Chapter I: Early History of Russia (2)

Yaroslav the Lawgiver, the man who completed the foundation of the ancient Russian state, ascended the throne in 1016 and ruled for thirty-eight years. This was the most prosperous period of ancient Russia. The hordes of the steppes were kept in subjection, and about one third of Finland added to Russia, who thus held both sides of the water highway on the north. But Yaroslav’s claims to the title of a great ruler rest on another basis. He was a legislator, an administrator, a founder of cities. He framed the first code of laws, the famous Russkaya Pravda, or Russian Right; he carried on the most orderly government known till that day. In the restoration of boundaries and in internal improvements his activity was not less important. He recovered Galitch, which Boleslav of Poland had seized on his way home from his campaign with Sviatopolk the Accursed. He founded many towns and cities, two of which are well known in our time, Yaroslavl on the Volga, and Yurieff, now Dorpat. Wishing Kief to rival Tsargrad, he spent much of the revenue exacted from tributary peoples in adorning his capital. He established the first school in the north, at Novgorod, a school for three hundred students. He concluded more alliances and maintained a more extended intercourse with European sovereigns than any prince of ancient Russia. His later wars were mostly with the Petchenegs, those robbers of the steppe who had made a drinking-cup of his grandfather’s skull, and he at last succeeded in crushing them so completely that they never again took up arms against him, and even their name finally disappeared. All his children were from one mother, Ingigerd of Sweden. One of his daughters married King Andrew of Hungary; another became the wife of Harold Hardrada, King of Norway; a third, Anna, married Henry I of France and took with her the beautiful missal afterwards used in the Cathedral of Rheims at the coronation of the French kings. When Peter the Great visited that city in 1717, the missal was shown him as of the rarest antiquity, no one even knowing the language in which it was written. To the astonishment of all present, the Emperor exclaimed: “Why, this is my own Slavonic,” and he began to read in a loud voice. This missal, a masterpiece of penmanship, and one of the most ancient specimens of Slavonic writing, was copied no doubt under the supervision of Yaroslav himself.

Yaroslav died in 1054. He was not such a favorite with the multitude as his father, Vladimir, had been. He was more austere in character, a subtle-brained ruler of men, wise and far-seeing, but unbending, better fitted to inspire respect than love. The chronicler says of him: “Yaroslav was in his place. He was lame, but his mind was not halt. He was brave in war, he was a Christian, and read books.” He built many churches, among them Saint Sophia, the admiration of Kief, and Saint Sophia of Novgorod, a precious monument of ancient Russia.

Yaroslav, knowing well the evils of civil war, arranged the succession as follows. The eldest son was to rule at Kief, with the title of Grand Prince; the other sons were to have each a principality, proportioned in accordance to his age. On the death of the Prince of Kief, he was to be succeeded by his next brother, who, on his decease, would be followed by the next to him, and so on to the youngest, whose heir was the eldest son of the eldest brother, or first Prince of Kief. In the second generation, the succession was to continue as in the first. This system was evidently copied from that of the Slavonic households, where it might operate well enough, because a younger brother held no position during the life of the elder. But in the ruling family each member governed a certain territory, and when the Prince of Kief died, there was a change all around, each ruler moving a step higher in the scale. The result was continual shifting, disorder, and civil war.

Yaroslav left five sons, and a number of grandsons, whose fathers were dead. To the sons he gave principalities; to the grandsons he left nothing; they must depend upon the kindness of their uncles; they were really excluded from sovereignty, and became in fact common people.

Before death Yaroslav enjoined mutual love on all his sons, and on the younger obedience to Izyaslav, the eldest, who would be to them in the place of a father. To Izyaslav he gave Kief, saying to him: “If any of thy brothers offend another, do thou protect the offended man.”

Besides Kief, Izyaslav was prince also in Novgorod, hence the road from the Baltic to the Greeks was at his command.

Sviatoslav, the second son, received Chernigoff with Ryazan, Murom, and Tmutarakan, beyond the Sea of Azoff. Vsevolod, the third son, received Pereyaslavl, Suzdal and Bailo-Ozero; the fourth son, Vyacheslav, got Smolensk, and the fifth, Igor, Volynia with its capital, Vladimir. Rostislav, son of Vladimir, Yaroslav’s eldest son, who died before his father, received from his uncles Rostoff, situated in the middle of Vsevolod’s territory.

In this division of Russia the best principality, Kief, went to the eldest son; the second in value, Chernigoff, to the second son, and so on. The idea was to give each prince a place whose income corresponded to his rank in the scale of seniority. Kief, besides its superior income, carried with it the sovereignty of Russia.

Let us follow the working of this system. In 1057, three years after Yaroslav’s death, died the fourth brother, Vyacheslav of Smolensk, leaving one son. Igor of Volynia was transferred to Smolensk by his brothers, and Rostislav, the nephew, was moved from Rostoff to Volynia. In 1060 Igor died in Smolensk, leaving sons also. The remaining three brothers gave Smolensk neither to Igor’s sons, nor to Rostislav, to whom, by the established order, it would belong.

Rostislav, enraged at his uncles, found daring spirits in Novgorod to help him, among others Vyshata, son of Ostromir, the posadnik. With these men he set out for Tmutarakan to find warriors and win by the sword that which, as he thought, belonged to him.

In 1058 the four surviving brothers freed their uncle Sudislav from prison, where Yaroslav, his brother, had kept him for eighteen years. They took from him an oath to act in no way against them. Old and childless, he entered a monastery, and died five years later.

Rostislav now took Tmutarakan from Glaib, son of Sviatoslav. Sviatoslav hurried to help his son, and, as Rostislav did not resist his uncle, Glaib was put back into power very promptly. No sooner was Sviatoslav at home, however, than Glaib was driven out a second time by Rostislav, who now settled down firmly and with a purpose. He began at once to extend his dominion along the Caucasus, and was rapidly gaining power to use against his uncles, when the Greeks of the Chersonese poisoned him, and Glaib took his old place again unhindered.

The three sons of Yaroslav were rid now of their nephew, but they had a cousin who began to give them much trouble. This cousin was Vseslav of Polotsk, grandson of Izyaslav, the eldest brother of Yaroslav the Lawgiver. This Vseslav was known to be desperate in battle, and swift beyond any man in marching. People believed him born through enchantment, they thought him a real devil’s son, who could turn to a gray wolf and race in one night from the Caucasus to Novgorod. This so called “wizard,” excluded from the sovereign circle, now began war in defense of rights which to him, the great-grandson of Vladimir the Apostle, might indeed seem well founded.

In 1065 the wizard attacked Pskoff, meeting with no success, but the following year he entered Novgorod, captured many people, took down the great bell of Sophia, seized church ornaments and hurried away. “Immense was the misery of that day,” states the chronicler. Izyaslav and his brothers pursued Vseslav during terrible cold, for the time was midwinter. On the road they halted at Minsk. The people had shut themselves up in the stronghold; so they stormed the stronghold and captured it, cutting down all defenders, sparing only women and children as captives.

They followed Vseslav till early in March, when they overtook him, and notwithstanding a blinding snow-storm, there was a terrible battle. Many fell on both sides. Vseslav was defeated, but he escaped, as he always did, because of his swiftness and “magic.”

The following summer, Izyaslav invited the “evil wizard” to a council of peace and kissed the cross not to harm him. Vseslav, with his two sons, passed over the Dnieper, but when he entered Izyaslav’s tent he was seized, though a wizard, and imprisoned; his sons were imprisoned also.

The Prince of Kief and his brothers had rest now from relatives. But some great calamity was coming, every one felt it; there were portents on all sides. A bloody star appeared in the sky and remained a whole month there; the sun was as pale as the moon; a deformed fish had been caught, enormous and dreadful to look at.

While all men were convinced that some terror was approaching, and were waiting in fear to see what it might be, the Polovtsi, a new scourge, appeared. They had conquered the Petchenegs and were now ready to harass Russia. Kazars, Torks and Petchenegs had preceded them in this office, but the Polovtsi were Russia’s direst foes thus far.

In 1055 the Polovtsi had crossed the boundary of Pereyaslavl, but made peace and then vanished. In 1059 Vsevolod attacked a certain Tork force, which he crushed. In 1060 a “countless host” was led against those Tork opponents, who, informed of the movement, hurried off to the steppe, but were followed. The princes killed many and seized numbers more of them. The captives were settled in towns to do service. Those Torks who succeeded in escaping died in the steppe from frost, hunger and hardship. The Torks were now finished, as were also the Petchenegs, but the Polovtsi succeeded both, as attackers of Russia.

In 1061 these people appeared in large numbers. Vsevolod met them immediately, but he was vanquished. They took what they pleased and rushed off to the steppe again. In 1068 a still greater host came. The three Russian princes met this host, and fought bravely, but were badly defeated and fled, Izyaslav with his brother Vsevolod to Kief; and Sviatoslav to Chernigoff.

All men in Kief were enraged at Izyaslav. Some demanded arms, and others a prince who would lead them successfully against the Polovtsi. They rushed to the prison, freed Vseslav the wizard, and made him Grand Prince immediately. Izyaslav, to save his life, hastened westward to Poland. The Polovtsi advanced to Chernigoff, where Sviatoslav met the plundering host and crushed it.

Seven months after his flight, Izyaslav appeared before Kief with a numerous army commanded by Boleslav the Bold, King of Poland. Vseslav went forth to meet him, and it is told of him that, since he could hope for no favor from Vsevolod or Sviatoslav against Izyaslav, their brother, the wizard became a gray wolf in the night-time and vanished. In fact he fled. The army, deserted by its leader, returned to Kief and sent the following message to Sviatoslav and Vsevolod: “Unless ye save Kief from the Poles, we will burn it and go to the land of the Greeks.” “We will warn our brother,” replied Sviatoslav, “we will not permit him to enter the city with large forces.”

Izyaslav, warned by his brothers, came with only a part of the army, was received and took his place as of old in the capital. As soon as he left the Kief army, Vseslav hurried off to Polotsk and took possession of that city.

Once well reinstated in Kief, Izyaslav attacked Vseslav, expelled him from Polotsk, and placed there Mystislav, his own son. When that son died he sent another one, Sviatopolk. Vseslav, meanwhile, went to the Chuds (Fins), assembled a large force among them, and attacked Novgorod, but he was again unsuccessful. Fresh warriors, however, flocked to the wizard, who drove Sviatopolk from Polotsk, which he held now successfully, and with firmness.

Izyaslav, having failed to subdue the wizard, decided to act alone, and negotiate with him. He asked no aid from his brothers; he could not well do so, for Sviatoslav the Strong was unfriendly, was in reality plotting against Izyaslav, working to make himself master of Kief at the earliest moment. Dissatisfied Kief men, and victims of Izyaslav’s anger, found refuge with Sviatoslav, who turned now to Vsevolod, his brother, and said: “Izyaslav is plotting with the wizard against us. Unless we expel him from Kief at once, he will drive us both from our places.” The two brothers took action and Izyaslav was forced to leave Kief for the second time.

Sviatoslav became Grand Prince and gave Chernigoff to Vsevolod. Izyaslav now went to Poland. He gave immense presents to Boleslav the Bold and to magnates, who did naught to assist him, but in the end told him that he would better go elsewhere. He journeyed then to Mainz and asked aid of Henry IV, the same Emperor who went to Canossa. He gave presents to Henry and begged help against Sviatoslav and Vsevolod. Henry, pleased by this recognition of his power by a Grand Prince of Russia, sent an embassy straightway to Kief to demand reinstatement for Izyaslav.

The Polish king and Henry were enemies at this time, hence Sviatoslav made a treaty at once with the king, and sent Oleg, his own son, with Monomach, son of Vsevolod, to assist him. Henry’s efforts were vain, so Izyaslav’s son visited Rome to beg aid of Gregory, the seventh of that name, the strong Pope who forced Henry IV to stand thinly clad in the cold at Canossa.

The Russian prince declared that his father was ready to recognize papal supremacy, if Gregory would only restore Kief to him. The Pope wrote at once to the Polish king, touching the gifts which he had taken from Izyaslav before sending him out of the country.

At this juncture Henry’s ally, the Bohemian king, Vratislav, heard that two Russian princes were coming with warriors to attack him. He asked peace of Boleslav, and obtained it for one thousand grievens in silver. Boleslav then directed Oleg and Monomach to return, as peace had been concluded. They replied that they could not go back without shame, unless they won honor. Hence they advanced to get honor. During four months they “went through” Vratislav’s land—to “go through” means to ravage. Vratislav then gave them a thousand grievens in silver for peace. They made peace, and returned home with the money—and with honor.

The Polish king, angered by Oleg and Monomach, and roused by Pope Gregory, promised to help Izyaslav, and began an advance on Kief. Meanwhile Sviatoslav died, and Vsevolod set out with forces to meet Boleslav, but upon reaching Volynia he made peace, yielding in favor of Izyaslav, who became Grand Prince for the third time, and Vsevolod returned to Chernigoff. There was trouble on all sides, however.

In 1076, during winter, Monomach hastened to Novgorod to help Glaib against Vseslav the wizard, who was raiding and would give no rest at any time unless that which he claimed was assured him. Some months later Monomach was joined by his father, Vsevolod, and they marched against Vseslav, taking with them Polovtsi warriors, employed now for the first time in conflicts between princes. They made an attack, but could not crush Vseslav; he was too swift in his movements. They could lay waste to the country, but could not conquer the wizard, or stop him. They could only watch and then ward off the blows which he struck at one point or another.

But from the east still greater troubles were approaching. Vladimir, Sviatoslav, Vyacheslav and Igor, four sons of Yaroslav, were now dead, all leaving sons to whom their uncles would give no land. After Sviatoslav’s death in 1076, and when Vsevolod had gone to meet Izyaslav and yield Kief to him, Boris, a son of Vyacheslav, seized the throne of Chernigoff, but retained it only eight days. Then he sped away to Tmutarakan, where Roman, son of Sviatoslav, was ruler. There were five of those sons of Sviatoslav, who held good lands while their father was Grand Prince, but after his death they were driven from the lands by Izyaslav, their uncle. Glaib was forced to leave Novgorod and lost his life in the north among Fins. Oleg, driven from Volynia, turned first to Vsevolod, his uncle, but when he could get no assistance from him he went to Tmutarakan, in search of men to aid him. Meanwhile, Izyaslav and Vsevolod gave all disposable lands to their own sons.

Two years later, 1078, Oleg and his cousin Boris led an army of Polovtsi and others to Chernigoff, where they attacked Vsevolod and defeated him. Vsevolod turned then to Izyaslav for assistance, and the two princes, with Yaropolk and Monomach, their sons, marched against Oleg and his cousin. Boris was killed in the front of the battle, and a spear went through the body of Izyaslav, the Grand Prince. Though these two princes fell, the battle continued till Oleg’s forces were broken and he was swept from the field, escaping with great difficulty. Thus one son and one grandson of Yaroslav fell in this desperate struggle between uncles and nephews (October, 1078).

Now Vsevolod, the last son of Yaroslav the Lawgiver, became Grand Prince, and the difficulties before him were enormous.

As already stated, Yaroslav the Lawgiver had six sons: Vladimir, Izyaslav, Sviatoslav, Vyacheslav, Igor and Vsevolod. Vladimir, the eldest son, had died before his father’s death, and had left one son, Rostislav, poisoned afterward in Tmutarakan by the Greeks of Chersonese. Rostislav had three sons: Rurik, Volodar and Vassilko. Rurik died early, Volodar and Vassilko lived long and caused much trouble.

Vyacheslav, the fourth son of the Lawgiver, died Prince of Smolensk, leaving one son, Boris, who fell, as we have seen, on the battle-field with Izyaslav, his uncle. Igor, the fifth son, had died young, leaving one son, David. Vsevolod, the sixth son, was now Prince of Russia. Of Sviatoslav’s sons, four were living, Oleg, Roman, David and Yaroslav. Seven descendants of Yaroslav the Lawgiver were excluded, besides Vseslav, the wizard of Polotsk, who demanded equal rights with the sons of Yaroslav, and would not give peace till he got them.

On assuming power in Kief, Vsevolod gave Chernigoff to his son Monomach, and to Yaropolk, son of Izyaslav, he gave Volynia. He gave nothing to any of the dissatisfied princes. This conduct roused Oleg, whose father had been Grand Prince in Kief with the aid and consent of Vsevolod, given either by constraint or freely. So in 1079 Oleg sent his brother, Roman, with an army of Polovtsi to war against Vsevolod, who met him, but made peace with the Polovtsi by giving value in hand without fighting. As Roman had nothing to give them, save a promise of plunder for which they must fight, the Polovtsi dropped Roman’s cause and killed him. Then they went home, seized Oleg and gave him to the Greeks of the Chersonese, who sent him in fetters to Rhodes in the Archipelago. Ratibor was sent by Vsevolod as posadnik to Tmutarakan, and he ruled there till David, son of Igor, with Vassilko and Volodar, sons of Rostislav, came the following year, drove him out of Tmutarakan and governed in their own way. Oleg, who had fled from his exile, appeared a year later, confined the three princes, and put those Polovtsi to death who slew Roman. Later on he freed the princes, who had now to seek for lands in other places.

In 1084 Rostislav’s son’s, Vassilko and Volodar, disappeared from Volynia, where they had been living with Yaropolk. Disappeared, but returned with an army and drove away Yaropolk. Monomach now, at command of his father, marched against those two princes, expelled them and reinstated Yaropolk after much fighting and effort.

David, son of Igor, used means of another sort. He remained for a time in Tmutarakan, then he went with warriors to the mouth of the Dnieper, stopped all merchants trading with Tsargrad and took their wares from them. This put an end to commerce with the Byzantine Empire. Vsevolod’s treasury suffered immediately and he was obliged to come to terms. He gave David a part of Volynia, and commerce with Tsargrad was free again.

Yaropolk, deeply offended by this gift to David, which decreased his own lands, began to enlist men and make ready for warfare. Vsevolod, upon learning of this, sent his son, Vladimir Monomach, to attack Yaropolk, but that prince had fled to Poland, leaving wife, mother and treasures in Lutsk. An attack was made upon Lutsk, which surrendered to Monomach, who captured Yaropolk’s family with attendants and treasures and established David, son of Igor, as ruler of all Volynia.

At this time Galitch was won, as it seems, by the sons of Rostislav. They seized it from the Polish king, who was friendly with Yaropolk.

The following year, 1086, Yaropolk came back from Poland, made peace with Monomach and was again seated in Volynia. Still his lands could not have been of great use to him, since soon after his coming he set out for Zvenigorod. He was slain on the road by a man named Neradets, who escaped and took refuge with Rurik, son of Rostislav, in Galitch.

That same year Vsevolod moved against Volodar and Vassilko, but in the end made peace with them. After that there was rest for a time in Volynia. But there was sharp trouble with Vseslav the wizard, who at Vsevolod’s accession had “scorched” Smolensk, that is burned it, all save the stronghold. Monomach hunted him swiftly with men doubly mounted, [6] but the wizard escaped. A second hunt followed, by men from Chernigoff and Polovtsi allies. On the way they took Minsk by surprise, and left not a man or beast in the city.