Chapter XX: Appendix (1)

I have seldom perused a work which has afforded me so much pleasure and instruction as the one of Count Gobineau, "_Sur l'Inégalité des Races Humaines_," and regard most of his conclusions as incontrovertible. There are, however, a few points in his argument which should not be passed without comment, and others not sufficiently elaborated. My original intention was to say much, but, fortunately for me, my colleague, Mr. Hotz, has so fully and ably anticipated me, in his Introduction and Notes, as to leave me little of importance to add.

The essay of Count Gobineau is eminently practical and useful in its design. He views the various races of men rather as a historian than a naturalist, and while he leaves open the long mooted question of _unity_ of origin, he so fully establishes the _permanency_ of the actual moral, intellectual, and physical diversities of races as to leave no ground for antagonists to stand upon. Whatever _remote causes_ may be assigned, there is no appeal from the conclusion that white, black, Mongol, and other races were fully developed in nations some 3000 years before Christ, and that no physical causes, during this long course of time, have been in operation, to change one type of man into another. Count Gobineau, therefore, accepts the _existing_ diversity of races as at least an _accomplished fact_, and draws lessons of wisdom from the plain teachings of history. Man with him ceases to be an abstraction; each race, each nation, is made a separate study, and a fertile but unexplored field is opened to our view.

Our author leans strongly towards a belief in the _original diversity_ of races, but has evidently been much embarrassed in arriving at conclusions by religious scruples and by the want of accurate knowledge in that part of natural history which treats of the designation of _species_, and the laws of _hybridity_; he has been taught to believe that two distinct species cannot produce perfectly prolific offspring, and therefore concludes that all races of men _must_ be of one origin, because they are prolific _inter se_. My appendix will therefore be devoted mainly to this question of species.

A.

Our author has taken the facts of Dr. Morton at second hand, and, moreover, had not before him Dr. Morton's later tables and more matured deductions; I shall therefore give an abstract of his results as published by himself in 1849, with some comments of my own. The figures represent the internal capacity of the skull in cubic inches, and were obtained by filling the cavity with shot and afterwards pouring them into an accurately graduated measure.

It must be admitted that the collection of Morton is not sufficiently full in all its departments to enable us to arrive at the absolute capacity of crania in the different races; but it is sufficiently complete to establish beyond cavil, the fact that the crania of the white are much larger than those of the dark races. His table is very incomplete in Mongol, Malays, and some others; but in the white races of Europe, the black races, and the American, the results are substantially correct. I have myself had ample opportunities for examining the heads of living negroes and Indians of America, as well as a considerable number of crania, and can fully indorse Dr. Morton's results. It will be seen that his skulls of American aborigines amount to 338.

_Table, showing the Size of the Brain in Cubic Inches, as obtained by the Measurement of 623 Crania of various Races and Families of Man._

-----------------------------------------------------------------------
| No. of | Largest | Smallest | |
RACES AND FAMILIES. | skulls.| internal | internal | Mean.| Mean.
| | capacity.| capacity.| |
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
MODERN CAUCASIAN GROUP. | | | | |
TEUTONIC FAMILY | | | | |
Germans | 18 | 114 | 70 | 90 }
English | 5 | 105 | 91 | 96 } 92
Anglo-Americans | 7 | 97 | 82 | 90 }
PELASGIC FAMILY | | | | |
Persians } | | | |
Armenians } 10 | 94 | 75 | 84 |
Circassians } | | | |
CELTIC FAMILY | | | | |
Native Irish | 6 | 97 | 78 | 87 |
INDOSTANIC FAMILY | | | | |
Bengalees, &c. | 32 | 91 | 67 | 80 |
SHEMITIC FAMILY | | | | |
Arabs | 3 | 98 | 84 | 89 |
NILOTIC FAMILY | | | | |
Fellahs | 17 | 96 | 66 | 80 |
| | | | |
ANCIENT CAUCASIAN GROUP.| | | | |
PELASGIC FAMILY | | | | |
Greco-Egyptians | 18 | 97 | 74 | 88 |
(from Catacombs) | | | | |
NILOTIC FAMILY | | | | |
Egyptians | 55 | 96 | 68 | 80 |
(from Catacombs) | | | | |
| | | | |
MONGOLIAN GROUP. | | | | |
CHINESE FAMILY | 6 | 91 | 70 | 82 |
| | | | |
MALAY GROUP. | | | | |
MALAYAN FAMILY | 20 | 97 | 68 | 86 }
POLYNESIAN FAMILY | 8 | 84 | 82 | 83 } 85
| | | | |
AMERICAN GROUP. | | | | |
TOLTECAN FAMILY | | | | |
Peruvians | 155 | 101 | 58 | 75 }
Mexicans | 22 | 92 | 67 | 79 }
BARBAROUS TRIBES | | | | }
Iroquois } | | | } 79
Lenapè } | | | }
Cherokee } 161 | 104 | 70 | 84 }
Shoshonè, &c. } | | | |
| | | | |
NEGRO GROUP. | | | | |
NATIVE AFRICAN FAMILY | 62 | 99 | 65 | 83 }
AMERICAN-BORN NEGROES | 12 | 89 | 73 | 82 } 83
HOTTENTOT FAMILY | 3 | 83 | 68 | 75 |
ALFOREAN FAMILY | | | | |
Australians | 8 | 83 | 63 | 75 |
-----------------------------------------------------------------------

Dr. Morton's mind, it will be seen by this table, had not yet freed itself from the incubus of artificial and unnatural classifications. Like Tiedemann and others, he has grouped together races which have not the slightest affinity in physical, moral, or linguistic characters. In the _Caucasian_ group, for example, are placed the Teutonic, Indostanic, Shemitic, and Nilotic families, each of which, it can be shown, has existed utterly distinct for 5000 years, not to mention many subdivisions.

The table of Dr. Morton affords some curious results. His ancient Pelasgic heads and those of the modern white races, give the same size of brain, viz: 88 cubic inches; and his ancient Egyptians and their modern representatives, the Fellahs, yield the same mean, 80 cubic inches; the difference between the two groups being 8 cubic inches. These facts have a strong bearing on the question of _permanence_ of types. The small-headed Hindoos present the same cranial capacity as the Egyptians, and though these races have each been the repository of early civilization, it is a question whether either was the originator of civilization. The Egyptian race, from the earliest monumental dawn, exhibits Shemitic adulteration; and Latham proves that the Sanscrit language was not indigenous to India, but was carried there from Northern Europe in early ages by conquerors.

Again, in the negro group, while it is absolutely shown that certain African races, whether born in Africa, or of the tenth descent in America, give a cranial capacity almost identical, 83 cubic inches; we see, on the contrary, the Hottentot and Australian yielding a mean of but 75 inches, thereby showing a like difference of eight cubic inches.

In the American group, also, the same parallel holds good. The Toltecan family, the most civilized race, exhibit a mean of but 77 inches, while the barbarous tribes give 84, that is, a difference of 7 inches in favor of the savage. While, however, the Toltecans have the smaller heads, they are, according to Combe, much more developed in the anterior or _intellectual_ lobes, which may serve to explain this apparent paradox.

When we compare the highest and lowest races with each other, the contrast becomes still more striking, viz: the Teutonic with the Hottentot and Australian. The former family gives a mean capacity of 92 inches, while the latter two yield but 75, or a difference of _17 cubic inches_ between the skulls of these types!

Now, as far back as history and monuments carry us, as well as crania and other testimonies, these various types have been _permanent_; and most of them we can trace back several thousand years. If such permanence of type through thousands of years, and in defiance of all climatic influences, does not establish _specific_ characters, then is the naturalist at sea without a compass to guide him.

These facts determine clearly the arbitrary nature of all classifications heretofore adopted; the Teuton, the Jew, the Hindoo, the Egyptian, &c., have all been included under the term _Caucasian_; and yet they have, as far as we know, been through all time as distinct in physical and moral characters from each other, as they have from the negro races of Africa and Oceanica. The same diversity of types is found among all the other groups, or arbitrary divisions of the human family.

Rich and rare as is the collection of Dr. Morton, it is very defective in many of its divisions, and it occurred to me that this deficiency might to some degree be supplied by the hat manufacturers of various nations; notwithstanding that the information derived from this source could give but one measurement, viz: the _horizontal periphery_. Yet this one measurement alone, on an extended scale, would go far towards determining the general size of the brain. I accordingly applied to three hat dealers in Mobile, and a large manufacturer in New Jersey, for statements of the relative number of hats of each size sold to adult males; their tables agree so perfectly as to leave no doubt as to the circumference of the heads of the white population of the United States. The three houses together dispose of about 15,000 hats annually.

The following table was obligingly sent me by Messrs. Vail & Yates, of Newark; and they accompanied it with the remark, that their hats were sent principally to our Western States, where there is a large proportion of German population; also that the sizes of these hats were a little larger (about one fourth of an inch) than those sold in the Southern States. This remark was confirmed by the three dealers in Mobile. Our table gives, 1st. The number or size of the hat. 2d. The circumference of the head corresponding. 3d. The circumference of the hat; and lastly, the relative proportion of each No. sold out of 12 hats.

Size--inches. Circum. Circum. Relative
of head. of hat. prop. in 12.

6-7/8 21-5/8 22-3/8 1
7 22 22-3/4 2
7-1/8 22-3/8 23-1/8 3
7-1/4 22-3/4 23-1/2 3
7-3/8 23-1/8 23-7/8 2
7-1/2 23-1/2 24-1/4 1

All hats larger than these are called "extra sizes."

The average size, then, of the crania of white races in the United States, is about 22-1/2 inches circumference, including the hair and scalp, for which about 1-1/2 inches should be deducted, leaving a mean horizontal periphery, for adult males, of 21 inches. The measurements of the purest Teutonic races in Germany and other countries, would give a larger mean; and I have reason to believe that the population of France, which is principally Celtic, would yield a smaller mean. I hope that others will extend these observations.

Dr. Morton's measurements of aboriginal American races, give a mean of but 19-1/2 inches; and this statement is greatly strengthened by the fact that the Mexicans and other Indian races wear much smaller hats than our white races. (See _Types of Mankind_, p. 289 and 453.)

Prof. Tiedemann, of Heidelberg, asserts that the head of the negro is as large as that of the white man, but this we have shown to be an error. (_Types of Mankind_, p. 453.)

Tiedemann adopted the vulgar error of grouping together under the term _Caucasian_, all the Indo-Germanic, Shemitic, and Nilotic races; also all the black and dark races of Africa under the term _Negro_. Now I have shown that the Hindoo and Egyptian races possess about 12 cubic inches less of brain than the Teutonic; and the Hottentots about 8 inches less than the Negro proper. I affirm that no valid reason has ever been assigned why the Teuton and Hindoo, or Hottentot and Negro, should be classed together in their cranial measurements. I can discover no facts which can assign a greater age to one of these races than another; and unless Professor Tiedemann can overcome these difficulties, he has no right to assume identity for the various races he is pleased to group under each of his arbitrary divisions. Mummies from the catacombs, and portraits on the monuments, show that the heads of races on both sides of the Red Sea have remained unchanged 4000 years.

As Dr. Morton tabulated his skulls on the same arbitrary basis, I abandon his arrangement and present his facts as they stand in nature, allowing the reader to compare and judge for himself. The following table gives the _internal capacity_ in cubic inches, and it will be seen that the measurements arrange themselves in a sliding scale of 17 cubic inches from the Teuton down to the Hottentot and Australian.

_Internal Capacity of Brain in Cubic Inches._

RACES. Internal Internal
capacity. capacity.
Mean. Mean.
MODERN WHITE RACES--
Teutonic group 92 92
Pelasgic " 84 }
Celtic " 87 } 88
Shemitic " 89 }
ANCIENT PELASGIC 88
MALAYS 85 } 83-1/2
CHINESE 82 }
NEGROES (AFRICAN) 83 83
INDOSTANESE 80 }
FELLAHS (modern Egyptians) 80 } 80
EGYPTIANS (ancient) 80 }

AMERICAN GROUP--
Toltecan family 77 } 79
Barbarous tribes 84 }

HOTTENTOTS 75 } 75
AUSTRALIANS 75 }

Such has been, through several thousand years, the incessant commingling of races, that we are free to admit that absolute accuracy in measurements of crania cannot now be attained. Yet so constant are the results in contrasting groups, that no unprejudiced mind can deny that there is a wide and well-marked disparity in the cranial developments of races.

B.

As the discussion stands at the present day, we may assume that the scientific world is pretty equally divided on the question of unity of the human family, and the point is to be settled by facts, and not by names. Natural history is a comparatively new and still rapidly progressing science, and the study of man has been one of the last departments to attract serious attention. Blumenbach and Prichard, who may be regarded among the early explorers in this vast field, have but recently been numbered with the dead; and we may safely assert that the last ten years have brought forth materials which have shed an entirely new light on this subject.

Mr. Agassiz, Dr. Morton, Prof. Leidy, and many other naturalists of the United States, contend for an original diversity in the races of men, and we shall proceed to give some of the reasons why we have adopted similar views. Two of the latest writers of any note on the opposite side are the Rev. Dr. Bachman, of Charleston, and M. Flourens, of Paris; and as these gentlemen have very fully travelled over the argument opposed to us, we shall take the liberty, in the course of our remarks, to offer some objections to their views.

The great difficulty in this discussion is, to define clearly what meaning should be attached to the term _species_; and to the illustration of this point, mainly, will our labors be confined. _Genera_ are, for the most part, well defined by _anatomical_ characters, and little dispute exists respecting them; but no successful attempt has yet been made to designate _species_ in this way, and it is by their _permanency of type alone_, as ascertained from written or monumental records, that our decision can be guided.

SPECIES.

The following definitions of species have been selected by Dr. Bachman, and may be received as unexceptionable as any others; but we shall show that they fall far short of the true difficulties of the case.

"We are under the necessity of admitting the existence of certain
forms, which have perpetuated themselves, from the beginning of
the world, without exceeding the limits prescribed: all the
individuals belonging to one of these forms constitute a
_species_."--CUVIER.

"We unite under the designation species all those individuals who
mutually bear to each other so close a resemblance as to allow of
our supposing that they may have proceeded originally from a
single being, or a single pair."--DE CANDOLLE.

"The name species is applied to an assemblage of individuals which
bear a strong resemblance to each other, and which are perpetuated
with the same essential qualities. Thus man, the dog, the horse,
constitute to the zoologist so many distinct species."--MILNE
EDWARDS and ACHILLE COMPTE.

We have no objection to this definition, but the examples cited are points in dispute, and not received by many of the leading naturalists of the day.

"Species are fixed and permanent forms of being, exhibiting
indeed certain modes of variation, of which they may be more or
less susceptible, but maintaining throughout those modifications
a sameness of structural essentials, transmitted from generation
to generation, and never lost by the influence of causes which
otherwise produce obvious effects. _Varieties_ are either
accidental or the result of the care and culture of
man."[198]--MARTIN.

Dr. Bachman gives another, substantially the same, from Agassiz; and also one of his own, to which he appends, as an additional test of species, the production of "_fertile offspring by association_." In this definition the doctor _assumes_ one of the main points in dispute.

"_Varieties_," says Dr. Bachman, "are those that are produced
within the limits of particular species, and have not existed
from its origin. They sometimes originate in wild species,
especially those that have a wide geographical range, and are
thus exposed to change of climate and temperature," &c. * * *
"_Permanent varieties_ are such as, having once taken place, are
propagated in perpetuity, and do not change their characteristics
unless they breed with other varieties."

We may remark that the existence of such _permanent varieties_ as here described is also in dispute.

The same author continues:--

"On comparing these definitions, as given by various naturalists,
each in his own language, it will be perceived that there is no
essential difference in the various views expressed in regard to
the characters by which a species is designated. They all regard
it as 'the lowest term to which we descend, with the exception of
_varieties_, such as are seen in domestic animals.' They are, to
examine the external and internal organization of the animal or
plant--they are, to compare it with kindred species, and if by
this examination they are found to possess _permanent characters
differing from those of other species, it proves itself to be a
distinct species_. When this fact is satisfactorily ascertained,
and the specimen is not found a domestic species, in which
varieties always occur, presumptive evidence is afforded of its
having had a primordial existence. We infer this from the fact
that no species is the production of blind chance, and that
within the _knowledge of history_ no true species, but
_varieties_ only, whose origin can be _distinctly traced to
existing and well-known species_, have made their appearance in
the world. This, then, is the only means within the knowledge of
man by which any species of plant or animal _can be shown_ to be
primordial. The peculiar form and characters designated the
species, and its origin was a necessary inference derived from
the characters stamped on it by the hand of the Creator."

To all the positions thus far taken by Dr. Bachman, we most cheerfully subscribe; they are strictly scientific, and by such criteria alone do we desire to test the unity of the human family; but we must enter a decided demurrer to the assertion which follows, viz: that, "according to the universally received definition of species, all the individuals of the human race are proved to be of one species." When it shall be shown that all the races of men, dogs, horses, cattle, wolves, foxes, &c., are "varieties only, _whose origin can be distinctly traced to existing and well-known species_," we may then yield the point; but we must be permitted to say that Dr. Bachman is the only naturalist, as far as we know, who has assumed to know these original types.

Now, if the reader will turn back and review carefully all the definitions of species cited, he will perceive that they are not based upon _anatomical characters_, but simply on the _permanency_ of certain organic forms, and that this permanence of form is determined by its _history_ alone.

Professor Owen, of London, has thrown the weight of his great name into the scale, and tells us that "man is the sole species of his genus, the sole representative of his order." But proving that man is not a monkey, as the professor has done in the lecture alluded to, does not prove that men are all of _one_ species, according to any definition yet received: he has made the assertion, but has assigned no scientific reasons to sustain it. No one would be more rejoiced than ourselves, to see the great talent and learning of Professor Owen brought fully to bear on this point; but, like most naturalists, he has overlooked one of the most important points in this discussion--_the monumental history of man_.

Will Professor Owen or Dr. Bachman tell us wherein the lion and tiger--the dog, wolf, fox, and jackal--the fossil horse, and living species--the Siberian mammoth and the Indian elephant, differ more from each other than the white man and the negro? Are not all these regarded by naturalists as distinct species, and yet who pretends to be able to distinguish the skeleton of one from the other by specific characters?

The examples just cited, of living species, have been decided upon simply from their permanency of type, as derived from their history; and we say that, by the same process of reasoning, the races of men depicted on the monuments of Egypt, five thousand years ago, and which have maintained their types through all time and all climates since, are _distinct species_.

Dr. Morton defines species--"a primordial organic form," and determines these forms by their permanence through all human records; and Mr. Agassiz, who adopts this definition, adds: "Species are thus distinct forms of organic life, the origin of which is lost in the primitive establishment of the state of things now existing; and varieties are such modification of the species as may return to the typical form under temporary influences."

Dr. Bachman objects very strongly to this definition, and declares it a "cunning device, and, to all intents, an _ex post facto_ law," suddenly conjured up during a controversy, to avoid the difficulties of the case; but we have serious doubts whether these gentlemen are capable of such subterfuge in matters of science, and confess that we cannot see any substantial difference between their definition and those given by Dr. Bachman. Morton and Agassiz determine a form to be "_primordial_" by its permanency, as proved by history, and the other definitions assign no other test.

Professor Leidy, who has not only studied the "lower departments of zoology," like Mr. Agassiz, but also the "higher forms of animal life," says that "too much importance has been attached to the term species," and gives the following definition: "A species of plant or animal may be defined to be an immutable organic form, whose characteristic distinctions may always be recognized by _a study of its history_."[199]

M. Jourdain, under the head "Espèce," in his _Dictionnaire des Termes des Sciences Naturelles_, after citing a long list of definitions from leading authors, concludes with the following remarks, which, as the question now stands before the world, places the term species just where it should be:--

"It is evident that we can, among organized bodies, regard as a
_species_ only such a collection of beings as resemble each other
more than they resemble others, and which, by a consent more or
less unanimous, it is agreed to designate by a common name; for a
_species_ is but a simple _abstraction of the mind_, and not a
group, exactly determined by nature herself, as ancient as she
is, and of which she has irrevocably traced the limits. It is in
the definition of species that we recognize how far the influence
of ideas adopted without examination in youth is powerful in
obscuring the most simple ideas of general physics."

Although not written with the expectation of publication, I will take the liberty of publishing the following private letter just received from Prof. Leidy. He has not appeared at all in this controversy before the public, and we may safely say that no one can be better qualified than he is to express an opinion on this question of species.

"With all the contention about the question of what constitutes a
_species_, there appears to be almost no difficulty,
comparatively, in its practical recognition. Species of plants
and animals are daily determined, and the characters which are
given to distinguish them are viewed by the great body of
naturalists as sufficient. All the definitions, however, which
have been given for a species, are objectionable. Morton says: 'A
species is a primordial organic form.' But how shall we
distinguish the latter? How can it be proved that any existing
forms primordially were distinct? In my attempted definition, I
think, I fail, for I only direct how species are discovered.

"According to the practical determination of a species by
naturalists, in a late number of the _Proceedings_ of our Academy
(vol. vii. p. 201), I observe: 'A species is a mere convenient
word with which naturalists empirically designate groups of
organized beings possessing characters of comparative constancy,
as far as historic experience has guided them in giving due weight
to such constancy.'

"According to this definition, the races of men are evidently
distinct species. But it may be said that the definition is given
to suit the circumstances. So it is, and so it should be; or, if
not, then all characterized species should conform to an arbitrary
definition. The species of gypætus, haliætus, tanagra, and of many
other genera of birds, are no more distinguishable than the
species of men; and, I repeat, the anatomy of one species of
haliætus, or of any other genus, will answer for that of all the
other species of the same genus. The same is the case with
mammals. One species of felis, ursus, or equus will give the exact
anatomy of all the other species in each genus, just as you may
study the anatomy of the white man upon the black man. While Prof.
Richard Owen will compare the orang with man, and therefore deduce
all races of the latter to be of one species, he divides the genus
cervus into several other genera, and yet there is no difference
in their internal anatomy; while he considers the horse and the
ass as two distinct genera, and says that a certain fossil
horse-tooth, carefully compared with the corresponding tooth of
the recent horse, showed no differences, excepting in being a
little more curved, he considers it a distinct species, under the
name of equus curvidens; and yet, with differences of greater
value in the jaws of the negro and white man, he considers them
the same.

"In the restricted genera of vertebrata of modern naturalists, the
specific characters are founded on the external appendages, for
the most part--differences in the scales, horns, antlers,
feathers, hairs, or bills. Just as you separate the black and
white man by the difference in the color of the skin and the
character of the hair, so do we separate the species of bears, or
cats, &c.

"PHILADELPHIA, _April 18, 1855_."

We might thus go on and multiply, to the extent of an octavo volume, evidence to show how vague and unsettled is the term species among naturalists, and that, when we abandon historical records, we have no reliable guide left. Moreover, were we able to establish perfectly reliable landmarks between species, we still have no means of determining whether they were originally created in one pair, or many pairs. The latter is certainly the most rational supposition: there is every reason to believe that the earth and the sea brought forth "_abundantly_" of each species.

It must be clear to the reader, from the evidence above adduced, that Dr. Bachman claims far too much when he asserts that--

"Naturalists can be found, in Europe and America, who, without
any _vain boast_, can distinguish every species of bird and
quadruped on their separate continents; and the characters which
distinguish and separate the several species are as distinct and
infallible as are those which form the genera."[200]

And, again, when he says:--

"From the opportunities we have enjoyed in the examination of the
varieties and species of domesticated quadrupeds and birds, we
have never found any difficulty in deciding on the species to
which these varieties belong."

Those of us who are still groping in darkness certainly have a right to ask who are the authorities alluded to, and what are those "characters which distinguish and separate species" as distinctly and infallibly as "genera?" They are certainly not in print.

The doctor must pardon us for reminding him that there is printed evidence that his own mind is not always free from doubts. In the introduction of Audubon and Bachman's _Quadrupeds of America_, p. vii., it is said:--

"Although _genera_ may be easily ascertained by the forms and
dental arrangements peculiar to each, many _species_ so nearly
approach each other in size, while they are so variable in color,
that it is exceedingly difficult to separate them with positive
certainty."

Again, in speaking of the genus _vulpes_ (foxes), the same work says:--

"The characters of this genus differ so slightly from those of
the genus _canis_, that we are induced to pause before removing
it from the sub-genus in which it had so long remained. As a
general rule, we are obliged to _admit that a large fox is a
wolf, and a small wolf may be termed a fox_. So inconveniently
large, however, is the list of species in the old genus _canis_,
that it is, we think, advisable to separate into distinct groups
such species as possess any characters different from true
wolves."

Speaking of the origin of the domestic dog, Dr. Bachman, in his work on _Unity of Races_, p. 63, says:--

"Notwithstanding all these difficulties--and we confess we are
not free from some doubts in regard to their identity (dog and
wolf)--if we were called upon to decide on any wild species as
the progenitor of our dogs, we would sooner fix upon the large
wolf than on any other dog, hyena, or jackal," &c.

The doctor is unable, here at least (and we can point out many other cases), to "designate species;" and the recent investigations of Flourens, at the _Jardin des Plantes_, prove him wrong as regards the origin of the dog. The dog is not derived from the "large wolf," but, with it, produces hybrids, sterile after the third generation. The dog forms a genus apart.

We repeat, then, that in a large number of _genera_, the species cannot be separated by any anatomical characters, and that it is from their history alone naturalists have arrived at those minute divisions now generally received. We may, without the fear of contradiction, go a step further, and assert that several of the races of men are as widely separated in physical organization, physiological and psychological characters, as are the canidæ, equidæ, felines, elephants, bears and others. When the white races of Europe, the Mongols of Asia, the aborigines of America, the black races of Africa and Oceanica are placed beside each other, they are marked by stronger differences than are the species of the genera above named. It has been objected that these gaps are filled by intermediate links which make the chain complete from one extremity to the other. The admission of the fact does not invalidate our position, for we have shown elsewhere (see _Types of Mankind_) _gradation_ is the law of nature. The extreme types, we have proven, have been distinct for more than 5000 years, and no existing causes during that time have transformed one type into another. The well-marked negro type, for example, stands face to face with the white type on the monuments of Egypt; and they differ more from each other than the dog and wolf, ass and _Equis Hemionus_, lion and tiger, &c. The hair and skin, the size and shape of head, the pelvis, the extremities, and other points, separate certain African and Oceanican negroes more widely than the above species. This will not be questioned, whatever difference of opinion may exist with regard to the permanency of these forms. In the language of Prof. Leidy, "the question to be determined is, whether the differences in the races of men are as permanent and of as much value as those which characterize species in the lower genera of animals." These races of men too are governed by the same laws of geographical distribution, as the species of the lower genera; they are found, as far back as history can trace them, as widely separated as possible, and surrounded by local Floræ and Faunæ.

VARIETIES.

This term is very conveniently introduced to explain all the difficulties which embarrass this discussion. Dr. Bachman insists that all the races of men are mere _varieties_, and sustains the opinion by a repetition of those analogies which have been so often drawn from the animal kingdom by Prichard and his school. It is well known that those animals which have been domesticated undergo, in a few generations, very remarkable changes in color, form, size, habits, &c. For example, all the hogs, black, white, brown, gray, spotted, &c., now found scattered over the earth, have, it is said, their parentage in one pair of wild hogs. "This being admitted," says Dr. B. "we invite the advocates of plurality in the human species to show wherein these varieties are less striking than their eight (alluding to Agassiz) originally created nations." Again--

"And how has the discovery been made that all the permanent races
are mere varieties, and not 'originally created' species, or
'primitive varieties?' Simply because the naturalists of Germany,
finding that the original wild hog still exists in their forests,
have, in a thousand instances, reclaimed them from the woods. By
this means they have discovered that their descendants, _after a
few generations_, lose their ferocity, assume all colors," &c.

The same reasoning is applied to horses, cattle, goats, sheep, &c., while many, if not most of the best naturalists of the day deny that we know anything of the origin of our domestic animals. Geoffroy St. Hilaire, in his work, just out, denies it in toto. We are, however, for the sake of argument, willing to admit all the examples, and all he claims with regard to the origin of endless varieties in domesticated animals.[201]

Let us, on the other hand, "invite the advocates of _unity_ of the human species" to say when and where such varieties have sprung up in the human family. We not only have the written history of man for 2000 years, but his monumental history for 2000 more; and yet, while the naturalists of Germany are catching wild hogs, and recording in a thousand instances "after a few generations" these wonderful changes, no one has yet pointed out anything analogous in the human family; the porcupine family in England, a few spotted Mexicans, &c., do not meet the case; history records the origin of no permanent variety. No race of men has in the same country turned black, brown, gray, white, and spotted. The negroes in America have not in ten generations turned to all colors, though fully _domesticated_, like pigs and turkeys. The Jews in all countries for 2000 years are still Jews. The gypsies are everywhere still gypsies. In India, the different castes, of different colors, have been living together several thousand years, and are still distinct, &c. &c.

Nor does domestication affect all animals and fowls equally; compare the camel, ass, and deer, with the hog and dog; the Guinea fowl, pea fowl, and goose, with pigeons, turkeys, and common fowls. In fact, no one animal can be taken as an analogue for another: each has its own physiological laws; each is influenced differently and in different degrees by the same external influences. How, then, can an animal be taken as an analogue for man?

We have also abundant authority to show that all wild species do not present the same uniformity in external characters.

"All packs of American wolves usually consist of various shades
of color, and varieties nearly black have been occasionally found
in every part of the United States.... In a gang of wolves which
existed in Colleton District, South Carolina, a few years ago
(sixteen of which were killed by hunters in eighteen months), we
were informed that about one-fifth were black, and the others of
every shade of color, from black to dusky gray and yellowish
white."--AUDUBON & BACHMAN, 2d Amer. ed., vol. ii. pp. 130-1.

Speaking of the white American wolf, the same authors say:--

"Their gait and movements are precisely the same as those of the
common dog, and their mode of copulating and number of young
brought forth at a litter, are about the same." (It might have
been added that their number of bones, teeth, whole anatomical
structure are the same.) "The diversity of their size and color
is remarkable, no two being quite alike."... "The wolves of the
prairies ... produce from six to eleven at a birth, of which
there are very seldom two alike in color."--_Op. cit._, p. 159.

"The common American wolf, Richardson observes, sometimes shows
remarkable diversity of color. On the banks of the Mackenzie River
I saw five young wolves leaping and tumbling over each other with
all the playfulness of the puppies of the domestic dog, and it is
not improbable they were all of one litter. One of them was pied,
another black, and the rest showed the colors of the common gray
wolves."

The same diversity is seen in the prairie wolf, and naturalists have been much embarrassed in classifying the various wolves on account of colors, size, &c.

All this is independent of _domestication_, and shows the uncertainty of analogues; and still it is remarkable that though considerable variety exists in the native dogs of America in color and size, they do not run into the thousand grotesque forms seen on the old continent, where a much greater mixture exists. The dogs of America, like the aboriginal races of men, are comparatively uniform. In the East, where various races have come together, the men, like the dogs, present endless varieties, Egypt, Assyria, India, &c.

Let us suppose that one variety of hog had been discovered in Africa, one in Asia, one in Europe, one in Australia, another in America, as well marked as those Dr. B. describes; that these varieties had been transferred to other climates as have been Jews, gypsies, negroes, &c., and had remained for ages without change of form or color, would they be considered as distinct species or not?--can any one doubt? The rule must work both ways, or the argument falls to the ground.

In fact the Dr. himself makes admissions which fully refute his whole theory.

"Whilst," says he, "we are willing to allow some weight to the
argument advanced by President Smyth, who endeavors to account
for the varieties in man from the combined influences of three
causes, 'climate, the state of society, and manner of living,' we
are free to admit that it is impossible to account for the
varieties in the human family from the causes which he has
assigned."[202]

The Dr. further admits, in the same work, that the races have been _permanent_ since the time of the old Egyptian empire, and _supposes_ that at some extremely remote time, of which we have no record, that "they were more susceptible of producing varieties than at a later period." These suppositions answer a very good purpose in theology, but do not meet the requirements of science.

HYBRIDITY.

Having shown the insufficiency of all the other arguments in establishing the landmarks of _species_, let us now turn to those based on _hybridity_, which seems to be the last stronghold of the unity party. On this point hang all the difficulties of M. Gobineau, and had he been posted up to date here, his doubts would all have vanished. The last twelve months have added some very important facts to those previously published, and we shall, with as little detail as possible, present the subject in its newest light.

It is contended that when two animals of distinct species, or, in other words, of distinct origin, are bred together, they produce a hybrid which is _infertile_, or which at least becomes sterile in a few generations if preserved free from admixture with the parent stocks. It is assumed that unlimited prolificness is a certain test of community of origin.

We, on the contrary, contend that there is no abrupt line of demarcation; that no complete laws of hybridity have yet been established; that there is a _regular gradation_ in the prolificness of the species, and that, according to the best lights we now possess, there is a continued series from perfect sterility to perfect prolificacy. The degrees may be expressed in the following language:--

1. That in which hybrids never reproduce; in other words, where the mixed progeny begins and ends with the first cross.

2. That in which the hybrids are incapable of producing _inter se_, but multiply by union with the parent stock.

3. That in which animals of unquestionably distinct species produce a progeny which are prolific _inter se_, but have a tendency to run out.

4. That which takes place between closely proximate species; among mankind, for example, and among those domestic animals most essential to human wants and happiness; here the prolificacy is unlimited.

It seems to be a law that in those genera where several or many species exist, there is a certain gradation which is shown in degrees of hybridity; some having greater affinity than others. Experiments are still wanting to make our knowledge perfect, but we know enough to establish our points.

There are many points we have not space to dwell on, as the relative influence of the male and female on the offspring; the tendency of one species to predominate over another; the tendency of types to "crop out" after lying dormant for many generations; the fact that in certain species some of the progeny take after one parent and some after the other, while in other cases the offspring presents a medium type, &c.

The genus _Equus_ (Horse) comprises six species, of which three belong to Asia, and three to Africa. The Asiatic species are the _Equus Caballus_ (Horse), _Equus Hemionus_ (Dzigguetai), and _Equus Asinus_ (Ass). Those of Africa are the _Equus Zebra_ (Zebra), _Equus Montanus_ (Daw), and the _Equus Quaccha_ (Quagga). The horse and ass alone have been submitted to domestication from time immemorial; the others have remained wild.

It is well known that the horse and ass produce together an unprolific mule, and as these two species are the furthest removed from each other in their physical structure, Dr. Morton long since suggested that intermediate species bred together would show a higher degree of prolificness, and this prediction has been vindicated by experiments recently made in the Garden of Plants at Paris, where the ass and dzigguetai have been bred together for the last ten years. "What is very remarkable, these hybrids differ considerably from each other; some resemble much more closely the dzigguetai, others the ass." In regard to the product of the male dzigguetai and the jenny, Mr. Geoffroy St. Hilaire says:[203]--

"Another fact, not less worthy of interest, is the fecundity, if
not of all the mules, at least the firstborn among them; with
regard to this, the fact is certain; he has produced several
times with Jennies, and once with the female dzigguetai, the only
one he has covered."[204]

At a meeting of the "Société Zoologique d'Acclimation,"

M. Richard (du Cantal) "parle des essais de croisements de
l'hémione avec l'anesse, et dit qu'ils ont donnè un mulet
beaucoup _plus ardent_ que l'âne. Il asserte que les produits de
l'hémione avec l'âne, sont féconds, et que le métis, nommé Polka,
à déja produit."

To what extent the prolificness of these two species will go is yet to be determined, and there is an unexplored field still open among the other species of this genus; it is highly probable that a gradation may be established from sterility, up to perfect prolificacy.

Not only do the female ass and the male onager breed together, but a male offspring of this cross, with a mare, produces an animal more docile than either parent, and combining the best physical qualities, such as strength, speed, &c.; whence the ancients preferred the onager to the ass, for the production of mules.[205] Mr. Gliddon, who lived upwards of twenty years in Egypt and other eastern countries, informs me this opinion is still prevalent in Egypt, and is acted upon more particularly in Arabia, Persia, &c., where the _gour_, or wild ass, still roams the desert. The zebra has also been several times crossed with the horse.

The genus _canis_ contains a great many species, as domestic dogs, wolves, foxes, jackals, &c., and much discussion exists as to which are really species and which mere varieties. In this genus experiments in crossing have been carried a step further than in the _Equidæ_, but there is much yet to be done. All the species produce prolific offspring, but how far the prolificness might extend in each instance is not known; there is reason to believe that every grade would be found except that of absolute sterility which is seen in the offspring of the horse and ass.

The following facts are given by M. Flourens, and are the result of his own observations at the _Jardin des Plantes_.

"The hybrids of the dog and wolf are sterile after the _third_
generation; those of the jackal and dog, are so after the
_fourth_.

"Moreover, if one of these hybrids is bred with one of the
primitive species, they soon return, completely and totally, to
this species.

"My experiments on the crossing of species have given me
opportunities of making a great many observations of this kind.

"The union of the dog and jackal produces a hybrid--a mixed
animal, an animal partaking almost equally of the two, but in
which, however, the type of the _jackal_ predominates over that of
the _dog_.

"I have remarked, in fact, in my experiments, that all types are
not equally dominant and persistent. The type of the dog is more
persistent than that of the wolf--that of the jackal more than
that of the dog; that of the horse is less than that of the ass,
&c. The hybrid of the dog and the wolf partakes more of the dog
than the wolf; the hybrid of the jackal and dog, takes more after
the jackal than dog; the hybrid of the horse and the ass partakes
less of the horse than the ass; it has the ears, back, rump, voice
of the ass; the horse neighs, the ass brays, and the mule brays
like the ass, &c.

"The hybrid of the dog and jackal, then, partakes more of the
jackal than dog--it has straight ears, hanging tail, does not
bark, and is wild--it is more jackal than dog.

"So much for the FIRST cross product of the dog with the jackal. I
continue to unite, from generation to generation, the successive
products with one of the two primitive stocks--with that of the
dog, for example. The hybrid of the _second generation_ does not
yet bark, but has already the ears pendent at the ends, and is
less savage. The hybrid of the third generation barks, has the
ears pendent, the tail turned up, and is no longer wild. The
hybrid of the _fourth generation_ is entirely a dog.

"Four generations, then, have sufficed to re-establish one of the
two primitive types--the type of the dog; and four generations
suffice, also, to bring back the other type."[206]

From the foregoing facts, M. Flourens deduces, without assigning a reason, the following _non sequitur_:--

"Thus, then, either hybrids, born of the union of two distinct
species, unite and soon become sterile, or they unite with one of
the parent stocks, and soon return to this type--they in no case
give what may be called a new species, that is to say, an
intermediate durable species."[207]

The dog also produces hybrids with the fox and hyena, but to what extent has not yet been determined. The hybrid fox is certainly prolific for several generations.

There are also bovine, camelline, caprine, ovine, feline, deer with the ram, and endless other hybrids, running through the animal kingdom, but they are but repetitions of the above facts, and experiments are still far from being complete in establishing the _degrees_ which attach to each two species. We have abundant proofs, however, of the three first degrees of hybridity. 1st. Where the hybrid is infertile. 2d. Where it produces with the parent stock. 3d. Where it is prolific for one, two, three, or four generations, and then becomes sterile. Up to this point there is no diversity of opinion. Let us now inquire what evidence there is of the existence of the 4th degree, in which hybrids may form a new and permanent race.

To show how slow has been our progress in this question, and what difficulties beset our path, we need only state that the facts respecting the dog, wolf, and jackal, quoted above from Flourens, have only been published within the last twelve months. The identity of the dog and wolf has heretofore been undetermined, and the _degrees_ of hybridity of the dog with the wolf and jackal were before unknown. These experiments do not extend beyond one species of wolf.

M. Flourens says:--

"_Les espèces ne s'altèrent point, ne changent point, ne passent
point de l'une à l'autre; les espèces sont_ FIXÉS."

"If species have a tendency to transformation, to pass one into
another, why has not time, which, in everything, effects all that
can happen, ended by disclosing, by betraying, by implying this
tendency.

"But time, they may tell me, is wanting. It is not wanting. It is
2000 years since Aristotle wrote, and we recognize in our day all
the animals which he describes; and we recognize them by the
characters which he assigns.... Cuvier states that the history of
the elephant is more exact in Aristotle than in Buffon. They bring
us every day from Egypt, the remains of animals which lived there
two or three thousand years ago--the ox, crocodiles, ibis, &c.
&c., which are the same as those of the present day. We have under
our eyes _human mummies_--the skeleton of that day is identical
with that of the Egyptian of our day."

(M. Flourens might have added that the mummies of the white and black races show them to have been as distinct then as now, and that the monumental drawings represent the different races more than a thousand years further back.)

"Thus, then, through three thousand years, no species has
changed. An experiment which continues through three thousand
years, is not an experiment to be made--it is an experiment
_made_. Species do not change."[208]