Chapter VI: The Unitive State

“The story admits of being told up to this point,
But what follows is hidden, and inexpressible in words.
If you should speak and try a hundred ways to express it,
’Tis useless; the mystery becomes no clearer.
You can ride on saddle and horse to the sea-coast,
But then you must use a horse of wood (_i.e._ a boat).
A horse of wood is useless on dry land,
It is the special vehicle of voyagers by sea.
Silence is this horse of wood,
Silence is the guide and support of men at sea.”[20]

[20] The _Masnavī_ of Jalāluddīn Rūmī. Abridged translation by E. H. Whinfield, p. 326.

No one can approach the subject of this chapter--the state of the mystic who has reached his journey’s end--without feeling that all symbolical descriptions of union with God and theories concerning its nature are little better than leaps in the dark. How shall we form any conception of that which is declared to be ineffable by those who have actually experienced it? I can only reply that the same difficulty confronts us in dealing with all mystical phenomena, though it appears less formidable at lower levels, and that the poet’s counsel of silence has not prevented him from interpreting the deepest mysteries of Sūfism with unrivalled insight and power.

Whatever terms may be used to describe it, the unitive state is the culmination of the simplifying process by which the soul is gradually isolated from all that is foreign to itself, from all that is not God. Unlike Nirvāṇa, which is merely the cessation of individuality, _fanā_, the passing-away of the Sūfī from his phenomenal existence, involves _baqā_, the continuance of his real existence. He who dies to self lives in God, and _fanā_, the consummation of this death, marks the attainment of _baqā_, or union with the divine life. Deification, in short, is the Moslem mystic’s _ultima Thule_.

In the early part of the tenth century Husayn ibn Mansūr, known to fame as al-Hallāj (the wool-carder), was barbarously done to death at Baghdād. His execution seems to have been dictated by political motives, but with these we are not concerned. Amongst the crowd assembled round the scaffold, a few, perhaps, believed him to be what he said he was; the rest witnessed with exultation or stern approval the punishment of a blasphemous heretic. He had uttered in two words a sentence which Islam has, on the whole, forgiven but has never forgotten: “_Ana ’l-Haqq_”--“I am God.”

The recently published researches of M. Louis Massignon[21] make it possible, for the first time, to indicate the meaning which Hallāj himself attached to this celebrated formula, and to assert definitely that it does not agree with the more orthodox interpretations offered at a later epoch by Sūfīs belonging to various schools. According to Hallāj, man is essentially divine. God created Adam in His own image. He projected from Himself that image of His eternal love, that He might behold Himself as in a mirror. Hence He bade the angels worship Adam (Kor. =2.= 32), in whom, as in Jesus, He became incarnate.

[21] _Kitāb al-Tawāsīn_ (Paris, 1913). See especially pp. 129-141.

“Glory to Him who revealed in His humanity (_i.e._ in Adam)
the secret of His radiant divinity,
And then appeared to His creatures visibly in the shape of one
who ate and drank (Jesus).”

Since the ‘humanity’ (_nāsūt_) of God comprises the whole bodily and spiritual nature of man, the ‘divinity’ (_lāhūt_) of God cannot unite with that nature except by means of an incarnation or, to adopt the term employed by Massignon, an infusion (_hulūl_) of the divine Spirit, such as takes place when the human spirit enters the body.[22] Thus Hallāj says in one of his poems:

“Thy Spirit is mingled in my spirit even as wine is mingled with
pure water.
When anything touches Thee, it touches me. Lo, in every case
Thou art I!”

And again:

“I am He whom I love, and He whom I love is I:
We are two spirits dwelling in one body.
If thou seest me, thou seest Him,
And if thou seest Him, thou seest us both.”

[22] Massignon appears to be right in identifying the Divine Spirit with the Active Reason (_intellectus agens_), which, according to Alexander of Aphrodisias, is not a part or faculty of our soul, but comes to us from without. See Inge, _Christian Mysticism_, pp. 360, 361. The doctrine of Hallāj may be compared with that of Tauler, Ruysbroeck, and others concerning the birth of God in the soul.

This doctrine of personal deification, in the peculiar form which was impressed upon it by Hallāj, is obviously akin to the central doctrine of Christianity, and therefore, from the Moslem standpoint, a heresy of the worst kind. It survived unadulterated only amongst his immediate followers. The Hulūlīs, _i.e._ those who believe in incarnation, are repudiated by Sūfīs in general quite as vehemently as by orthodox Moslems. But while the former have unhesitatingly condemned the doctrine of _hulūl_, they have also done their best to clear Hallāj from the suspicion of having taught it. Three main lines of defence are followed: (1) Hallāj did not sin against the Truth, but he was justly punished in so far as he committed a grave offence against the Law. He “betrayed the secret of his Lord” by proclaiming to all and sundry the supreme mystery which ought to be reserved for the elect. (2) Hallāj spoke under the intoxicating influence of ecstasy. He imagined himself to be united with the divine essence, when in fact he was only united with one of the divine attributes. (3) Hallāj meant to declare that there is no essential difference or separation between God and His creatures, inasmuch as the divine unity includes all being. A man who has entirely passed away from his phenomenal self exists _quâ_ his real self, which is God.

“In that glory is no ‘I’ or ‘We’ or ‘Thou.’
‘I,’ ‘We,’ ‘Thou,’ and ‘He’ are all one thing.”

It was not Hallāj who cried “_Ana ’l-Haqq_,” but God Himself, speaking, as it were, by the mouth of the selfless Hallāj, just as He spoke to Moses through the medium of the burning bush (Kor. =20.= 8-14).

The last explanation, which converts _Ana ’l-Haqq_ into an impersonal monistic axiom, is accepted by most Sūfīs as representing the true Hallājian teaching. In a magnificent ode Jalāluddīn Rūmī describes how the One Light shines in myriad forms through the whole universe, and how the One Essence, remaining ever the same, clothes itself from age to age in the prophets and saints who are its witnesses to mankind.

“Every moment the robber Beauty rises in a different shape,
ravishes the soul, and disappears.
Every instant that Loved One assumes a new garment, now of eld,
now of youth.
Now He plunged into the heart of the substance of the potter’s
clay--the Spirit plunged, like a diver.
Anon He rose from the depths of mud that is moulded and baked,
then He appeared in the world.
He became Noah, and at His prayer the world was flooded while He
went into the Ark.
He became Abraham and appeared in the midst of the fire, which
turned to roses for His sake.
For a while He was roaming on the earth to pleasure Himself,
Then He became Jesus and ascended to the dome of Heaven and began
to glorify God.
In brief, it was He that was coming and going in every generation
thou hast seen,
Until at last He appeared in the form of an Arab and gained the
empire of the world.
What is it that is transferred? What is transmigration in reality?
The lovely winner of hearts
Became a sword and appeared in the hand of ʿAlī and became the
Slayer of the time.
No! no! for ’twas even He that was crying in human shape,
‘_Ana ’l-Haqq_.’
That one who mounted the scaffold was not Mansūr,[23] though the
foolish imagined it.
Rūmī hath not spoken and will not speak words of infidelity:
do not disbelieve him!
Whosoever shows disbelief is an infidel and one of those who
have been doomed to Hell.”

[23] Hallāj is often called Mansūr, which is properly the name of his father.

Although in Western and Central Asia--where the Persian kings were regarded by their subjects as gods, and where the doctrines of incarnation, anthropomorphism, and metempsychosis are indigenous--the idea of the God-man was neither so unfamiliar nor unnatural as to shock the public conscience very profoundly, Hallāj had formulated that idea in such a way that no mysticism calling itself Mohammedan could tolerate, much less adopt it. To assert that the divine and human natures may be interfused and commingled,[24] would have been to deny the principle of unity on which Islam is based. The subsequent history of Sūfism shows how deification was identified with unification. The antithesis--God, Man--melted away in the pantheistic theory which has been explained above.[25] There is no real existence apart from God. Man is an emanation or a reflexion or a mode of Absolute Being. What he thinks of as individuality is in truth not-being; it cannot be separated or united, for it does not exist. Man _is_ God, yet with a difference. According to Ibn al-ʿArabī,[26] the eternal and the phenomenal are two complementary aspects of the One, each of which is necessary to the other. The creatures are the external manifestation of the Creator, and Man is God’s consciousness (_sirr_) as revealed in creation. But since Man, owing to the limitations of his mind, cannot think all objects of thought simultaneously, and therefore expresses only a part of the divine consciousness, he is not entitled to say _Ana ’l-Haqq_, “I am God.” He is _a_ reality, but not _the_ Reality. We shall see that other Sūfīs--Jalāluddīn Rūmī, for example--in their ecstatic moments, at any rate, ignore this rather subtle distinction.

[24] _Hulūl_ was not understood in this sense by Hallāj (Massignon, _op. cit._, p. 199), though the verses quoted on p. 151 readily suggest such an interpretation. Hallāj, I think, would have agreed with Eckhart (who said, “The word _I am_ none can truly speak but God alone”) that the personality in which the Eternal is immanent has itself a part in eternity (Inge, _Christian Mysticism_, p. 149, note).

[25] See pp. 79 ff.

[26] Massignon, _op. cit._, p. 183.

The statement that in realising the nonentity of his individual self the Sūfī realises his essential oneness with God, sums up the Mohammedan theory of deification in terms with which my readers are now familiar. I will endeavour to show what more precise meaning may be assigned to it, partly in my own words and partly by means of illustrative extracts from various authors.

Several aspects of _fanā_ have already been distinguished.[27] The highest of these--the passing-away in the divine essence--is fully described by Niffarī, who employs instead of fanā and fānī (self-naughted) the terms _waqfat_, signifying cessation from search, and _wāqif_, _i.e._ one who desists from seeking and passes away in the Object Sought. Here are some of the chief points that occur in the text and commentary.

[27] See pp. 60, 61.

_Waqfat_ is luminous: it expels the dark thoughts of ‘otherness,’ just as light banishes darkness; it changes the phenomenal values of all existent things into their real and eternal values.

Hence the _wāqif_ transcends time and place. “He enters every house and it contains him not; he drinks from every well but is not satisfied; then he reaches Me, and I am his home, and his abode is with Me”--that is to say, he comprehends all the divine attributes and embraces all mystical experiences. He is not satisfied with the names (attributes), but seeks the Named. He contemplates the essence of God and finds it identical with his own. He does not pray. Prayer is from man to God, but in _waqfat_ there is nothing but God.

The _wāqif_ leaves not a rack behind him, nor any heir except God. When even the phenomenon of _waqfat_ has disappeared from his consciousness, he becomes the very Light. Then his praise of God proceeds from God, and his knowledge is God’s knowledge, who beholds Himself alone as He was in the beginning.

We need not expect to discover how this essentialisation, substitution, or transmutation is effected. It is the grand paradox of Sūfism--the _Magnum Opus_ wrought somehow _in_ created man by a Being whose nature is eternally devoid of the least taint of creatureliness. As I have remarked above, the change, however it may be conceived, does not involve infusion of the divine essence (_hulūl_) or identification of the divine and human natures (_ittihād_). Both these doctrines are generally condemned. Abū Nasr al-Sarrāj criticises them in two passages of his _Kitāb al-Lumaʿ_, as follows:

“Some mystics of Baghdād have erred in their doctrine that
when they pass away from their qualities they enter into the
qualities of God. This leads to incarnation (_hulūl_) or to the
Christian belief concerning Jesus. The doctrine in question has
been attributed to some of the ancients, but its true meaning is
this, that when a man goes forth from his own qualities and enters
into the qualities of God, he goes forth from his own will and
enters into the will of God, knowing that his will is given to him
by God and that by virtue of this gift he is severed from regarding
himself, so that he becomes entirely devoted to God; and this is
one of the stages of Unitarians. Those who have erred in this
doctrine have failed to observe that the qualities of God are not
God. To make God identical with His qualities is to be guilty of
infidelity, because God does not descend into the heart, but that
which descends into the heart is faith in God and belief in His
unity and reverence for the thought of Him.”

In the second passage he makes use of a similar argument in order to refute the doctrine of _ittihād_.

“Some have abstained from food and drink, fancying that
when a man’s body is weakened it is possible that he may lose
his humanity and be invested with the attributes of divinity.
The ignorant persons who hold this erroneous doctrine cannot
distinguish between humanity and the inborn qualities of humanity.
Humanity does not depart from man any more than blackness departs
from that which is black or whiteness from that which is white,
but the inborn qualities of humanity are changed and transmuted
by the all-powerful radiance that is shed upon them from the
divine Realities. The attributes of humanity are not the essence
of humanity. Those who inculcate the doctrine of _fanā_ mean the
passing-away of regarding one’s own actions and works of devotion
through the continuance of regarding God as the doer of these
actions on behalf of His servant.”

Hujwīrī characterises as absurd the belief that passing-away (_fanā_) signifies loss of essence and destruction of corporeal substance, and that ‘abiding’ (_baqā_) indicates the indwelling of God in man. Real passing-away from anything, he says, implies consciousness of its imperfection and absence of desire for it. Whoever passes away from his own perishable will abides in the everlasting will of God, but human attributes cannot become divine attributes or _vice versa_.

“The power of fire transforms to its own quality anything that
falls into it, and surely the power of God’s will is greater than
that of fire; yet fire affects only the quality of iron without
changing its substance, for iron can never become fire.”

In another part of his work Hujwīrī defines ‘union’ (_jamʿ_) as concentration of thought upon the desired object. Thus Majnūn, the Orlando Furioso of Islam, concentrated his thoughts on Laylā, so that he saw only her in the whole world, and all created things assumed the form of Laylā in his eyes. Some one came to the cell of Bāyazīd and asked, “Is Bāyazīd here?” He answered, “Is any one here but God?” The principle in all such cases, Hujwīrī adds, is the same, namely:

“That God divides the one substance of His love and bestows a
particle thereof, as a peculiar gift, upon every one of His friends
in proportion to their enravishment with Him; then he lets down
upon that particle the shrouds of fleshliness and human nature
and temperament and spirit, in order that by its powerful working
it may transmute to its own quality all the particles that are
attached to it, until the lover’s clay is wholly converted into
love and all his acts and looks become so many properties of love.
This state is named ‘union’ alike by those who regard the inward
sense and the outward expression.”

Then he quotes these verses of Hallāj:

“Thy will be done, O my Lord and Master!
Thy will be done, O my purpose and meaning!
O essence of my being, O goal of my desire,
O my speech and my hints and my gestures!
O all of my all, O my hearing and my sight,
O my whole and my element and my particles!”

The enraptured Sūfī who has passed beyond the illusion of subject and object and broken through to the Oneness can either deny that he is anything or affirm that he is all things. As an example of ‘the negative way,’ take the opening lines of an ode by Jalāluddīn which I have rendered into verse, imitating the metrical form of the Persian as closely as the genius of our language will permit:

“Lo, for I to myself am unknown, now in God’s name what must I do?
I adore not the Cross nor the Crescent, I am not a Giaour nor a Jew.
East nor West, land nor sea is my home, I have kin nor with angel
nor gnome,
I am wrought not of fire nor of foam, I am shaped not of dust
nor of dew.
I was born not in China afar, not in Saqsīn and not in Bulghār;
Not in India, where five rivers are, nor ʿIrāq nor Khorāsān I grew.
Not in this world nor that world I dwell, not in Paradise, neither
in Hell;
Not from Eden and Rizwān I fell, not from Adam my lineage I drew.
In a place beyond uttermost Place, in a tract without shadow
of trace,
Soul and body transcending I live in the soul of my Loved One anew!”

The following poem, also by Jalāluddīn, expresses the positive aspect of the cosmic consciousness:

“If there be any lover in the world, O Moslems, ’tis I.
If there be any believer, infidel, or Christian hermit, ’tis I.
The wine-dregs, the cupbearer, the minstrel, the harp, and
the music,
The beloved, the candle, the drink and the joy of the
drunken--’tis I.
The two-and-seventy creeds and sects in the world
Do not really exist: I swear by God that every creed and
sect--’tis I.
Earth and air and water and fire--knowest thou what they are?
Earth and air and water and fire, nay, body and soul too--’tis I.
Truth and falsehood, good and evil, ease and difficulty from first
to last,
Knowledge and learning and asceticism and piety and faith--’tis I.
The fire of Hell, be assured, with its flaming limbos,
Yes, and Paradise and Eden and the Houris--’tis I.
This earth and heaven with all that they hold,
Angels, Peris, Genies, and Mankind--’tis I.”

What Jalāluddīn utters in a moment of ecstatic vision Henry More describes as a past experience:

“How lovely” (he says), “how magnificent a state is the soul
of man in, when the life of God inactuating her shoots her along
with Himself through heaven and earth; makes her unite with, and
after a sort feel herself animate, the whole world. He that is here
looks upon all things as One, and on himself, if he can then mind
himself, as a part of the Whole.”

For some Sūfīs, absorption in the ecstasy of _fanā_ is the end of their pilgrimage. Thenceforth no relation exists between them and the world. Nothing of themselves is left in them; as individuals, they are dead. Immersed in Unity, they know neither law nor religion nor any form of phenomenal being. But those God-intoxicated devotees who never return to sobriety have fallen short of the highest perfection. The full circle of deification must comprehend both the inward and outward aspects of Deity--the One and the Many, the Truth and the Law. It is not enough to escape from all that is creaturely, without entering into the eternal life of God the Creator as manifested in His works. To abide in God (_baqā_) after having passed-away from selfhood (_fanā_) is the mark of the Perfect Man, who not only journeys _to_ God, _i.e._ passes from plurality to unity, but _in_ and _with_ God, _i.e._ continuing in the unitive state, he returns with God to the phenomenal world from which he set out, and manifests unity in plurality. In this descent

“He makes the Law his upper garment
And the mystic Path his inner garment,”

for he brings down and displays the Truth to mankind while fulfilling the duties of the religious law. Of him it may be said, in the words of a great Christian mystic:

“He goes _towards_ God by inward love, in eternal work, and he
goes _in_ God by his fruitive inclination, in eternal rest. And
he dwells in God; and yet he goes out towards created things in a
spirit of love towards all things, in the virtues and in works of
righteousness. And this is the most exalted summit of the inner
life.”[28]

[28] Ruysbroeck, quoted in E. Underhill’s _Introduction to Mysticism_, p. 522.

ʿAfīfuddīn Tilimsānī, in his commentary on Niffarī, describes four mystical journeys:

The _first_ begins with gnosis and ends with complete passing-away (_fanā_).

The _second_ begins at the moment when passing-away is succeeded by ‘abiding’ (_baqā_).

He who has attained to this station journeys in the Real, by the Real, to the Real, and he then is a reality (_haqq_).[29] Thus travelling onward, he arrives at the station of the _Qutb_,[30] which is the station of Perfect Manhood. He becomes the centre of the spiritual universe, so that every point and limit reached by individual human beings is equally distant from his station, whether they be near or far; since all stations revolve round his, and in relation to the _Qutb_ there is no difference between nearness and farness. To one who has gained this supreme position, knowledge and gnosis and passing-away are as rivers of his ocean, whereby he replenishes whomsoever he will. He has the right to guide others to God, and seeks permission to do so from none but himself. Before the gate of Apostleship was closed,[31] he would have deserved the title of Apostle, but in our day his due title is Director of Souls, and he is a blessing to those who invoke his aid, because he comprehends the innate capacities of all mankind and, like a camel-driver, speeds every one to his home.

[29] See p. 155 above.

[30] See p. 123.

[31] _I.e._ before the time of Mohammed, who is the Seal of the Prophets.

In the _third_ journey this Perfect Man turns his attention to God’s creatures, either as an Apostle or as a Spiritual Director (Sheykh), and reveals himself to those who would fain be released from their faculties, to each according to his degree: to the adherent of positive religion as a theologian; to the contemplative, who has not yet enjoyed full contemplation, as a gnostic; to the gnostic as one who has entirely passed-away from individuality (_wāqif_); to the _wāqif_ as a _Qutb_. He is the horizon of every mystical station and transcends the furthest range of experience known to each grade of seekers.

The _fourth_ journey is usually associated with physical death. The Prophet was referring to it when he cried on his deathbed, “I choose the highest companions.” In this journey, to judge from the obscure verses in which ʿAfīfuddīn describes it, the Perfect Man, having been invested with all the divine attributes, becomes, so to speak, the mirror which displays God to Himself.

“When my Beloved appears,
With what eye do I see Him?
With His eye, not with mine,
For none sees Him except Himself.”
(Ibn al-ʿArabī.)

The light in the soul, the eye by which it sees, and the object of its vision, all are One.

We have followed the Sūfī in his quest of Reality to a point where language fails. His progress will seldom be so smooth and unbroken as it appears in these pages. The proverbial headache after intoxication supplies a parallel to the periods of intense aridity and acute suffering that sometimes fill the interval between lower and higher states of ecstasy. Descriptions of this experience--the Dark Night of the Soul, as it is called by Christian authors--may be found in almost any biography of Mohammedan saints. Thus Jāmī relates in his _Nafahāt al-Uns_ that a certain dervish, a disciple of the famous Shihābuddīn Suhrawardī,

“Was endowed with a great ecstasy in the contemplation of Unity
and in the station of passing-away (_fanā_). One day he began to
weep and lament. On being asked by the Sheykh Shihābuddīn what
ailed him, he answered, ‘Lo, I am debarred by plurality from the
vision of Unity. I am rejected, and my former state--I cannot find
it!’ The Sheykh remarked that this was the prelude to the station
of ‘abiding’ (_baqā_), and that his present state was higher and
more sublime than the one which he was in before.”

Does personality survive in the ultimate union with God? If personality means a conscious existence distinct, though not separate, from God, the majority of advanced Moslem mystics say “No!” As the rain-drop absorbed in the ocean is not annihilated but ceases to exist individually, so the disembodied soul becomes indistinguishable from the universal Deity. It is true that when Sūfī writers translate mystical union into terms of love and marriage, they do not, indeed they cannot, expunge the notion of personality, but such metaphorical phrases are not necessarily inconsistent with a pantheism which excludes all difference. To be united, here and now, with the World-Soul is the utmost imaginable bliss for souls that love each other on earth.

“Happy the moment when we are seated in the Palace, thou and I,
With two forms and with two figures but with one soul, thou and I.
The colours of the grove and the voice of the birds will bestow
immortality
At the time when we come into the garden, thou and I.
The stars of heaven will come to gaze upon us;
We shall show them the Moon itself, thou and I.
Thou and I, individuals no more, shall be mingled in ecstasy,
Joyful and secure from foolish babble, thou and I.
All the bright-plumed birds of heaven will devour their hearts
with envy
In the place where we shall laugh in such a fashion, thou and I.
This is the greatest wonder, that thou and I, sitting here in the
same nook,
Are at this moment both in ʿIrāq and Khorāsān, thou and I.”
(Jalāluddīn Rūmī.)

Strange as it may seem to our Western egoism, the prospect of sharing in the general, impersonal immortality of the human soul kindles in the Sūfī an enthusiasm as deep and triumphant as that of the most ardent believer in a personal life continuing beyond the grave. Jalāluddīn, after describing the evolution of man in the material world and anticipating his further growth in the spiritual universe, utters a heartfelt prayer--for what?--for self-annihilation in the ocean of the Godhead.

“I died as mineral and became a plant,
I died as plant and rose to animal,
I died as animal and I was man.
Why should I fear? When was I less by dying?
Yet once more I shall die as man, to soar
With angels blest; but even from angelhood
I must pass on: all except God doth perish.
When I have sacrificed my angel soul,
I shall become what no mind e’er conceived.
Oh, let me not exist! for Non-existence
Proclaims in organ tones, ‘To Him we shall return.’”

BIBLIOGRAPHY

_A._ GENERAL

Tholuck, F. A. G., _Ssufismus sive Theosophia Persarum pantheistica_
(Berlin, 1821).

In Latin. Out of date in some respects, but still worth reading.

Palmer, E. H., _Oriental Mysticism_ (Cambridge, 1867).

A treatise on Persian theosophy, based on a work by Nasafī.

Von Kremer, A., _Geschichte der herrschenden Ideen des Islams_
(Leipzig, 1868), pp. 52-121.

A brilliant sketch of the origin and development of Sūfism.

Goldziher, I., _Vorlesungen über den Islam_ (Heidelberg, 1910), pp.
139-200.

An account of Sūfī asceticism and mysticism by the greatest
living authority on Islam.

Goldziher, I., _Muhammedanische Studien_ (Halle, 1888-90), Part ii.,
pp. 277-378.

Gives full details concerning the worship of Moslem saints.

Macdonald, D. B., _The Religious Life and Attitude in Islam_ (Chicago,
1909).

A valuable introduction to the study of the moderate type of
Sūfism represented by Ghazālī. The chapters on psychology are
particularly helpful.

Iqbal, Shaikh Muhammad, _The Development of Metaphysics in Persia_
(London, 1908), pp. 96 ff.

Gibb, E. J. W., _History of Turkish Poetry_ (London, 1900-1909), vol.
i. pp. 15-69.

Outlines of Persian philosophic mysticism.

Browne, E. G., _Literary History of Persia_ (London, 1902), vol. i. pp.
416-444.

Brown, J. P., _The Dervishes, or Oriental Spiritualism_ (London, 1868).

Unscientific, but contains much interesting material.

Depont, O., and Coppolani, X., _Les Confréries religieuses musulmanes_
(Algiers, 1897).

A standard work on the Dervish Orders.

_B._ TRANSLATIONS

Hujwīrī, _Kashf al-Mahjūb_, translated by R. A. Nicholson (London,
1911).

The oldest Persian treatise on Sūfism.

ʿAttār, _Le Manticu ’ttair ou le Langage des Oiseaux_, translated, with
an essay on the philosophical and religious poetry of Persia, by
Garcin de Tassy (Paris, 1864).

Jalāluddīn Rūmī, _Masnavī_, abridged translation by E. H. Whinfield,
2nd ed. (London, 1898).

_Masnavī_, Book i., translated by Sir James Redhouse (London, 1881).

_Masnavī_, Book ii., translated with commentary by C. E. Wilson
(London, 1910).

_Selected Odes from the Dīvāni Shamsi Tabrīz_, Persian text with
English translation, introduction, and notes by R. A. Nicholson
(Cambridge, 1898).

Mahmūd Shabistarī, _Gulshani Rāz_, Persian text with English
translation, introduction, and notes by E. H. Whinfield (London,
1880).

A versified exposition of the chief Sūfī doctrines. It should be
read by every one who is seriously interested in the subject.

Jāmī, _Lawāʾih_, Persian text with translation by E. H. Whinfield and
Mīrzā Muhammad Kazvīnī (London, 1906).

A prose treatise on Sūfī theosophy.

_Yūsuf and Zulaikha_, translated into verse by R. T. H. Griffith
(London, 1882).

One of the most famous mystical love-romances in Persian
literature.

Ibn al-ʿArabī, _Tarjumān al-Ashwāq_, a collection of mystical odes.
Arabic text with translation and commentary by R. A. Nicholson
(London, 1911).

INDEX

(Titles of books, as well as Arabic and Persian technical terms, are printed in italics.)

_Abdāl_, 124.

ʿAbdallah Ansārī, 89.

ʿAbd al-Rahīm ibn al-Sabbāgh, 89.

Abraham, 153.

_Abrār_, 124.

Absāl, 116.

Abū ʿAbdallah of Mosul, 144.

Abū ʿAbdallah al-Rāzī, 51.

Abū ʿAlī of Sind, 17.

Abū Hamza, 62.

Abu ’l-Hasan Khurqānī, 87, 133 ff., 145.

Abu ’l-Khayr al-Aqtaʿ, 61.

Abū Nasr al-Sarrāj, 157.

Abū Saʿīd ibn Abi ’l-Khayr, 49, 90, 118.

Adam, 64, 150, 161.

ʿAfīfuddīn al-Tilimsānī, 93, 164, 165. _See_ Niffarī.

_Ahl al-Haqq_, 1.

Ahmad ibn al-Hawārī, 11.

_ahwāl_, 29.

_Akhyār_, 124.

ʿAlāʾuddīn Attār, 143, 144, 146.

Alexander of Aphrodisias, 151.

_Al-Haqq._ See _Haqq_.

ʿAlī, the Caliph, 50, 89, 153.

_Ana ’l-Haqq_, 150 ff.

_Arabian Nights_, the, 63.

ʿArafāt, 91.

_ʿārif_, 29.

Aristotle, 12.

Asceticism, 4, 5, 6, 10, 28 ff., 109.

Ashʿarites, the, 6.

ʿAttār, Farīduddīn, 106.

Audition, 63 ff. See _samāʿ_.

Augustine, St., 118.

Avicenna, 145, 146.

_awliyā_, 122.

_Awtād_, 124.

Bābā Kūhī, 58.

Bābism, 89.

Bactria, 16, 18.

Baghdād, 149, 157.

Balkh, 16.

_baqā_, 18, 61, 149, 159, 163, 164, 167.

Basra, 14.

Bāyazīd of Bistām, 17, 51, 57, 62, 108, 111, 112, 115, 126, 131, 132,
159.

Bektāshīs, the, 95.

Bishr, 105.

Breath, practice of inhaling and exhaling the, 48.

Brown, J. P., 141.

Browne, Professor E. G., 110.

Buddha, 16, 17.

Buddhism, 16 ff., 48. _See_ Nirvāṇa.

Bulghār, 161.

Calendars, the, 90.

Celibacy, condemned by Mohammed, 5.

China, 161.

Christ, 82, 88. _See_ Jesus.

Christianity, 4, 5, 10 f., 82, 111, 112, 151, 157.

Contemplation, 18, 31, 32, 53, 54 ff., 68.

Dancing, 63, 65, 66.

Dante, 100.

Dark Night of the Soul, the, 166.

Davids, Professor T. W. Rhys, 19.

Dāwud al-Tāʾī, 36.

Deification, 149 ff., 163.

_dervīsh_, 37.

Dervish Orders, the, 48, 95, 125, 130, 140 ff.

Dervishes, maxims for, 38, 39.

Devil, the, 49, 53, 69. _See_ Iblīs _and_ Satan.

_dhawq_, 59.

_dhikr_, 10, 45 ff., 63.

Dhu ’l-Nūn the Egyptian, 13, 65, 79, 116, 145.

Dionysius the Areopagite, 12 f., 112.

Directors, spiritual, 31, 32 ff., 89, 140 ff., 165.

_Dīvān of Shamsi Tabrīz_, 95.

Eckhart, 118, 154.

Ecstasy, 59 ff., 118, 132, 133, 166. See _fanā_.

Eden, 161.

Elias, 14.

Emanation, the theory of, 80, 96.

Emerson, 110.

Euchitæ, the, 11.

Evil, the unreality of, 94.

Evil, part of the divine order, 96 ff.

Evolution, of Man, 168.

_fanā_, 17 ff., 28, 48, 59, 60 ff., 144, 149, 155 ff., 164, 165, 166.

_fanā al-fanā_, 61, 79.

_fānī_, 155.

_faqīr_, 37, 38.

_firāsat_, 51.

FitzGerald, Edward, 97.

Frothingham, A. L., 12.

Fudayl ibn ʿIyād, 109.

Gairdner, W. H. T., 16.

_ghaybat_, 59.

Ghaylān, 105.

Ghazālī, 24, 46, 96.

Gnosis, the, 7, 14, 29, 30, 68 ff., 121, 164.

Gnosticism, 14 ff.

Goldziher, Professor I., 14, 16.

Gospel, the, 10.

Hafiz, 88, 102.

_hāl_, 29, 59.

Hallāj, 40, 149 ff., 160.

Hamadhān, 108, 109.

_haqīqat_, 29, 79. _See_ Truth, the.

_Haqq_ = God, 1, 81. See _Ana ’l-Haqq_.

_haqq_, 164.

Hasan ʿAttār, Khwāja, 144.

_hātif_, 63.

Heart, the, a spiritual organ, 50, 68 ff.

Heaven and Hell, subjective, 97, 162.

Hierotheus, 12.

Hind, 105.

Hujwīrī, 31, 32, 54, 63, 65, 92, 110, 123, 124, 126, 159, 160.

_hulūl_, 150, 151, 154, 157.

Hulūlīs, the, 151.

Husayn ibn Mansūr, 149. _See_ Hallāj.

Hypnotism, 139 ff.

Iblīs, 99. _See_ Devil, the.

Ibn al-Anbārī, 51.

Ibn al-ʿArabī, 87, 102, 103, 105, 111, 125, 155, 166.

Ibrāhīm ibn Adham, 14, 16.

_ihsān_, 53.

Illumination, 7, 50 ff., 70.

_ʿilm_, 71.

Immortality, impersonal, 167, 168.

Incarnation, 150, 151, 157. See _hulūl_.

India, 16, 161.

Inge, Dr. W. R., 112, 151, 154.

Iqbal, Shaikh Muhammad, 15.

ʿIrāq, 161, 168.

Islam, relation of Sūfism to, 19 ff., 71 ff., 86 ff., 159, 160.

_istinbāt_, 23, 24.

_ittihād_, 157, 158.

Jabarites, the, 6.

Jacob of Sarūj, 12.

_jadhbat_, 59.

Jalāluddīn Rūmī, 25, 64, 67, 69, 95 ff., 105, 106, 107, 109, 113,
116, 117, 118, 119, 125, 129, 132, 148, 152, 155, 161, 162, 168.

_jamʿ_, 159.

Jāmī, 38, 66, 80, 81, 83, 106, 110, 142, 166.

Jesus, 10, 133, 150, 153, 157. _See_ Christ.

Jews, the, 122.

Jinn, the, 132.

John, St., 82.

John Scotus Erigena, 12.

Joseph, 99, 116.

Journeys, mystical, 163, 164. _See_ Path, the.

Junayd of Baghdād, 34, 35, 52, 88, 91, 112, 113, 131.

Kaʿba, the, 58, 91, 92, 105, 116, 134.

_karāmāt_, 122, 129.

Karma, the doctrine of, 19.

_Kashf al-Mahjūb_, 54, 63. _See_ Hujwīrī.

Khadir, 14, 113, 127 ff.

_khirqat_, 49.

Khizr, 127. _See_ Khadir.

Khorāsān, 161, 168.

Khurqānī. _See_ Abu ’l-Hasan Khurqānī.

_Kitāb al-Lumaʿ_, 28, 121, 130.

_Kitāb al-Tawāsīn_, 150.

Knowledge of God. _See_ Gnosis, the.

Knowledge, religious opposed to mystical, 71.

_Koran_, the, 4, 5, 21, 22, 23, 46, 50, 63, 93, 105, 111, 121, 122,
127.

_Koran_, the, quotations from, 22, 45, 50, 51, 53, 56, 70, 88, 98,
121, 122, 128, 129, 150, 152.

_Koran_, germs of mysticism in the, 21 f.

_lāhūt_, 150.

Lane, Edward, 45.

Law, the religious, 62, 86, 92 ff., 126, 127, 152, 163.

Laylā, 116, 159.

_Legend of the Moslem Saints_, the, 21, 31, 108, 131.

_Lives of the Saints_, by Jāmī, 66. See _Nafahāt al-Uns_.

Logos, the, 51, 82, 83.

Love, divine, 6, 8, 10, 45, 55, 80, 81, 84, 88, 101, 102 ff., 151,
160.

Lubnā, 105.

Macdonald, Professor D. B., 23, 45, 46, 125, 141.

_majdhūb_, 123.

Majduddīn of Baghdād, 66.

Majnūn, 116, 159.

Mālik ibn Dīnār, 36, 37.

Man, the final cause of the universe, 82.

Man, higher than the angels, 69.

Man, the microcosm, 84, 85, 97.

Man, the Perfect, 83, 163, 164, 165.

Mandæans, the, 14.

Mānī, 14.

Manichæans, the, 14.

Mansūr, 153. _See_ Hallāj.

_maqāmāt_, 28.

_maʿrifat_, 29, 71. _See_ Gnosis, the.

Maʿrūf al-Karkhī, 14.

Marwa, 92.

Mary, 133.

_Masnavī_, the, 25, 64, 96, 132, 148. _See_ Jalāluddīn Rūmī.

Massignon, L., 150, 151, 154, 155.

_Mawāqif_, the, 57. _See_ Niffarī.

Mayya, 105.

Mecca, 134.

Meditation, 48 f.

Mephistopheles, 58.

Messalians, the, 11.

Minā, 92.

Miracles, 122, 123, 129 ff., 138, 139 ff.

Mohammed, the Prophet, 5, 20, 21, 35, 39, 44, 49, 51, 52, 53, 68,
70, 73, 82, 90, 93, 111, 129, 131, 141, 144, 164, 165. _See_
Traditions of the Prophet.

Mohammed ibn ʿAlī Hakīm, 143.

Mohammed ibn ʿUlyān, 39.

Mohammed ibn Wāsiʿ, 36, 37, 55.

Mollā-Shāh, 141, 142.

More, Henry, 162.

Mortification, 36, 40 f.

Moses, 127 ff., 152.

_muʿjizat_, 129.

_murāqabat_, 48.

_muraqqaʿat_, 33, 49.

Murjites, the, 5.

_murshid_, 32, 140.

Music, 48, 63 ff.

Muʿtazilites, the, 6.

Muzdalifa, 91.

_Nafahāt al-Uns_, 166. See _Lives of the Saints_.

_nafs_, 39, 40.

Name, the Great, 14.

_nāsūt_, 150.

Neoplatonism, 12 f., 112.

Niffarī, 57, 71, 72, 74, 85, 93, 155, 164.

Nirvāṇa, 18 ff., 61, 149.

Nizāmuddīn Khāmūsh, Mawlānā, 143.

Noah, 153.

Nöldeke, Th., 3.

Not-being, the principle of evil, 94, 97.

_Nuqabā_, 124.

Nūrī, 49, 51, 94, 107, 108.

Omar, the Caliph, 38.

Omar Khayyām, 97.

Pantheism, 8, 18, 21, 23, 79 ff., 109, 133 ff., 148 ff. _See_ Unity,
the divine.

Path, the, 28 ff., 163.

Paul, St., 12, 82.

Pentateuch, the, 22.

Personality, survival of, 167.

Phenomena, the nature of, 82.

Phenomena, a bridge to Reality, 109 f.

Philo, 22.

Pilgrimage, allegorical interpretation of the, 91.

_pīr_, 32, 140.

Plato, 7, 12, 64.

Plotinus, 11, 12, 117.

Porphyry, 12.

Poverty, 36 ff.

Predestination, 4, 6, 36, 98.

Pre-existence of the soul, 15, 64, 116.

Proclus, 12.

Prophet, the. _See_ Mohammed, the Prophet.

Prophets, the, 121, 122, 126, 129, 164.

Purgative Way, the, 32.

Pythagoras, 64.

Qadarites, the, 6.

Qadīb al-Bān, 144.

_qalb_, 50, 68.

Qays, 105.

_qibla_, 134.

Quietism, 4. _See_ Trust in God.

Qushayrī, 126, 130.

_Qutb_, 123, 124, 164, 165.

Rābiʿa, 4, 31, 115.

_rāhib_, 10.

Raqqām, 107.

Reason, the Active, 151.

Recollection, 36, 45. See _dhikr_.

Religion, all types of, are equal, 87.

Religion, positive, its relation to mysticism, 24, 71 ff. _See_
Islam, relation of Sūfism to.

Repentance, 30 ff.

_ridā_, 41.

Rizwān, 161.

Rosaries, used by Sūfīs, 17.

_rūh_, 68.

Rūmī, 153. _See_ Jalāluddīn Rūmī.

Ruysbroeck, 151, 164.

Sābians, the, 14.

Saʿduddīn of Kāshghar, Mawlānā, 142.

Safā, 92.

Sahl ibn ʿAbdallah of Tustar, 46, 52, 56, 63, 130.

Saints, the Moslem, 120 ff.

Saintship, the doctrine of, 62, 120 ff.

Salāmān, 116.

_sālik_, 28.

_samāʿ_, 59, 60, 63 ff.

Saqsīn, 161.

Sarī al-Saqatī, 52, 54, 61, 113.

Satan, 32, 113. _See_ Devil, the.

_Sea, the Revelation of the_, by Niffarī, 74.

Self-annihilation, 140, 141, 168. See _fanā_.

Shāh al-Kirmānī, 52.

Shaqīq of Balkh, 42, 43, 44.

Sheykh, the, 32 ff., 49, 140, 141. _See_ Directors, spiritual.

Shiblī, 34, 35, 48, 52, 55, 62, 116.

Shihābuddīn Suhrawardī, 166.

Shīʿites, the, 89.

_shirb_, 59.

_siddīq_, 14.

Sin, 30 ff.

Singing, 63 ff.

_sirr_, 68, 155.

Soul, the lower or appetitive. See _nafs_.

Spirit, the divine, 150, 151.

Spirit, the human, 51, 68.

Stages, mystical, 28 f., 41.

States, mystical, 29.

Stephen Bar Sudaili, 12.

Sūfī, meaning and derivation of, 3.

Sūfism, definitions of, 1, 14, 25 ff.

Sūfism, the oldest form of, 4 f.

Sūfism, the origin of, 8 ff.

Sūfism, its relation to Islam, 19 ff., 71 ff., 86 ff., 159, 160.

_sukr_, 59.

Sunna, the, 73.

Symbolism, mystical, 28, 102 ff., 116, 117.

_tālib_, 29.

_tarīqat_, 27, 28.

Tauler, 151.

_tawajjuh_, 142, 143.

_tawakkul_, 41.

Tawakkul Beg, 141, 142.

Telekinesis, 145.

Telepathy, 120. See _firāsat_.

_Theology of Aristotle_, the so-called, 12.

Tirmidh, 143.

Tora, the, 105.

Traditions of the Prophet, 23, 39, 44, 49, 51, 53, 54, 68, 80, 83,
100.

Transoxania, 16.

Trust in God, 36, 41 ff.

Truth, the, 29, 30, 79, 92 ff., 152, 163.

Underhill, E., 164.

Union with God, 39, 159, 160. _See_ Unitive State, the, and _fanā_.

Unitive State, the, 148 ff.

Unity, the divine, Sūfistic theory of, 42, 79 ff., 98, 152, 154, 155.

Vedānta, the, 18.

Veils, the seventy thousand, doctrine of, 15 f.

Vision, spiritual, 50.

_wajd_, 59.

_walī_, 122, 123. _See_ Saints, the Moslem.

_waliyyat_, 123.

_waqfat_, 58, 156.

_wāqif_, 156, 165.

Wāsit, 14.

Whinfield, E. H., 64, 132, 148.

_yaqīn_, 50.

Yūsuf, 116. _See_ Joseph.

Zangī Bashgirdī, 66.

Zulaykhā, 116.

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Transcriber's Notes

The following changes have been made to the text as printed:

1. Footnotes have been placed immediately below the paragraph within which they occur, and marked numerically.

2. A period has been removed following the subheading "Gnosticism" (Page 14), for consistency with other subheadings.

3. "strenously" (Page 51) has been corrected to "strenuously".

4. The missing word "I" has been inserted in the passage "the next world belongs to him towards whom I have brought it" (Page 78).

5. The name printed as Fitz Gerald (Page 97) has been rendered as FitzGerald (the usual form for this writer).

6. A single close-quote mark has been inserted after "vouchsafed to him" (Page 127).

7. _karāmat_ (Page 129) has been changed to _karāmāt_.

8. The line beginning "Then he quotes" (Page 160) has had its indentation reduced, as it is part of the main text and not (as printed) part of the preceding quotation.

9. Index: The character ʿ has been added in the words Abu ’l-Khayr al-Aqtaʿ, ʿAlāʾuddīn, _muʿjizat_, Muʿtazilites, and Rābiʿa.

10. Apparent inconsistencies in whether hyphens occur in the word pairs "well known", "passed away", and "above mentioned" are judged to be due to differences in sense, and no amendments have been made.