Chapter XI: Appendix: The Legend of Creation (1)

Condensed from Mr. Allen's (of the American Presbyterian Mission)
replies to ethnographical questions, dated October, 1900.

Long ago the gods Hèmphu and Mukràng took counsel together for the creation of the world. They marked the limits of their work, setting up four great posts to fix the boundaries of things, and fastened them immovably with six of their mother's hairs. Then they looked for seed to produce the earth, but found none. Then they consulted a hundred other gods, with their wives, making, with themselves and their wives, two hundred and four in all. It was decided to send one of the wives to beg for some earth from the god Hajòng, and Bamon's wife was sent on this errand. But Hajòng refused to give any earth from his world from which a rival world might be fashioned, and sent the goddess Bamonpi away empty-handed. But as she returned she noticed the worm-casts on the road, and carried off one and hid it in her bosom. But even with this piece of warm earth nothing could be done, until the gods sent for Helòng Recho, the king of the earth-worms, who came and worked up the piece of earth, till in one day it became a heap many feet in diameter; so he continued, till eventually it became this earth of ours. But it was still soft moist earth, on which no one could travel. So they called Kapràng the blacksmith, who with his bellows produced a wind which dried the mud to solid earth. Then the gods said, "We must cause plants to grow on it." They searched everywhere for seed, and at last sent to Rèkbepi in the west, by the great post that marked the place of the setting sun, to ask her for seed. Rèkbepi came, and herself brought seed and sowed it. (Another version states that Rèkbepi and Rèk-kropi, wives of two gods, went to Kana, beyond the boundaries of this world, and obtained from him the various seeds of trees and plants. As they were returning, the sinàm, or head-strap, which held the baskets on their heads broke, and the winds scattered the seeds on the surface of the earth. This occurred on the bank of the river Kallang, in the south-eastern part of Nowgong. But all the bamboos that grew from these seeds were jointless, and therefore weak: strong winds would break down the entire crop in a single storm. So the goddesses who brought the seed tied round the stems pieces of thread to strengthen them; the threads made scars, until at last all the bamboos we have now are marked with scars at the joints.)

Next came the creation of animals. Hèmphu and Mukràng were the leaders, but they were helped by Pithe and Pothe ("great mother" and "great father"). The elephant was first created to be a servant to man. Then the tiger was made, and bidden to eat the wicked; any one killed by a tiger is still thought to have committed some great crime.

Then a great council was held, and it was decided to create a being called arlèng (man). The first man's name was Bamon-po, and he had created for him two wives, one a Mikir and the other an Assamese. But no offspring was born to the man for a long time. At last the Assamese wife sent her husband to her elder brother, who understood the secrets of nature. He sent Bamonpo into his garden, and bade him pick an orange for each of his wives, and give it to her to eat, when all would be well. Bamonpo did so, and went homewards with his two oranges. On the way, becoming hot, he stopped at a river to bathe. While he was in the water, a crow came and carried away one of the oranges. Bamonpo sadly returned to his home, and gave the one orange left to his Assamese wife, who ate it. But the Mikir wife picked up a piece of the peel and ate it, and in process of time she had a son, whom she named Ram. The Assamese wife also had a son, whom she called Chaputi. He, however, was weak and puny, while Ram was strong and valiant. Ram could pull up trees by the roots, and break them down as he pleased. He could fight and conquer any demon who attacked him, and any man whom he met. But he had no wife. One day while out hunting he became thirsty, and climbed a tree to look for water. He saw a pool, at which he quenched his thirst. As he did so, he noticed in the grass a white thing, which he put in his basket and carried home. It was a large egg. For some days he forgot to look at it, and later on, when he went to see it, he found that the egg was broken, and a beautiful woman had come forth from it. The demons tried to seize her and carry her off, but Ram vanquished them all, and made her his wife. She was very fruitful, and her children multiplied until they were numbered by thousands. Ram's fame spread throughout the world, till at last he disappeared, and was deified by a race of his descendants, called Hindus. They were a mighty race of men, and in the course of time, becoming dissatisfied with the mastery of the earth, they determined to conquer heaven, and began to build a tower to reach up to the skies. Higher and higher rose the building, till at last the gods and demons feared lest these giants should become the masters of heaven, as they already were of earth. So they confounded their speech, and scattered them to the four corners of the earth. Hence arose all the various tongues of men.

Additional note to p. 45.--A very exact parallel to the story of Harata Kunwar will be found in Mr. S. J. Hickson's book entitled A Naturalist in North Celebes (London, 1889), pp. 264-6. It is a story current among the Minahassa people of that region, of heavenly nymphs in whose clothes resided their power to fly, and one of whom was captured by a man who made her his wife; other details agree closely with those of the Mikir story.

VI.

LANGUAGE.

Outline of Mikir grammar--The original text of the three stories
translated in Section V., analysed and elucidated.

The language spoken by the Mikirs belongs to the great family of Indo-Chinese speech called Tibeto-Burman, the general characteristics of which have been fully set forth in The Linguistic Survey of India, vol. iii. Mikir itself is treated on pp. 380 ff. of Part II. of that volume, and is described by Dr. Grierson as a member of the Naga-Bodo sub-group, in which it is classed together with Empeo or Kachcha Naga, Kabui, and Khoirao. It is unnecessary here to occupy space with any demonstration of the fact that Mikir is a Tibeto-Burman language, or to cite lists of words in it agreeing with those of other languages of the same great class. In the next section an attempt will be made to examine its affinities with other varieties of Tibeto-Burman speech, and to define more clearly its place in the family; in this the language will be dealt with in its internal structure only, and, as specimens, the original text of the three stories translated in Section V. will be given, with an interlinear rendering and a running commentary.

A grammatical sketch of Mikir was printed at pp. 381-391 of Part II. vol. iii. of the Linguistic Survey. What follows is mainly borrowed from that source, which was the first published attempt to explain systematically the facts and mechanism of the language.

SOUNDS.

Mikir has no written character of its own. The first publication printed in it, a short catechism issued by a missionary press at Sibsagar in 1875, used the Assamese character; since then, so far as is known, the Roman alphabet has always been employed to express the sounds of the language. Mr. Stack, from whose materials this monograph has been compiled, distinguished the following vowel sounds:--

a, long a as in father (chiefly in open syllables);
à, the same shortened and pronounced abruptly, as in the German
Mann, always in closed syllables;
(N.B. The language does not possess the short Hindi a,
representing the u in but.)
e, the long e in the French scène;
e, the same sound shortened, as in belief;
è, the sharp e in the English men (always in closed syllables);
i, the long i in machine;
i, the short i in it;
o, the long o in bone;
o, the same shortened, as in obey;
ò, the sharp abrupt sound in pot (always in closed syllables);
u, the long u in June;
u, the short u in full.

The diphthongs are--

ai, as in aisle;
ei, almost as in feign, with the i audible;
oi, as in boil;
ui, long u with i added: no English equivalent.

The consonants used in Mikir are b, ch, d, h, j, k, l, m, n, ng, p, r, s, t, v (all with their value as in English), and the aspirates kh, ph, th (pronounced as in cookhouse, haphazard, anthill). Bh, dh, and g occur only in a few borrowed words, and bh and dh are commonly resolved, as bahar (for Hindi bhar), "a load," and dohòn (for Ass. dhon), "money." F, sh, w, y, and z are not used. Ng is never initial, and the g is not separately heard (always as in singer, never as in younger).

MONOSYLLABIC ROOTS.

The root words of the language, whether nouns, adjectives, pronouns, verbs, or adverbs, are generally monosyllabic; where simple roots have more than one syllable, the additions are formative prefixes, once probably separate words, which have become incorporated. Such are the prefix ke-, ki-, ka-, used to form adjectives, present participles, and verbal nouns; and the prefixes ar- (in arni, "sun," arlòng, "stone," arlèng, "man," etc.), ing- (in inglòng, "mountain"; inghòn, "pity," etc.), and te-, ti-, to- (in teràm, "call," tekàng, "abandon," tikup, "house-yard," tovar, "road," etc.), of which the precise significance is not now traceable. In compound roots, formed by combining monosyllabic elements, the force of each individual syllable is still fully felt; such compounds are exceedingly common.

Words are not inflected, but are located in sense by their position in the sentence or by the addition of particles. These particles may often be omitted where ambiguity is not likely to occur; such omission is particularly frequent as regards the postpositions indicating case, and the tense-affixes of the verb.

GENDER.

Gender is not distinguished except for animated beings, and in them either (1) by added words indicating sex (as so-po, "boy," so-pi, "girl"; aso-pinso, "male child"; aso-pi, "daughter"; chainòng-alo, "bull"; chainòng-api, "cow"), or (2) by the use of different terms (po, "father," pe or pei, "mother," phu, "grandfather," phi, "grandmother," etc.).

NUMBER.

The ordinary suffix for the plural is -tum (which is originally a separate word meaning "company," "followers"); but other words are occasionally employed, as mar, a "mass, quantity, or company"; òng, "many"; and li, a respectful form used in addressing a number of persons. When -tum is suffixed to a noun, it takes the prefixed a- of relation, as arlèng-atum, "men"; when added to a personal pronoun it does not require this adjunct, as will be explained below (ne, "I," ne-tum, "we"; nàng, "thou," nàng-tum, "ye"; la, "he, she, it," la-tum, "they").

CASE.

Case is indicated by position, or by postpositions. The nominative, and, generally speaking, the accusative, have no postpositions, but are ascertained by their position in the sentence, the nominative at the beginning, the accusative following it before the verb. Both, when necessary, can be emphasised by the addition of the particles -ke and -si, which in some sort play the part of the definite article; but these are not case-postpositions. There is no device (as in Tibetan) for distinguishing the case of the agent with transitive verbs.

The genitive always precedes the noun on which it is dependent. When the word in the genitive is a pronoun of the first or second person, nothing intervenes between them: ne-mèn, "my name"; nàng-pe, "thy clothes." But when, the pronoun is in the third person, or a noun is in the genitive case, the following noun has a- prefixed: e.g. la a-po, "his father"; Arnàm a-hèm, "God's house"; hijai-atum a-kàm, "the jackals' work"; arni-kàngsàm a-pòr, "day-becoming-cool time." This prefixed a- is really the pronoun of the third person, and means his, her, its, their; the full meaning of the combinations given above is therefore "he, his father": "God, his house": "the jackals, their work": "day becoming cool, its time." As in many other languages of the Tibeto-Burman family, nouns (especially those denoting personal relations, parts of the body, etc.) are seldom conceived as abstract and self-contained; they most often occur in relation to some other noun, and thus the syllable a- is more often prefixed to them than not. Especially is this the case with adjectives; these ordinarily follow the noun which they qualify, and almost always have a- prefixed; e.g. Arnàm a-kethe, "God Almighty": la a-kibi a-bàng, "that younger one." Sometimes this prefixed a- is thinned down to e-, as in hèm-e-pi, hèm-e-po, "widow, widower," literally "female or male owner of the house": hijai e-hur, "a pack of jackals." Most postpositions (originally nouns joined to the genitive of the qualified word) similarly require a- before them; and the suffix -tum of the plural, since it means "a company," also in this manner assumes the form a-tum. Before ing- the prefix a- is absorbed, and the result is àng.

The other cases are formed by postpositions. The instrumental is generally indicated by pèn (sometimes with prefixed a- or e-, as apèn, epèn, but more often without), or pèn-si. The dative takes a-phàn, "to or for," which is also occasionally used for the accusative. The sign of the dative of purpose is apòt: pi-apòt, "what for, why?" kopi-apòtsi, id. The ablative is formed with pèn or pènsi: nòn-pèn, "from now"; dàk-pèn, "from here"; apara (Ass. para) is also used, generally with pèn as well. The locative has a number of postpositions, according to the position required: -si is used for "in," as hèm-si, "in the house," adèt-si, "in his country"; arlo is also used for "in, inside." Le (properly the conjunctive participle of a verb meaning "arrive, reach to a place") is often used as a postposition for "at, in." Other common locative postpositions are a-thàk, "upon, on," àngsòng, "above, upon," arum, "below," aber, "below," alòng "together with" (lòng means "place"), adun, adung, "beside, next to" (dun is a verb meaning "to be with, accompany"), adàk, "between," àngbòng, "in the middle of," aphi, "after."

ADJECTIVES.

Adjectives are regularly formed by prefixing ke-, ki-, or ka- to the root, and do not change for gender, number, or case. Thus, from the root me, "to be good," we have keme, "good"; helo, "distance," kahelo, "far off"; dòk, "to have savour," kedòk, "savoury"; ho, "to be bitter," keho, "bitter"; lòk, "to be white," kelòk, "white"; ri, "to be rich," kiri, "rich." Ke- and ki- are generally used with monosyllables, ka- with longer words; ka- with ing- forms kàng.

The form of the adjective is precisely the, same as that of the present participle of the verbal root, used to form the present tense, and also as that of the infinitive or abstract of that root, and the collocation of the sentence alone determines the meaning of the word used. When particles of comparison or other modifying elements are added to the adjective, the prefix ke- etc. is often dropped as unnecessary; thus--

kelòk, "white"; lòk-hik, "whitish."
keme, "good"; me-mu, "better"; me-ne, "best."
keding, "tall"; ding-mu, "taller."

But kàngtui, "high"; kàngtui-mu, "higher"; kàngtui-ne, "highest."

Comparison is effected by means of the postpositions apar and aphàn; "his brother is taller than his sister," a-te apar (or aphàn) a-kòr ding-mu.

Adjectives commonly follow the noun qualified; when they precede, the construction corresponds to what in Aryan languages would be indicated by the relative pronoun (see below, p. 80).

NUMERALS.

The cardinal numerals are isi, one; hini, two; kethòm, three; phili, four; phòngo, five; theròk, six; theròk-si, seven; nerkèp, eight; sirkèp, nine; kèp, ten. It will be seen that seven is six plus one, eight ten minus two, nine ten minus one. From eleven to nineteen kre takes the place of kèp: kre-isi, eleven; kre-hini, twelve; kre-kethòm, thirteen, etc. A score is ingkoi, and from this point onwards the syllable ra is inserted between the multiple of ten and the added units: ingkoi-ra-isi, twenty-one; ingkoi-ra-hini, twenty-two, etc. Thirty, forty, etc. are formed by adding kèp to the multiplier unit: thòm-kèp, phili-kèp, etc. Eighty is theròk-nerkèp, ninety theròk-serkèp. A hundred is pharo or paro, a thousand suri.

The numeral follows the noun. In composition hini (except with bàng, "person") is reduced to ni, and kethòm to thòm, as jo-ni jo-thòm, "two or three nights." Phili and theròk are often contracted to phli and thròk.

Generic determinatives, as in many other Tibeto-Burman languages, are commonly used with numbers:--

with persons, bàng, as a-òng-mar kòrte bàng-theròk, "his uncles, the six brothers";

with animals, jòn (perhaps an Assamese loan-word), as chelòng jòn-phili, "four buffaloes";

with trees and things standing up, ròng: thèngpi ròng-theròk "six trees";

with houses, hum, as hèm hum-theròk-kèp, "sixty houses";

with flat things, as a mat, a leaf, a knife, pàk: as tar pàk-phòngo, "five mats"; lo pàk-phili, "four leaves"; noke pàk-thòm, "three knives";

with globular things, as an egg, a gourd, a vessel, pum: as vo-ti pum-ni, "two eggs"; bòng pum-theròksi, "seven gourds";

with parts of the body, and also with rings, bracelets, and other ornaments, hòng: as kèng e-hòng, "one leg"; roi hòng-ni, "two bracelets."

One of anything is not formed with isi, but, if a person is spoken of, inut (a Khasi loan-word) is used: if anything else, e- is prefixed to the generic determinative; "one cow," chainòng e-jòn; "one tree," thèngpi e-ròng; "one book," puthi e-pàk; "one egg," vo-ti e-pum. This e- appears to be borrowed from Assamese, where it is shortened from èk.

Ordinals are formed by prefixing batai to the cardinal, as batai-kethòm, "third," batai phili, "fourth." They seem to be little used: in the story of Harata Kunwar it will be seen that clumsy periphrases are employed to designate the second, third, fourth, and fifth brother of the family to which the hero belonged. Distributive numeral adverbs are formed by prefixing pur or phòng to the cardinal: pur-thòm or phòng-thòm, "thrice."

PRONOUNS.

The following are the personal pronouns:--

1st Person: ne, I; ne-tum, ne-li, ne-li-tum, we, excluding the
person addressed: i-tum, i-li, we, including the person
addressed;
2nd Person: nàng, thou; nàng-tum, nàng-li, nàng-li-tum, ye;
3rd Person: la, he, she, it; la-tum, they; alàng, he, she; alàng-li,
alàng-atum, alàng-li-tum, they.

(The pronoun la is really a demonstrative, = this, that: it is probable that the original pronoun of the third person was a.)

These pronouns take the postpositions like nouns. The possessive or genitive prefixes are ne, my, our, excluding the person addressed; e- or i-, our, including the person addressed; nàng-, thy, your; a-, his, her, its, their.

The demonstrative pronouns are--la, labàngso, bàngso, this; pl. labàngso-atum, these: hala, halabàngso, that; pl. hala-tum, halabàngso-atum, those. The syllable ha- connotes distance, as dàksi, ladàk, here; ha-dàk, there; ha ahèm che-voi-lo, "he returned home from a distance."

(There appears once to have been another demonstrative pronoun, pi, pe, pa, still preserved in the compound words pi-ni, "to-day," penàp, "to-morrow," pedàp, "this morning," paningve, "to-night." Instead of pi and pe we also find mi, me, as mi-ni, me-nàp. This survival is important for the purpose of comparison with other Tibeto-Burman languages.)

As in other Tibeto-Burman languages, there is no relative pronoun; its place is taken by descriptive adjectival phrases. Thus "those six brothers who had gone to sell cow's flesh" is--

la chainòng a-òk kejòr-dàm-a-tum kòrte bàng-theròk. Those cow 's flesh to sell going (plural) brothers persons-six;

"The man whom Tenton had tied with an iron chain" is--

Tèntòn ingchin a-ni-pèn ke-kòk arlèng.
Tenton iron chain-with tied-up man.

In these constructions, it will be seen, the adjective or qualifying participle precedes the noun.

The interrogative syllable, used to form interrogative pronouns, is ko-: komàt, komàt-si, who? kopi, pi, what? ko-pu, ko-pu-si, kolopu, kolopu-sòn, how? ko-àn, ko-ànsi, how many? konàt, konàthu, where? konàm-tu, nàm-tu, nàm-tu-si, when? Always when the sentence does not contain an interrogative pronoun, and sometimes when it does, the syllable ma at the end marks a question: "Are you afraid," nàng phere-dèt ma? Ne (probably an Assamese loan-word) is also used instead of ma: "Will you marry him or not?" do-ji-ne do-de-ne?

The reflexive pronoun is amethàng, self; binòng, own; but the most usual way of indicating that the action affects oneself is to prefix the particle che- (chi-, ching-, cheng-, and rarely cho-) to the verbal root: la hèm che-voi-lo, "he returned home," i.e. to his own house; a-òng-mar-atum che-pu-lo, "his uncles said to one another"; che-hàng-jo, "they asked for themselves." With initial ing-, che- coalesces to ching: with ar- it unites to form cher.

VERBS.

The Mikir verb indicates time, past, present, or future, by means of particles prefixed or suffixed to the root. It does not vary for number, [40] gender, or person. There is no separate verb-substantive, though there are several ways of expressing existence, as do, "stay, abide," used also for "have, possess"; plàng, "become"; làng, "exist, continue (with a sense of incompleteness)"; le, "arrive, happen," etc. Great use is made of adjectival or participial forms, and, in narrative, of the conjunctive participle. Compound roots are very extensively used, the principal verb being put first, then the modifying supplements, and last the time-index.

The simple, or indeterminate present is expressed by the participle with ke-, ka-, without any suffix: konàtsi nàng kedo, "where do you live?"; vo kàngjar, "the bird flies"; sarbura thi-lòt-si ne ka-chiru, "the old man having died, I am weeping"; ne-phu ke-so-kòn, "my head is aching badly." This tense, as in other languages, is often used historically for the past.

The definite or determinate present is expressed by the same participle with -lo added: la kopi kànghoi-lo? "What is he doing (now)?"

The habitual present is expressed by the verbal root with -lo: as vo-atum-ke ne-phu-athàk ingjar-lo, "the birds fly above our heads."

The simple or narrative past is formed by the verbal root with -lo or -dèt added: la pu-lo or pu-dèt, "he said"; ne-phu so-dèt, "my head was aching"; la keri-aphi-si lòng-lo, "he, after searching, found it." Sometimes dèt and lo are used together: la ne ingtòn-dèt-lo, "he abused me." Dèt may also be used for the present when the state indicated by the verb is one that began in the past and still continues: e.g. "Why are you afraid?" may be rendered kopi apòtsi nang phere-dèt, or kopi apòtsi nàng kaphere?

The complete past is indicated by the root with tànglo added: la-apòtsi ne dam-tànglo, "I went, or had gone, on his account"; telòng lòngle pho-tànglo, "the boat has touched ground." Tang is a verb meaning "to finish." There are besides a great number of other particles indicating past time used with particular verbs. Thus, with verbs meaning "to fall," bup and buk are common: hala che-koi-bup, "he fell down"; hèm ru-bup, "the house collapsed"; lòng-chòng kli-bup, "the upright memorial stone fell down"; lòng-pàk klo-buk, "the flat memorial stone fell down"; thèng-pi àngsòng-pèn nàng-klo-buk, "he fell down from the top of the tree." Such particles generally indicate not only past time but abruptness.

A periphrastic past, with the root followed by inghoi-lo, "did," frequently occurs; this is probably an imitation of Assamese idiom.

Here may be noticed the prefix nàng, used, as the specimens show, with great frequency in narrative. It has the effect of fixing the occurrence to a known place, and may generally be rendered "there." It is probable that this particle is originally the pronoun of the second person, and that it refers to the knowledge of the person addressed: "as you know," "as you see."

The future is represented in two ways: (1) by -po added to the root, to indicate an action beginning now and continuing in the future; as itum nònke labàngso akàm apòtsi pu-po, "we will talk about this affair now;" and (2) by -ji added, for an action which commences later on; as badu arlèng-ta thi-ji, "all men will die" (i.e. at some future time). As -po includes the present in the case of continuing action, it may be, and often is, used in a present sense; -ji is restricted to future time.

A compound future may be formed by adding to the root with -ji the words dòkdòk-lo: la thi-ji dòkdòk-lo, "he is just about to die"; àn cho-ji dòkdòk-lo, "it is near breakfast-time" (rice-eating); àn ik-ji dòkdòk-lo, "the rice is nearly all done." A doubtful future may be expressed by -ji added to the present participle: konàt chainòng a-òk-si dàk-si kedo-ji, "where should cow's flesh be here?"

From the above it will be seen that there is much indefiniteness in the indications of time afforded by the Mikir verb: except tàng for the past complete, and -ji for the future, the other suffixes may, according to circumstances, be rendered by the past, present, or future; they may also on occasion be omitted altogether. But the context generally removes all ambiguity.

Conditional phrases are formed by putting -te or -le, "if," at the end of the first member, and the second generally in the future with -ji or -po. Of the conditional future an example is nàng dàm-te, nàng la thèk-dàm-ji, "if you go, you will see him." The conditional past inserts asòn ("like, supposing that,") before -te: dohòn do-asòn-te, ne la nàm-ji, "if I had money, I would buy it." The conditional pluperfect modifies the second member thus: nàng dàm asòn-te, nàng la lòng-lòk apòtlo, "if you had gone, you would have got it"; nàng ne thàn asòn-te, ne la klèm tàng-lo, "if you had explained to me, I would have done it."

The imperative is, for the second person, the bare root, or more usually the root strengthened by the addition of nòn or tha, and dialectically of noi; nòn (= "now") is the strongest form. The other persons are formed by the addition of nàng (a verb meaning "to be necessary") to the future in -po or present in -lo: "let us go" is i-tum dàm-po-nàng; "let us go to the field and plough," rit hai-bai dàm-lo-nàng. We may, for the third person, use the causative form of the verb: la-ke pedàm-nòn, "let him go."

Participles. The present participle has the form of the adjective, with the prefixed ke- (ki-) or ka-; as kedàm, "going," ka-chiru, "weeping." The past participle is the root or the present participle with tàng added: dàm-tàng, "gone," thèk-tàng, "having seen," ka-pàngtu-tàng, "fattened."

Perhaps the most used form of the verb, especially in narrative, is the conjunctive participle, which is either the bare root, or the root with -si; hèm che-voi-si thèk-lo, "having returned home, he saw." When the past is indicated, dèt is used, either with or without -si, as cho-dèt jun-dèt, sarbura, tòn-arlo kaibòng patu-joi-si, i-lo, "having finished eating and drinking, the old man, having quietly hidden his club in a basket, lay down"; Tèntòn, dohòn-alàngbòng lòng-si, rit dàm-de-dèt-si, kàt-jui-lo, "Tenton, having got the bamboo-joint with the money, without returning to the field, ran away."

When the phrase in which the conjunctive participle occurs is terminated by an imperative, the suffix is not -si but -ra: "having eaten your rice, go," is àn cho-ra dàm-nòn; but "having eaten his rice, he went," is an chodèt-si dàm-lo. While -si links together parts of a narrative, -ra links together a string of imperatives.

The infinitive or verbal noun is identical in form with the present participle; kum-kiròt tàngte kekàn arki nàng arju-lònglo, "he heard (got to hear) there (nàng) the sound (arki) of fiddle (kum) scraping (ki-ròt) and dancing (ke-kàn)." All words beginning with ke-, ki-, and ka- may therefore be regarded as (1) adjectives, (2) participles forming tenses of the verb, or (3) verbal nouns; and it will be seen from the analysis of the specimens how clearly this at first sight strange allocation of forms can be made to express the required sense.

In all Tibeto-Burman languages the passive voice is either non-existent or little used; a sentence which in English would be stated passively is turned the other way, and appears in an active form. Thus--"Four trees were uprooted by the wind" would be rendered tomòn thèngpi ròng-phili pi-pur-koi-lo, "the wind uprooted four trees"; "this house has been thrown down by an earthquake" is chikli-si labàngso ahèm pi-ru-hup-lo, "an earthquake has thrown down this house." Sometimes a passive may be expressed by a periphrasis, as "I was beaten," ne kechòk èn-tàng, lit. "I received a beating." The only unquestionable example of a passive is in the case of past participles, and here the passive is expressed by the simple expedient of putting the participle before instead of after the noun: bàng kevàn ahòr, "the drink brought by people"; maja kelòng arlèng, "a man bewitched"; ne ke-pi a-àn ahòr, "the to-me-given rice and beer." This construction is exactly parallel to the method (explained above) of expressing the relative phrase by putting the adjective first, instead of after the noun, and is in fact another case of the same idiom. The participle, which may also (as just explained) be regarded as a verbal noun, comes before the subject of the sentence, because the action passes on to the subject, instead of emanating from it, as in an active construction. We are tempted to think that languages which lack what seems to European modes of thought such essential elements as a relative pronoun and a passive voice cannot be capable of any subtlety of expression; yet this phenomenon is common to forms of speech like Tibetan, Burmese, and Chinese, which possess vast literatures dealing with all kinds of subjects, and in which it is possible to render ideas of the greatest complexity and variety. Even in Europe, the clearest and most logical of languages, French, prefers to use the active form of phrase (with on) rather than the passive.

The negative verb is a very interesting and remarkable feature of the language. A separate negative root, formed by prefixing or suffixing a negative particle, and conjugated in the same way as the positive, is indeed a common property of Tibeto-Burman speech; but in Mikir this secondary root is formed in a peculiar manner. The negating syllable -e is added to the primitive, as un, "can," un-e, "cannot"; òng, "be much," òng-e, "be not much"; i, "lie down," i-e, "not lie down." But when the root begins with a consonant or a nexus of consonants, and is monosyllabic, the consonant or nexus is repeated before the added vowel: thèk, "see, be able"; thèk-the, "not see, be unable"; dàm, "go," dàm-de, "not go"; kroi, "believe, obey," kroi-kre, "disbelieve, disobey"; mèk-pràng, "eye-open, awake," mèk-pràng-pre, "not awake." When the verb is of two or more syllables, the last is chosen for reduplication: inghoi, "do," inghoi-he, "not do"; ingjinso, "show mercy," ingjinso-se, "not show mercy"; chini (Ass. loan-word), "recognise," chini-ne, "not recognise."

The secondary root thus obtained is treated in construction just like the positive root, and takes the tense-suffixes: pàk-ta pi-vàng-ve-dèt-lo, "anybody to give him (anything) came not." The time-index is, however, with negative verbs more often dropped as unnecessary, owing to the context showing what the time-relation is.

In the imperative the reduplication is not used; the particle -ri is added to the positive root, with or without nòn as well: thèk-nòn, "see!"; thèk-ri, or thèk-ri-nòn, "see not!"

It may be added that this method of forming the negative by reduplication is also applied to verbal adjectives in ke-, ki-, ka-, which thereupon usually drop the prefix: keso, "in pain, sick"; so-se, "not sick, well"; but kàngjinso, "merciful"; kàng-jinso-se, "merciless."

Besides this organic negative, there is a periphrastic negative formed by adding the word ave, "is not": Arnàm abàng ave, kechèng ave, kapetàng ave, "God has no body, no beginning, no end" (lit. "God his body is not, beginning is not, end is not"). The a in ave is the usual a of relation, and may be dropped: alàm-ave "without a word"; làm-ve, "word-less, dumb." Ka- may be prefixed, forming kave, used as an adjectival negative: kopai (Ass. kopal), "fortune," kopai-kave, "unfortunate." Another negative used separately, in emphatic assertions, is kali: tovar nàng kepèk-ji kali, "the way I will by no means yield to you"; ne-thibuk kali, "it is not my water-jar."

The causal verb is formed by prefixing the syllable pe-, pi-, pa- [41] to the root: this is probably the verb pi, meaning "to give"; e.g. cho, "eat," pecho, "feed"; tàng, "finish," petàng, "cause to finish, end"; ingrum, "be gathered together," pàngrum, "collect"; virdèt, "be lost," pi-virdèt, "destroy." This syllable takes precedure of che- in reflexive verbs: e-chainòng e-pa-chi-thu-koi-làng, "he has caused us to slaughter all our cows": here e- is the pronoun of the first person plural inclusive of the addressee; pa-, the causal prefix; chi-, the reflexive particle, indicating that the cattle slaughtered were their own; thu, a verb, "to kill by cutting"; koi, a particle indicating completeness; làng, the tense-suffix.

Compound verbs meet us at every step in Mikir. Roots are heaped together, and the compound is closed by the tense-suffix. Ordinarily the first root determines the general meaning of the compound, the rest being adverbial supplements of modifying force:--chiru-pi-lèm-lo, "he pretended to weep" (chiru, "weep," lèm, "seem, appear," pi-lèm, "cause to seem, pretend"); ke-phlòng-dàm abàng, "somebody who will go and set fire (to the funeral pile)" (phlòng, "kindle," dàm, "go"); kroi-dun-lo, "she consented" (kroi, "agree, obey," dun, "go or be with another"); ne do-dun-ji-ma, "will you stay with me?" (do, "stay," dun, as above). The texts which follow supply a multitude of other examples.

These adverbial supplements to verbs, inserted between the principal verb and the tense-suffixes, are a very characteristic feature of the language, and their proper use is one of the most difficult things for a learner to master. Certain roots take constant supplements of this kind, and are scarcely ever found without them; thus the verbs thi, "die," i, "lie down to sleep," and jàng, "close the eyes," are almost invariably followed by lòt; rèng, "to live," takes èt before verbal suffixes; lòng, "to get," takes lòk; chingbar, "to be equal (in size, weight, height)," and chingdòn, "to be equal in length," take chit; inghòn, "to love," and ingjinso, "to pity," both take duk; jòk and thèt, both meaning "to escape, get loose," take phlòt. The complements for verbs meaning "to fall" have been mentioned above (p. 82). These supplements frequently cause the tense-endings to be dispensed with, in which case the action is understood to be in the narrative past or historic present. No doubt most of them were originally separate verbal roots, but are not now capable of being used separately.

The brief outline given above will, it is hoped, enable the reader to apprehend the general construction of the narratives which follow, and display the language in action; for further analysis reference should be made to the notes appended to the texts.

I.

CHÒNGHOLOSO ATOMO. FROG STORY.

Arni-si miso-ròngpo a-òng àn che-thòn-dàmlo. Chòngholoso Day-one a big black ant (to) his uncle rice to carry went. a frog

tovar ingni-thip. Ànsi miso pulo: "Tovar ne the way sat down and blocked. Then the ant said: "The way for me

pèk-tha, chòngholoso; ne ne-òng àn chethòn-dàm-ji." Chòngholoso leave free, frog; I my-uncle rice carry-go-will." The frog

pudèt: "Ne-rum ne-lut-thòt-ra dàm-te: pàkta answered: "Under me entering (creeping)| go your way: every one

ne-rum-si dàm-hòr-le." Miso pudèt: "Ne-òng a-àn bòr under me passes." The ant said: "My uncle's rice leaf-bundle

do-kòk-le, pusi nàng-rum-le nàng-kelut-thèk-ji?" Ànsi being tied up, how you-underneath enter, creep, shall I be able?" So

chòngho-ta pèk-pe, miso-ta dàm-de. Ànsi nerlo the frog would not give way, the ant could no go. So day

chitim-lo. Ànsi miso--"Ai, ne-òng àn-ingchir-si became middle. So the ant-- "Oh, my uncle rice-hunger-in

aning-ne-thi-po" pulo; chòngholoso-arum lut-thòt-lo. Àn-lo angry with me will be" said; the frog-under he entered, crept. Then

chòngholoso miso-athàk ingni-dun-chèt-lo. Lasi miso-ròngpo the frog the ant-upon sat-down-flat. Thereupon the big black ant

chòngholoso a-mi kòr-ràk. Ànsi chòngho aning-thi-ning-thi the frog's loins bit-severely. Then the frog becoming very angry

karle-sarpo-a-dòn chòn-rai. Karle-sarpo squirrel-big-old's ladder (on) jumped and broke. The big old squirrel

aningthi-ningthi hànthar-a-kòk ròt-pèt. Hànthar becoming very angry gourd's stem cut in two. The gourd

aningthi-ningthi phàk-belèngpi a-moi klo-dup. Phàk-belèngpi becoming very angry a wild boar's back (on) fell plump. The wild boar

aningthi-ningthi lo-bòng thimur-phàk. Lobòng becoming very angry a plantain-tree rooted up. The plantain-tree

aningthi-ningthi vo-arbipi a-tar sàp-rai. Vo-arbipi becoming very angry a sparrow 's nest struck and broke. The sparrow

aningthi-ningthi ingnar no-thòng-po a-no lut-thòt. becoming very angry an elephant deaf-big 's ear entered.

Ingnar no-thòng-po aningthi-ningthi arlòng helàng-phlut. The elephant deaf-big becoming very angry a rock tore up suddenly.

Arlòng aningthi-ningthi Recho- a-so kònglòng-pi-bup. Ànsi The rock becoming very angry the King 's son rolling-down killed. Then

Recho nàng-bisar-lo: "Màt-si ne-po pithi-lòtlo?" "Ai, arlòng-si the King made an enquiry: "Who my son has killed?" "Oh, the rock

kònglòng-bup," pulo. Ànsi arlòng arju-dàmlo: rolled down on him," they said. Then the rock he summoned to answer:

"O arlòng, arlòng! pi-apòt nàng ne-so kònglòng-bup?" "O rock, rock! for what reason you my son did roll down upon?"

Arlòng pudèt: "Che! Hèmphu-arnàm-recho, pi ne kònglòng-bup-be-ji? The rock said: "Oh! Lord-God-King, how I to roll down-not was I?

Ingnar no-thòngpo-si ne helàng-phlut-le ne doi-phit-lo; The elephant big-deaf me torn up suddenly having, me pushed out;

ne-ke ne-ri ave, ne-kèng ave, kolo-pu-si as for me, (to) me hands are not, (to) me legs are not, how then

cher-chàk-thèk-ji? Nàng-sopo ne kekònglòng a-tovar dokòksi, withstand could I? Your honourable son my rolling down-path being-in,

ne kònglòng-bup-lo-te." I rolled down upon him accordingly."

Ànsi Recho pulo: "Mai! la ingnar no-thòng-po Then the king said: "Oh! that elephant deaf-big

la-ànsèt bòn-he"-- pusi, ingnar no-thòng-po that so much (trouble) caused"-- saying, elephant deaf-big

arju-dàm-lo. "O ingnar ingnar! kopi-apòt nàng arlòng summoned. "O elephant, elephant! for what reason you the rock

helàng-phlut?" Ingnar pudèt: "Che! pi ne tore up suddenly?" The elephant answered: "Oh, how I

helàng-phlut-phle-ji, Hèmphu arnàm? Vo-arbipi ne-no was to help tearing it up, Lord God? The sparrow my ear

ne-kelut-thòt-si, ne a-bidi thèk-the-dèt-lo-le, la-helo ne having entered into, my wits having lost control of me, therefore I

arlòng helàng-phlut." the rock tore up suddenly."

Ànsi Recho pudèt--"Mai! la vo-arbipi la-ànpin bòn-he" Then the King said--"Oh! that sparrow that so much (trouble) caused"

pu, arju-dàmlo. "O vo-arbipi voarbipi! ingnar a-no saying, summoned. "O sparrow, sparrow! elephant's ear

kopi-apòt nàng lut-thòt?" Voarbipi thàkdèt-- "Che! Hèmphu! pi for what reason did you enter?" The sparrow answered-- "Oh! Lord! how

ne lut-le-ji? lobòng ne-tar I was I not to enter? the plantain-stalk my nest

kesàp-rai-le, la-helo ne-ning oi-òng, ne falling on having broken, therefore my mind being very disturbed, I

ingnar a-no lut-thòt." elephant's ear entered."

Ànsi Recho pu--"Mai! la lobòng lapu Then the King said--"Oh! that plantain-stalk, it seems;

ànpin bòn-he"-- pusi arju-dàm-lo. "O lobòng lobòng! so much (trouble) caused"-- saying he summoned. "O plantain, plantain!

nàng kopi-apòt vo-arbipi a-tar sàp-rai?" you for what reason the sparrow's nest fell upon and broke?"

Lobòng pudèt--"Che! pi ne sàp-rai-re-ji, Hèmphu The plantain said--"Oh! how I was not to fall and break, Lord|

arnàm? Phàk-belèng-pi-si ne kathimur-phàk-le: ne God? The wild boar me rooted me up suddenly: I

thimur-phàk-lo-te ne ingkur kave-dèt-lo-le: kopu-si ne having been rooted up, I root none had at all: how I

karjàp thèk-ji-làng? Thàngbàk ne-ri standing-up was to be able to continue? Any to me-hand

ne-kèng le-kedo kali-dèt-le." to me-leg being, existing, not-at-all there is."

"Mai! la phàk pu àn-pin bon-he," pu "Oh! that pig, it seems, all the (trouble) caused," saying

Recho pulo. Ànsi phak-aphàn arju-dàm-lo. "O phàk phàk! the King said. So the pig (accus.) he summoned. "O pig, pig!

pi-apòt nàng lobòng thimur-phàk"? Phàk pudèt "Pi ne for what reason you the plantain rooted up"? The pig answered "How I

thimur-phàk-phe-ji? Ne chopàn-vèk, mamàtsi could help rooting it up? (as) I was feeding, grazing, suddenly,

hànthar ne-moi keklo-dàp-le: la-helo keso-òng the gourd my back (on) came tumbling down: therefore being in great pain

ne lobòng thimur-phàk." I the plantain rooted up."

Ànsi Recho-- "Mai! hànthar pu àn-pin bòn-he" So the king-- "Oh! the gourd, then, all this (trouble) caused,"

pusi hànthar arju-dàm-lo. "O hànthar hànthar! pi-apòt saying the gourd summoned. "O gourd, gourd! for what

phàk-belèng-pi a-moi nàng klo-dup?" "Pi ne reason the wild boar 's back (on) you fell-plump?" "How I

klo-dup-de-ji, Hèmphu Arnàm? Karle-si ne-kòk could help falling? Lord God? The squirrel my stem (to me)

ne-keròt-pèt-le, ne-ke thàngbàk ne-ri, ne-kèng having cut through, I at all to me hand, to me foot

le-kedo kali-dèt, ne-kòk isi-pèt àn-helo, la-le there-not-existing, my stem, one-only, so much having, that if

ne ròt-pèt-lo-te, ne klo-nàng-po. Phàk-belèng-pi to me is cut through, I must necessarily fall. The wild boar

a-moi keklo-nàng-dup." 's back (on) falling became necessary."

Ànsi Recho pu-le-lo--"Mai! la karle pu àn-pin So the King said again--"Oh! that squirrel then so much

bònhe" pusi karle arju-dàm-lo. "O karle (trouble) caused" saying the squirrel summoned. "O squirrel,

karle! kopi-apòt nàng hànthar a-kòk ròt-pèt?" squirrel! for what reason did you the gourd 's stem cut through?"

Karle pudèt-- "Che! pi ne ròt-re-ji, Hèmphu Arnàm? The squirrel said-- "Oh, how I was not to cut it, Lord God?

Chòngholoso-si ne-dòn chòn-rai-le. Lasi ne tovar The frog my ladder (on) jumping broke. Therefore to me a road

ave-dèt-lo: ne hànthar a-kòk ròt-pèt." did not remain: I the gourd 's stem had to cut."

Recho pudèt-- "Mai! la chòngho la-pu àn-pin bòn-he" The King said-- "Oh! that frog, it seems, so much (trouble) caused"

pusi arju-dàm-lo. "O chòngholoso chòngholoso! kopi-apòt nàng saying he summoned. "O frog, frog! for what reason you

karle a-dòn chòn-rai?" Chòngho thàkdèt-- "Pi ne the squirrel's ladder jumping on broke?" The frog answered-- "How I

chòn-rai-re-ji? Miso-ròng-po-si ne-mi was to help jumping on and breaking? The big black ant my loins,

ne-ke kòr-ràk-le: la keso-òng-si ne even me, bit hard: that pain-great-from I

karle-adòn-bo-po ne chini-ne-dèt-si chòn-rai-te." squirrel's ladder (honorific) I not knowingly jumped upon and broke."

Recho pu-le-lo-- "Mai! miso pu àn-pin bòn-he" The King said again-- "Oh! the ant, then, caused all the trouble"

pusi arju-dàm-lo. "O miso miso! pi-apòt nàng chòngholoso-a-mi saying summoned. "O ant, ant! what-for did you the frog's loins

kòr-ràk?" Miso pudèt-- "Pi ne kòr-ràk-re-ji? bite severely?" The ant said-- "How I was to help biting him?

Adàp ne-òng àn che-thòn-dàm-lo: Chòngho In the morning to my uncle rice I was going along carrying: the frog

tovar ingni-thip. La-lo ne 'tovar ne pèk-tha' the road sitting down blocked. Thereupon I 'road to me free-leave'

pulo: 'ne-rum-le lut-nòn' pu. Ne lut-thòt-lo: chòngho said: 'me underneath creep' he said. I crept under him: the frog

ne-thàk ne ingni-thip; lasi ne a-mi kòr-ràk." on the top of me sat down tight; therefore I his loins bit-severely."

Ànsi Recho pulo--"Nàng bàng-hini kelèt-dèt." Miso-ke Then the King said--"You persons-two guilty-are." The ant

chujèng-pèn kòk-chèk-lo: nòn a-vàm chèng-jàn. hair of head-with they tied-firmly: now his-waist is very slender.

Chòngho-ke tarme-làng-bòng-pèn sàp-phràt-phràt; lasi The frog a blistering creeper-with they soundly thrashed; therefore

nòn phròk-se-nòk-tòk. now he is speckled all over.

NOTES.

This simple and direct narrative, easy of analysis, affords an excellent illustration of the mechanism of Mikir speech. First, we observe that the indication of time is put at the beginning of the sentence: arni-si, "one day"; adàp, "in the morning." Then follows the subject, then the object, and last the verb, with all its qualifications. The most frequent conjunction is ànsi, "and, so," which appears to be made up of àn, the particle indicating quantity, and si, the particle indicating locality, used also for the conjunctive participle; the meaning would then be--"so much having passed (what follows comes next)." Àn-ke, àn-le and àn-lo have the same force.

For the tenses we find the usual suffixes, -lo, -dèt, for the narrative past, -po for the present-future, and -ji for the future. In the narrative a much-used auxiliary is -le, which means "having arrived." The passage is remarkable for the number of cases in which, no ambiguity being possible, the tense-particle is omitted, and the past is expressed by the bare root, without, or more commonly with, an adverbial supplement. Thus, we have pulo, pudèt, and pu for "said"; ingni-thip, "he sat down and blocked," kòr-ràk, "bit severely," chòn-rai, "jumped upon and broke," ròt-pèt, "cut in two," klo-dup, "fell plump," thimur-phàk, "rooted up," sàp-rai, "struck and broke," lut-thòt, "entered," helàng-phlut, "tore up suddenly," pi-bup, "killed by tumbling on him," chò-pàn-vèk, "was feeding, grazing," sàp-phràt-phràt, "beat soundly." Then, we notice that the great majority of these cases are examples of roots qualified by the addition of a particle which, while not used separately by itself, gives energy and definiteness to the verbal root; this method of heightening the force of verbs is a great characteristic of Mikir diction, and is at once the chief beauty and the chief difficulty (to a foreigner) of the language. The adverbial particles so used are very numerous, but they are appropriated to particular verbal roots, and if they were wrongly applied the result would be nonsense. Thus, the particle lòt is used with three verbs only, thi, "die," i, "lie down," and jàng "close the eyes," and always precedes the verbal suffixes with these roots: it cannot be used with any other. Thòt, again, always occurs with lut, "to enter," jòk and var, "to throw." Bup conveys the idea of a sudden blow or fall, and is used with verbs of falling or striking. Dàp and dup seem to have much the same force. Pèt, koi, klip are particles used to indicate completeness; lut-pèt-lo, "all have gone in," ròt-pèt-lo, "he cut through," cho-koi-lo, "he ate up," thu-koi-lo, "he killed them all," cho-klip-lo, "he devoured them." Several of these auxiliary particles seem to be onomatopoetic.

Much resembling the use of these particles are the cases in which verbal roots are combined together to form a single expression. Thus, in our story, thòn-dàm-lo "he carrying went"; do-kòk-le "remaining tied-up"; ingni-dun-chèt-lo "he sat down suddenly (chèt) when the ant was passing (dun)" (dun means "to be with," and is constantly used as an auxiliary, but can also be employed alone in the sense "to go with"); arju-dàm-lo "he summoned to answer"; ne klo-nàng-po "I must necessarily fall" (nàng, verb of necessity).

The story gives a number of examples of the remarkable Mikir negative verb: pèk-pe, "did not give way (pèk)"; dàm-de, "did not go"; pi ne kònglòng-bup-be-ji, "how was I not to roll down upon him and smash him?" where the negative syllable be borrows the initial consonant of the qualifying particle bup; similarly, helàng-phlut-phle "not suddenly root up"; sàp-rai-re "not strike and break"; chòn-rai-re "not jump upon and break"; chini-ne-dèt-si "not knowing" (where chini is a loan-word from Assamese).

As regards vocabulary, tha in ne-pèk-tha is the imperative particle: another such particle (rarely occurring) is te in ne lut-thòt-ra dàm-te; ra is used as the suffix of the conjunctive participle in a string of imperatives. Hòr in dàm-hòr-le indicates plurality: "every one has to pass under me"; other such particles are jo and jàm. Ta in chòngho-ta and miso-ta gives definiteness and emphasis; so also ke in ne-ke, &c. Sarpo in karle sarpo means "big chief": po is a syllable added to give honour and dignity. Notice intensiveness indicated by reduplication in aningthi-ningthi, "very angry"; ning-thi, angry, is made up of ning, mind, and thi to be vexed (also to die). Hànthar: see note on p. 46. Ròt-pèt means to cut down a slender stem or twig by drawing a knife across it: pi-pèt to cut down a thick trunk of a tree; ròt is used for drawing a bow across a fiddle in kum-kiròt "fiddle-scraping." Belèng means a shovel or tray for winnowing rice; phàk-belèng-pi is a wild pig, because he roots about in the earth with his snout like a shovel; -pi is a syllable used to form augmentatives, as -so indicates a diminutive. Bisar, to hold a judicial inquiry, is Assamese. Hèmphu, "owner," the God Mikirs belong to. Vo-arbipi, "a small bird, the size of a sparrow" (not the sparrow itself, which in Mikir is vo-puru). Ne chopàn-vèk, "I was grazing"; chopàn is used of feeding for animals only; vèk (or vèk-vèk) is a particle indicating continuance. Mamàtsi is used of some sudden and unpleasant interruption: klèm-vèk-vèk mamàtsi thi-lo, "he died suddenly as he was working"; ne àn cho-vèk mamàtsi ne chòk-dèt, "he beat me while I was eating." Notice, finally, nòn, the particle most often used to indicate a strong imperative, here in its original sense of "now"; in this meaning it is usually emphasised by adding ke or le, nònke, nònle.

II.

JÀNGRESO PÈN A-ÒNG-ATUM ATOMO. THE ORPHAN AND HIS UNCLES ' STORY.

Hako inut ahèm-epi asopo inut-pèt do; la Once on a time one widow a son only one had; she

achèkle-mar kòrte bàng-theròk do. Ànsi arni-si (woman's) brothers (plural) brothers persons-six had. Now one day

arni-kàngsàm a-òngmar-atum vàng-si in the cool of the day (evening) his maternal uncles having come

jàngreso-aphàn nàng-hànglo-- "Osá! ru cho-du-dàm-nàng." the orphan (accus.) called-to-- "Nephew! fish-trap set up-go-let-us."

Ànsi jàngreso-ta dun-lo. Ànsi aòng-mar So the orphan went with them. Then his uncles,

kòrte bàng-theròk-ke làng-thàk-si pàt me-sèn-si ru the brothers persons-six, up-stream a dam having well built the trap

du-lo. Jàngreso-ke a-òngmar-atum a-ru-pàt a-ber-si arlòng set up. The orphan his uncles ' trap-dam below stones

du-i phàng-o-phàng-a-si ru du-lo, ànsi hèm having set up carelessly, disorderly, trap set up, and home

nàng-che-voi-lo. Ànsi latum adàp ru returned. Then they in the morning the trap-their

che-vàt-dàm-lo. A-òngmar-atum a-ru-pàt àn kepàt-peme-ta, went to inspect. His uncles ' trap-dam so very well-built though,

chikung-chikàng-ta che-var-thòt-the; jàngreso a-ru one cray-fish even had not thrown itself into it; the orphan's trap

puke, òk kejàng a-ru tèngsèt. Ànsi as for, fish holding, entering his trap was quite full Then

a-òngmar-atum pulo-- "Osá! netum dàk ru pàt-po, nàngli-ke his uncles said-- "Nephew! we here trap will build, do you

làng-ber-le pàt-dàm-thu-nòn." Ànsi jàngreso a-ru-pàt down-stream go and set your dam again." So the orphan's trap-dam (in)

a-òng-mar-atum a-ru du-si, jàngreso-ke làngbersi his uncles their trap having set up, the orphan down stream

pàt-dàm-thu-lo; bònta òk kejàng lapu-thàk-thàk, again built his dam; but the fish holding just that same way,

a-òngmar-atum a-ru-ke òk-ejòn-nàt-ta jàng-thòt-the, jàngreso the uncles ' trap one single fish even did not hold, the orphan's

a-ru-ke òk kejàng plèngsèt-plèngsèt. Ànsi adàp-vàng-ta jàngreso trap fish holding was quite full. So morning-every the orphan's

a-ru-pàt a-òng-atum che-rai-ver-lo. Lasi trap-dam his uncles took for themselves continually. Therefore

adàp-vàng alòng kaprèk ru-pàt selèt-òng-si, every morning a place different (in) trap-set-up becoming very weary,

adàp-isi-ke ru du-tekàng-ke-dètsi, bàp a-phàng-athàk bi morning one the trap not setting up at all, grass clump upon placing

tekàng-kòk. Ànsi adàp le-lo, a-òngmar-atum vàng-si he left it. So morning arrived, his uncles having come

jàngreso-aphàn nàng-hàng-lo: "Osá, to the orphan called out: "Nephew!

ru chevàt-dàm-le-lo-nàng." Ànsi jàngreso pulo: "Neli-ke our traps let us go again and visit." Then the orphan said: "As for me,

ru-ta du-tekàng-ke; da bònta, nànglitum-ari a trap I have not even set up; come, nevertheless, (as) your companion

nàng-dun-ji," pusi dun-lo. Ànsi a-ru I will go with you," so saying he went with them. Then his trap

che-làng-dàmlo. Vo-thung lut-thòt thèk-dàm-lo. Ànsi he went to look at. A wood-pigeon having entered he found. So

labàngso a-vo-thung ari chekòksi hèm che-vàn-lo. that wood pigeon his cord (with) having tied up home he bought.

Labàngso a-jàngreso chainòng-aso-ta e-jòn do, la kàngtu That orphan a cow's child (a calf) also one had, it fat

puke matha-thèk-the jadi-thèk-the, nei-bòt àn-pin. Ànke so very, as could not be imagined (doublet) very sleek so greatly. Now

a-òngmar-atum làng-un-e-si labàngso his uncles to look at-being unable (through envy) that

a-chainòng-aso thu-pèt-lo. Ànsi jàngreso labàngso calf killed (entirely). Then the orphan that

a-chainòng-aso a-rèng lumsi akèng-ehòng ha calf's skin having taken off, leg one to a distance

bamòn kiri-po a-hèm pòn-si patu-dàm-joi-lo. Ànsi a brahman rich-big's house (to) taking, hid it quietly. Then

jàngreso: "Mai! hèm-ta chainòng-a-òk angnim-hai-òng-he!" the orphan (said): "Oh! the house cow's flesh (of) smells strongly!"

Ànke bamòn-po aningthi-si pulo: "Tèke nàng-kòrdut-pi a-osó! Then the big brahman, becoming angry, said: "Tiger-bitten boy!

konàt achainòng-a-òksi dàk-le ke-do-ji? Ne-ke bamòn-le. Nàng where cow's flesh here should be? I am a brahman. You

peklàng thèk-ser-ma-si: thèkthe-le nàng-pràn produce, show, must be able to: you cannot-if, your life

nàng-èn-ji." Ànsi jàngreso pulo-- "Dei, tàngte ne I will take here." Then the orphan said-- "Very well, then I

ri-po," pu-si ri-lo. Ri-phàng-o-phàng-a-si, alàng will search," saying he searched: searching carelessly, he

kapatu-alòng dàm-si chainòng-aso a-kèng vung-dàm-phlut hiding-place (to) going the calf's leg pull out suddenly

inghoi-lo: "Làng-nòn, chainòng a-òk do," pu-- "ne did: "See-now, cow's flesh there is," saying-- "I

nàng pu-lo-he!" Ànsi bamòn po-- "Bàng-kaprèk-atum told you so!" Then the big brahman-- "people other (plur.)

vàng-thèk-dun-te, ne-jàt virdèt-ji" pu, phere-si come-see-together-if, my-caste will be destroyed" saying, fearing

jàngreso-aphàn pulo: "Jàngreso, po-arnàm-po! pàk-tà thàn-ri-nòn! dohòn the orphan-to said: "Orphan, my good sir! any one do not tell! money

màntung-isi nàng pi-po"-- pusi dohòn màntung-isi pilo. Ànsi a cloth-full-one you I will give," saying money a cloth-full gave. Then

jàngreso labàngso adohòn pòn-si hèm che-voi-lo. Hèm the orphan that money taking with him home returned. House