of the operation, equipment, or navigation of such steamboat or vessel, who has knowingly and willfully caused or allowed such fraud, neglect, connivance, misconduct, or violation of law, by which the life of any person is destroyed, shall be fined not more than ten thousand dollars, or imprisoned not more than ten years, or both. (Sec. 282; Repeals R. S., 5344, and act Mar. 3, 1905, sec. 5.)

Watch officers should also heed another matter, a section of Rule V, of the Board of Supervising Inspectors, this rule is also given:

Only certain persons allowed in pilot house and on navigator's bridge.

17. Masters and pilots of steamers carrying passengers shall exclude from the pilot houses and navigator's bridge of such steamers, while under way, all persons not connected with the navigation of such steamers, except officers of the Steamboat-Inspection Service, Coast Guard, and engineer officers of the United States Army in charge of the improvement of that particular waterway, when upon business: _Provided_, That licensed officers of steamboats, persons regularly engaged in learning the profession of pilot, officers of the United States Navy, United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, and Lighthouse Service, assistant engineers of the Engineer Department of the United States Army connected with the improvement of that particular waterway, and the engineer officers connected with the construction and operation of the Panama Canal may be allowed in the pilot house or upon the navigator's bridge upon the responsibility of the officer in charge.

The master of every such passenger and ferry steamer shall keep three printed copies of this section of Rule V posted in conspicuous places on such steamer, one of which shall be kept posted in the pilot house.

Such printed copies shall be furnished by the Department of Commerce to local inspectors for distribution. (Sec. 4405, R. S.)

+Relieving the Watch.+ On well-conducted vessels no part of the routine is so important, and so necessary of clear-cut understanding, as the matter of turning over the watch.

On a steamer in which the writer had the good fortune to serve—a liner in the Transatlantic service—this formality was practiced with the utmost precision.

The officer in charge of the watch would keep facing ahead, near the telegraph, if the weather was thick. He would turn over the data of the watch rapidly and clearly; the relieving officer having already read over and initialed the Captain's order book.

Special orders from the Captain. Position—how obtained—when. Vessels passed; in last hour, at least. Weather—fog if any; sea rising or falling. Wind, veering, or hauling. Distance made—by log—revolutions. Soundings taken—if any. Lights sighted, or expected; if in pilot waters. How vessel was steering—wild—good—etc.

+THEN—being ready to turn over the watch:+

"The course is N. 76 degrees east," says the Officer of the Watch.

"N. 76 degrees, east," is the reply, and the moment these words are spoken the relief is in charge, and steps next to the telegraph.

+An Incident at Eight Bells.+ This simple ceremony of turning the watch over took place one morning at eight bells—it was a smoky channel morning, heavy weather had been met with on the run eastward, and the train for London was waiting at Southampton, for the first-class passengers who expected to dine at the metropolis that night. It was foggy, and the vessel was doing close to twenty knots; the telegraphs at "stand by." Everything had been passed over to the relief. The quartermasters and juniors had relieved each other, two watches were on the bridge at once, in the cold wet mist. One crowd, still a trifle sleepy, but filled with a sea breakfast, the other tired and wet.

Just as the course was being given, and half completed, something leapt out of the gray fog:

Three "toots"[1] on the horn in the crow's nest, sounded and a four-masted sailer shot up, as if a picture thrown on the screen of fog ahead.

"+Hard Starb'd!+" the order snapped out on the tail of the words of the course. The wet and draggled officer of the watch had not yet received his reply—+he was still in charge+.

His order came with the harsh jangle of the telegraph—he was stopping the port engine—and we swept past an iron four-masted ship, her crew clambering to the bulwarks, her sails slatting in the breeze, as we got the first sound of her horn.

The above is an instance where something happened at a critical moment. But both officers were trained men, and the man in charge knew he was still responsible, and acted without a second of delay.

+Responsibility.+ Few men, aside from those who serve as officers at sea, have the responsibility of life and property so directly under them as the officers of the watch.

The young man who takes his first watch as officer in charge—with the great vessel—her lives—and cargo, all obedient to his order and dependent upon his skill and quickness in the sudden emergency that may spring up at any moment; that youngster is to be congratulated. Few men are given the direct handling and responsibility for such mighty forces.

He, in most cases, realizes this. Accidents are usually the outgrowth of carelessness, resulting from long watches at sea +where nothing ever happens+.

It is necessary that the officer of the watch constantly keep his edge. The old-fashioned system of "watch and watch," that man- and soul-killing drill of an age of short-sighted "economy," has come to be frowned upon by those who have had to pay the bills resulting from accident and loss.

The Officer of the watch should come to the bridge fresh and in full vigor. His senses of sight and hearing should be acute; he should be completely awake during the whole four hours of his duty.

He should constantly keep in mind what he must do under certain emergencies.

He should constantly be rehearsing disaster—with foresight as his mentor.

He must have ingrained in his being the instinctive knowledge of PORT and STARBOARD, and what they mean. Not as +words, but as effects+.

He should be a part of the ship. The direction of her head, or the action of her engines, should be as natural to him as any movement of his own body.

This habit of mind enables an officer to act as quick as he can think—to do the right thing without an instant of hesitation.

+Rules of the Road.+ The rules of the road should also be a part of his unconscious knowledge—particularly those rules relating to the prevention of collision at sea.

Many watch officers—familiar with the rules of the Road on the high seas, are lamentably lax when conning their vessel through narrow waters; here is where a great percentage of the accidents to vessels occur. Know the inland rules, the whistle signals; the proper side of the fairways to take; the buoys and marks.

+What to Look Out for.+ The officer of the watch should keep his eyes pretty close to the water ahead; even in the sleepy times of peace. Look for patches of weed; and avoid them. Look for submerged wreckage; floating mines—for many years after the war—well whitened with bird droppings, and almost invisible in the wake of the sun.

And at the present time no merchantman needs to be warned to look out for periscopes, or what to do when he sees one—and remember they are camouflaged too. Do not be too quick to ram a periscope that is lying still. It may be a mine.

+Vessels without Lights.+ Vessels in dangerous waters now run without the usual lights—in fact with no lights at all. This brings us to the question of redoubled vigilance of the keenest and most wide-awake type of watch officer. As vessels become more valuable, and more necessary—the necessity for the best kind of conning is self evident. Yet, due to our unfortunate lack of sea interest it is now necessary, to let down the bars and send back to the sea men who lack in the keenness and training that the situation demands, men who are simply so because of our faulty lack of foresight in the past.

+The running without lights is sanctioned by the governments at war, as a necessary war measure and fog signals are omitted in war zones.+

+The Unwritten Rule.+ Watch officers have long considered an "unwritten rule" that has no doubt been acted upon. Namely, if you see collision coming, "hit the other fellow." This of course is to be taken for what it is worth and should find no response in the mind of the young officer who tramps the bridge on the night watch and works out the problems of the sea.

The law is very concise about the "Risk of collision" and collision comes without much warning. The one thing that is positive, is the duty to stand by, and this is incumbent on both vessels.

+Risk of Collision Rule.+ Risk of collision can, when circumstances permit, be ascertained by carefully watching the compass bearing of an approaching vessel. If the bearing does not appreciably change, such risk should be deemed to exist.

+Duty to Stay by.+ In every case of collision between two vessels it shall be the duty of the master or person in charge of each vessel, if and so far as he can do so without serious danger to his own vessel, crew, and passengers (if any), to stay by the other vessel until he has ascertained that she has no need of further assistance, and to render to the other vessel, her master, crew, and passengers (if any), such assistance as may be practicable and as may be necessary in order to save them from any danger caused by the collision, and also to give to the master or person in charge of the other vessel the name of his own vessel and her port of registry, or the port or place to which she belongs, and also the name of the ports and places from which and to which she is bound.

If he fails so to do, and no reasonable cause for such failure is shown, the collision shall, in the absence of proof to the contrary, be deemed to have been caused by his wrongful act, neglect, or default.

Every master or person in charge of a United States vessel who fails, without reasonable cause, to render such assistance or give such information as aforesaid shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and shall be liable to a penalty of one thousand dollars, or imprisonment for a term not exceeding two years; and for the above sum the vessel shall be liable and may be seized and proceeded against by process in any district court of the United States by any person; one-half such sum to be payable to the informer and the other half to the United States.

+Dangerous Conditions.+ Fog, mist, bright moonlight, coal black night, with phosphorescent sea; all are dangerous conditions so far as visibility is concerned. From three to five in the morning; at the tail of the mid watch, and for the first hour of the morning watch, when vitality is low, and the senses of man lag with the coming of the dawn; then is the time that the officer of the watch should key himself to a sense of complete responsibility—helped out by black coffee if it can be had—and every steamer should provide this at the change of watch, and oftener if need be.

+Look Out.+ Be alive to the changes of the weather. Steamship officers are liable to lack in this respect. Watch the stars, if out. Note the sudden snuffing out of stars near the horizon—watch out for fog banks lying low ahead.

Look out for white water, squalls, get awnings in before they are blown away—never leaving the bridge, of course, unless the Master relieves.

+Ice.+ If in the dangerous latitudes look out for ice. Note sudden changes in the temperature of air and sea. The sea water should be taken every hour at least. Ice gives no warning—sense it, and slow down before it is too late. Remember the Titanic.

Watch the barometer changes—the clouds—the wind, and its changes, whether veering, or hauling.

+Important.+ Know the sailing ship routes—study the pilot charts—and always remember the possible speed and condition of sail, whether on the wind, or free, of sailing vessels that are liable to be met with in your vicinity.

+Night Orders.+ The night order book contains two sets of orders:

THE STANDING ORDERS

+A. Before taking charge make yourself thoroughly familiar with the position of the ship with reference to vessels in sight, any land or shoals or rocks that may be near; with the general condition of the weather, speed, revolutions, sail, if any is set, awnings, boats swung out, running lights, and the orders of the Captain for the night.+

+B. Make no change in the course—unless instructed to do so by the night orders, without obtaining the permission of the Captain—unless it is necessary to avoid immediate danger. Then report promptly to the Captain—by messenger or telephone.+

+C. Make no change in the speed, unless as directed by the night orders, or to avoid collision.+

+D. Report promptly to the Captain all lights upon the shore; discolored water; unusual weather conditions; and report all vessels sighted and their nature, when this can be determined. (At night, it is not usual to report every steamer passed.)+

+E. When in doubt about anything affecting the safety of the vessel, call the Captain at once.+

+F. In the event of fire, or any kind of disturbance or accident, call the Captain at once, and report same.+

+G. Man overboard; act at once, stop, reverse, release water lights and ring buoys, call away quarter boat, and call Captain.+

+H. Keep lookouts posted after dark, or in fog. Comply with all the regulations for preventing collisions at sea. Call Captain if it gets thick; start fog signals at once.+

+I. Report all unusual changes in sea or weather to the Captain. If engines stop, or slow down without orders from the bridge, call Captain at once.+

+J. Take bearings on the course whenever suitable stars are available. Call Captain at any unusual change in deviation, or error.+

+K. Get sights when favorable conditions present themselves. Report all fixes to the Captain, on Officers' Report Blanks, show bearings, and time (ship) and log readings.+

+L. All officers must read and sign these STANDING ORDERS, and must read and sign the night order book at the beginning of their watch, before taking over the course.+

THE NIGHT ORDERS

The night orders are usually written up by the Master in the dog watch and are signed by the officer coming on for the first night watch, eight to midnight.

They may be amended and added to at any time. If the Master adds anything to the orders he will relieve the officer of the watch, while his added instructions are being read and initialed, if necessary.

The night orders are liable to instruct about:

+Changes in the course—when—how much—what course.+
+Cautions as to lights and landfalls expected.+
+Cautions as to vessels to be met.+
+Cautions as to weather changes.+
+Instructions as to calling of Captain, Chief Mate, etc.+
+Instructions as to getting under way, calling officers, men,
(when at anchor).+
+Instructions as to navigation—sights—bearings.+

* * * * *

+The Deck.+ Where the Chief Mate stands a bridge watch, the officer of the watch is generally considered to be in charge of the men on deck, though they may be engaged at work under the boatswain—work laid out by the Chief Mate. This, however, is largely a matter of organization. If the vessel is small, the officer of the watch can keep an eye on things from the bridge. If he needs assistance of any kind he calls for it. He directs the taking in of awnings, and sails, if carried, the turning of ventilators, the closing of the cowls in case of rain.

+Fire.+ In the event of fire:

CALL THE CAPTAIN, if a junior officer, call the Chief Mate also.

At the same time sound the fire alarms.

The usual fire drill then takes place.

The vessel is turned over to the Captain as soon as fire is reported and the officer of the watch attends at the fire or does as he is directed by the Captain. The Chief Engineer should also be informed of the fire, and the engineer on watch is advised of it by telephone or by voice tube.

The wireless operators are advised at once and await the orders of the Captain, except in case of sudden disaster, when they at once send out their calls for assistance.

+Being Overtaken.+ When your vessel is being overtaken, set off flare-up and call Captain at once. On many slow cargo steamers a lookout astern is almost as necessary as a lookout ahead.

+Running Lights.+ In narrow waters have oil lamps trimmed and ready for use, in case the electric lights give out. This is very important.

+In War Zone.+ The standing of watches in the war zone is subject to special precautions.

The following recommendations have been published by the Supervising Inspector General:

Recommendations.

Reliable information is to the effect that many or nearly all of the lives that have been lost from vessels after attack has been due to the fact that, in many instances, the boats have been launched while the ship has had considerable way, either ahead or astern, and that engineers have been compelled to abandon the engine room while the engines were still working.

It is suggested, therefore, that the bridge watch, or the master, assure themselves, if possible, that the engines are at rest and the way off the vessel before the boats are launched. It is also strongly recommended that, due to the possibility of the boats on the weather side of the ship not being available, the full lifeboat capacity on cargo ships be carried on each side so that full capacity may be available at all times.

It is strongly and earnestly recommended that on all vessels entering the War Zone, or the dangerous areas, the passengers and crew be kept fully prepared (so far as may be possible or the navigation of the vessel permits), for speedy and immediate disembarking, or abandoning ship in case of emergency, and that the crew be furnished with life preservers of such character as to allow the free use of the arms in rowing and boat launching. All should be warmly clad without unnecessary or hindering incumbrance.

The requirements and suggestions herein set forth should be met promptly and generously, and it is expected that all concerned will cooperate in making better and safer conditions in the navigation of dangerous areas. Local inspectors, however, will not unnecessarily delay vessels from proceeding on their voyage to ports of the Allied Governments if it is not possible to meet these requirements previous to the appointed time of departure.

GEO. UHLER, _Supervising Inspector General_.

+Zig-zag.+ The great utility of zig-zagging is recognized. The Zig-zag control apparatus, marketed by Captain Arthur N. McGray of New York, has special advantages, and watch officers should master its use.

+Bearings.+ Get bearings, +bow and beam+, +two point+, or +cross+, at every opportunity. Get +vertical angles+, +horizontal angles+, +tangents+, wherever possible. +Fix+ the vessel as often as you can.

If the vessel carried a three-armed protractor, get the horizontal angles between any three objects that are visible, and favorably situated with reference to the vessel, +and are plotted on the chart+.

+Lights.+ See all light houses, and light ships, when you expect to, or call the Captain.

+Azimuths—Amplitudes.+ Get azimuths and amplitudes at every favorable opportunity and see the results carefully entered in the deviation log, so the Captain can inspect them.

+Sights.+ Get sights as often as possible on the watch. With clear horizon at twilight, get stars east and west, and north and south. Such a fix is often most important. Check up all dead reckoning by observations.

+Hydrographic Reports.+ The report blanks furnished by the Hydrographic Office should be carefully filled out and forwarded. This duty is usually given to one of the junior officers.

+Pilot Charts.+ The officer on watch can very profitably occupy his mind in studying the pilot charts furnished by the U. S. Hydrographic Office, they yield much useful data, and are specially useful in warning of the existence of derelicts, and their possible drift.

+Derelicts.+ Trace out all derelicts shown in your path with their possible drift since last report. Always keep a sharp lookout for them, whether on the pilot chart or not.

+Bridge.+ Many bridges are fitted with comfortable shelters at the wings—others with elaborate enclosures. A simple work desk should be provided, when only one officer is on watch, so he can work out bearings, etc., while on the bridge, facing ahead.

+Useful Desk.+ The desk also serves as a handy table for his sextant, or for a cup of hot coffee—cabin style.

+Quartermasters.+ Quartermasters are usually carried, and they are under the immediate charge of the officer of the watch. The care of the bridge, its neat and shipshape appearance, reflects credit, or otherwise, on the watch officers.

+Bridge Etiquette.+ The etiquette of the bridge, in the Merchant Service, especially on the large liners, is as formal and stiff as that on any battleship. The heights of responsibility are always on high tension. In the lesser trades, on tramps and the like, officers are more lax, though they should be no less vigilant.

Salutes are given and returned (on the liners) and uniform is worn.

Relieving officer should be on bridge at least five minutes before eight bells.

+Commissions M. M.+ The British Merchant Service is at the present time strongly advocating commissions, by the Government, for Merchant Marine Officers. With our Shipping Board, and with the growing control by military and naval authorities over merchantmen, some such plan might be advisable for American Merchant Marine Officers, and would undoubtedly help to elevate the standards, and bring the naval and mercantile services into closer harmony.

+Standard Uniform.+ The British Merchant Service associations are also agitating the question of some sort of standard uniform for merchant service, officers and men.

This is a good idea, and should be adopted by Americans. The writer, however, would not advise the adoption of the naval blouse. This is the property of the U. S. Navy. Merchant officers, if they adopt any sort of uniform, should provide themselves with something having pockets, and a roll collar, and less on the order of a princess gown.

+Conclusion.+ The watch officers of a vessel should be as familiar as possible with the handling qualities of their vessel:

Her turning circle. Her quickest turn—usually both screws ahead. Her shortest turn—inner screw slow astern and the way her head scends, under all conditions. See that the course is kept religiously—use small helm, be quick and courteous. Keep a sharp lookout for signals when passing craft at sea—Call Captain—and reply smartly.

THE WATCH OFFICER—IN PORT

While in port, merchant ships, except the larger liners, do not indulge in the luxury of an officer of the watch, in fact such a gentleman would be out of place with his telescope under his arm, dodging drafts of cargo, and listening to the repartee of the stevedores. Everything in its place, and as common sense rules in the long run, the formalities of the merchant service have settled down to the more simple courtesies of life.

A quartermaster should be on gangway watch, cleanly dressed, or in uniform, if it is worn, to see that only those who have business on board are admitted to the ship. He should salute the officers, who will return it.

On Sundays, and Holidays, when cargo is not being worked, and when the ship is at rest, an officer should be told off to stand day's duty. He should see that the vessel is in shipshape order, falls neatly coiled, decks clean, Irish pendants all removed, awnings hauled out taut, flags closely mast headed and kept clear, and that everything is kept in immaculate order about the gangway. He should not allow loitering about the gangway.

[1] Three toots vessel (or light) ahead.