Chapter V: Conclusion (2)

The system of weights and measures in use throughout the country is largely due to the patient labor of the Coast Survey. Required by law to have standards of length, the only bureau in the public service that required such a measure of precision, it was in the natural order of events that the Superintendent of the Survey should also be charged with the maintenance of standards of Weight and Capacity. The duplication of standards for the use of the people was begun under Mr. Hassler, so long ago that the system has really grown with the population. Wise legislation has fostered the sentiment of uniformity until we are indeed blessed, that wherever we may be in all our broad domain, a pound is a pound, a yard is a yard, and a bushel is a bushel. Manufacturers receive their standards from the Bureau, and in special cases have their products tested and certified. And individuals engaged upon work of great refinement, seek the stamp of the Bureau, also, upon the measures on which they must rely. But so careful is the Bureau to preserve the integrity of its certificate, that the stamp is refused except on weights or measures of approved metal and workmanship. Business men realize in every day life the benefits that have been derived from the simple legislation that inaugurated a supervision over the weights and measures of the country early in her history, though they may have no conception of the endless annoyances they would have been subjected to had the preservation and duplication of standards not been provided for.

The limited time assigned to me will not permit a detailed statement of the researches made by the Bureau in all the different branches of science related to the practical conduct of the work, much less a reference, even, to the many improvements instituted in the practice of surveying. As in the case of the observatories called upon to replace their defective instruments with those more refined, to enable them to furnish star places of sufficient precision to meet the improved method of determining latitude, so has the demand ever been upon the experts employed upon the work in all its branches. The Triangulation, Topography, Hydrography, Astronomy and Magnetics have all passed through several stages of development and improvement in methods and instruments, to meet the requirements put forth by those charged with the conduct of the work, that the full measure of harmony desired should be secured and that they might supply the demands made upon them for information. Imperfect results indicate defects to be remedied, and it is to the credit of those who performed the labor, that they overcame one difficulty after another as they were developed, until now the methods and instruments in the hands of experts, will produce far superior results at a much less cost than was possible at the time the Survey was inaugurated.

The charting of the great ocean currents, has long been an interesting investigation to hydrographers the world over. A sketch of the efforts, projects, and devices that have been resorted to by the Coast Survey in the attempt to unravel the mysteries of the Gulf Stream, would exemplify the continuous demand for improvement and new exertions under which those employed upon the work have always labored, although the full measure of knowledge sought has not yet been obtained. But it is not necessary to enter into these details at this time; let it suffice that many experiments and failures pointed out the path to be followed by subsequent observers, and stimulated to new efforts, until at last appliances have been perfected that have already produced wonders, and it is safe to predict, will ere many years show the ocean currents on the charts of the world with the same relative precision that the currents in a river or harbor can now be indicated. Lieutenant Maury gave us current charts that were a marvel in their day, but his information, or data, was defective, and his conclusions, therefore, only approximate; and how to improve on the data he had, has ever since been the subject of research. The depth of the ocean is necessarily an important factor in the study of its features, as erroneous depths lead to false hypotheses. The introduction by the English of a method of sounding with a wire, has therefore proved an important advance. American officers have perfected the apparatus and severely tested the methods, demonstrating the reliability of the results and the total unreliability of the old deep sea soundings taken with a line. These accurate wire soundings have revealed new facts, disproved old theories and formed new ones to guide future researches. So successful is the improved apparatus that specimens of the bottom of the ocean have been brought up from a depth of five miles. The great value of this system, however, is not confined to the mere ascertainment of depths for the hydrographer and cartographer, as may be readily demonstrated by referring to the reports of the Fish Commissioner. A further step towards improving on Maury's results; the crowning glory that is to shed light on much that has been dark, and trace out those ocean currents we have heretofore vainly endeavored to follow, is found in the invention and devices of a naval officer attached to the Survey, whereby he can anchor the ship in mid-ocean and observe the direction and velocity of the current as from a stationary body, and with a "current meter," also his own invention, determine the same factors hundreds of feet below the surface; thus ascertaining not only the movement at the surface, but the depth of the body of water that moves, and the velocity at various depths, so that finally we have the volume--a quantity--to be followed until it meets other currents or is absorbed in the vast expanse. Already current observations have been recorded with the ship anchored at the great depth of eighteen hundred fathoms; and arrangements have been perfected that it is believed will prove successful at the greater depth of three thousand fathoms. It is impossible with our superficial knowledge of the great ocean currents to estimate the benefits that will be derived from their systematic exploration. It is not probable that the absolute determination of their limits would produce such a revolution in navigation, as was caused by Maury's wind charts, but it is reasonably certain they would prove a valuable assistance to the navigator, and in the great channels and bays of the world increase his facilities for the successful navigation of his ship. Not a little of their value, perhaps the larger part, will be of an indirect nature, resulting from their study by investigators in the natural sciences interested in utilizing the bounties of nature for benefit of man.

The Survey was instituted for the determination of facts, and the presentation of them in an intelligible form. It does not promulgate theories, and has no use for them beyond the assistance they may be in indicating the line of research necessary to ascertain the facts; but rather leaves to the student the formulation of the theories that may be deduced from the facts presented. The publications of the Survey are, therefore, calculated to contain only useful, practical information, on the subjects of which they treat. An examination of them will show this to be the case, and further, that error has more likely been committed by over-caution, than a too free use of the material at command. Doubtless much has been suppressed through lack of means, as it has always been the aim of the Superintendents to expend the appropriations in producing the most useful results, whether in surveys to be made or facts to be published. It necessarily requires many years to complete a precise survey over a large area; and in the work of the Coast Survey, with the people in all sections of our extended coast line petitioning for surveys at the same time, the problem was beset with additional difficulties. Fortunately Congress prescribed the method on which the work should be conducted, and that the method permitted making surveys widely separated with the certainty that they could eventually be joined and form a consistent whole. Soon after the plan of reorganization of 1843 had been adopted, surveying parties were on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts at many points; the principal harbors and headlands with outlying shoals were first surveyed and it was but a few years before charts of them were published. The less important shores between these points were left for future work, but Hydrographic examinations or Nautical surveys, were made of them, and preliminary charts of long stretches of coast were issued, to be followed when the surveys had been completed by the finished chart of reliable data. So elastic was the system adopted for the conduct of the work, that its availability was limited only by the annual appropriations. Soon after the annexation of Texas surveying parties were on that coast, and on the acquisition of California a few years subsequently parties were soon at work there also; and after the close of the war and purchase of Alaska, the immense field thus opened was attacked with equal promptness, and a reconnaissance made that resulted in a map of considerable accuracy. As the precise surveys were extended the charts and plans published from the preliminary surveys were withdrawn, the new charts necessarily having later dates.

The original surveys of the Atlantic and Gulf coasts are now practically completed, but very little more remaining to be done in a few comparatively unimportant localities. On the Pacific coast precise surveys supplemented by careful reconnaissance of less important sections, define nearly the whole outline, excepting Alaska, but a great deal of work is still required to obtain the full measure of information necessary to accurately chart it. And in Alaska, Nautical surveys have developed long stretches of the "Inland passage" and the most important anchorages, supplementing the general reconnaissance of the whole coast line. A very large proportion of our shores, however, are subject to such radical changes from natural causes, that the survey of the coast can never be brought to final completion. Examinations and re-surveys are as essential as was the original work, if the material already acquired is to be maintained in the full measure of its usefulness, and commerce is to continue to reap the legitimate benefit of the expenditures already incurred. Fortunately the survey has been conducted on such sound principles it meets the increasing requirements for accuracy demanded by the navigation of to-day, as fully as it did the more simple needs of the navigator of forty years ago, and it is fairly believed, whatever may be the necessities of the future, that it will still supply the information desired.

The Surveys are published in four hundred and fifty charts designed to meet the various needs of the Navigator and Civil Engineer, for either general or local purposes; over thirty thousand copies of these are issued annually and there is a steadily increasing demand.

The assistance rendered to the armies and fleets of the Union, in the late Civil War, is a chapter in the history of the Survey that should not be forgotten. The office in Washington was beset with demands for information from all over the country, for descriptions not of the coast alone, but all sections of the interior representing the seat of war. Fortunately the experts were there who, under the direction of able chiefs, could collect and compile such material as was available. The labor of the office in this cause resulted in the publication of a series of "War Maps" of the interior, for which there is frequent demand even at the present day. This was all additional work to a force already overburdened in the preparation of manuscript maps and special information, compiled from the reports of the Field parties; especially of those localities that had only recently been surveyed. And in all the din and excitement of the call to arms, with hosts of stalwart, honest men assembled around him, that might give in their learning the wisdom of the world, the controlling mind of the Survey, that had labored diligently and sought knowledge patiently, was a chosen counsellor of the Chief of the Nation. Declining military honors, the profession in which he had been educated, he devoted himself with renewed energy to assisting the nation's efforts in those special duties he knew so well how to perform. A patriot himself of the purest type, he inspired those around him by his ennobling spirit and zeal in the cause.

An average of twenty parties were maintained with the Army and Navy during all the years of the war, rendering services of acknowledged value to the military forces. An officer of the Coast Survey piloted the fleet into Port Royal; another led the Iron Clads in the attack on Sumter; a third stationed the fleet in the bombardment of Jackson and St. Philip; and a fourth rendered signal services in the assault on Fort Fisher. They were on the Peninsula, guides in the wilderness on the retreat to Malvern Hill; at Chickamauga, Knoxville, Missionary Ridge; the march to the Sea and pursuit through the Carolinas; on the Red river; before Petersburgh; in the Sounds of North Carolina; the Sea Islands of Georgia and Florida and the swamps of Louisiana; and, wherever they went, few in numbers though they were, they gained honor for their cause and credit for their Chief.

The Survey of the Coast has excited the admiration of the whole civilized world for its thoroughness and accuracy, and has not been excelled by the most advanced nations. It has justly been claimed to be a scientific work, as well as a practical one, for science has guided those who have conducted it and led them through the fields of their labors on the only sure basis to produce knowledge. And the great knowledge that has been acquired by its scientific prosecution, is beyond comparison with the little that would have resulted had it been conducted on the less thorough methods of Nautical Surveying that have been so earnestly advocated. We cannot compute the value of what has been learned in dollars and cents; that it has saved to the Nation many times over, all that it has cost, does not admit of a doubt. Its educational influence has been widespread, extending beyond the seas, and coming back to us with cheering words of encouragement and praise. Practical men utilizing the results of the great work in the business affairs of life, use no stinted phrases in the encomiums they bestow upon it; Military men compelled to rely upon it in the perils of warfare, have not found it wanting, and have given only praise for the great help it was to them; Scientific men, ever watchful of that which is true, have approved it the world over, and cite it as an example of the great profit that may come to a people, free to utilize Science in the conduct of practical work. Our institutions of learning have adopted its publications in text-books. Our merchants venture millions of dollars daily on the veracity of its statements, and our mariners risk their lives on the truthfulness of the Surveys. It has added to the prosperity of the nation in peace--to her glory in war; and when history shall record its awards to our people, there will be no page of the galaxy with more honor than that which bears tribute to the genius of American Science, in the work of the Coast Survey. From ignorance most profound we have been raised to knowledge almost perfect; and well may the commercial communities by their associations and exchanges bear the testimony to its value that they do, and have done in times past; as might the whole people for the wise legislation that established the work, that has defended it, and we may hope will perpetuate it for its inestimable benefits to them all.

THE SURVEY AND MAP OF MASSACHUSETTS.

BY HENRY GANNETT.

The Geological Survey is engaged in making a map of the United States. This work was commenced as an adjunct to the geological work, and was rendered necessary by the fact that, except in limited areas, no maps of the country on any but the smallest scales were in existence. While these maps are thus primarily made to aid in the geologic work and in the delineation of geologic results, they are being made of such a character as to meet all requirements which topographic maps on their scales should subserve.

The work is being carried on in various parts of the country and is being prosecuted on a considerable scale, the annual output being between 50,000 and 60,000 sq. miles of surveyed area. Commenced in 1882, the work has been extended over more than 300,000 sq. miles at the present time. Of this work the survey of Massachusetts forms a part.

In some of its features this survey was an experiment. It was the joint work of the State and the United States, and, so far as I know, was the first example of such joint work. In the summer of 1883 the U. S. Geological Survey commenced topographic work within the State, the scale adopted being very nearly 2 miles to an inch. Only a beginning was made during the season, and in the following winter the Governor of the State recommended to the legislature that if practicable advantage be taken of the opportunity, and an arrangement for coöperation be made between the State and the Geological Survey, by which a map upon a larger scale and with a greater degree of detail might be obtained as a result of this survey. Accordingly, after some correspondence with the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey, the legislature authorized the appointment of a commission, with power to make an arrangement with the Director of the Geological Survey looking toward the result above indicated, and appropriated $40,000, being half the estimated cost of the survey upon the larger scale, $10,000 of which was to be available the first year and $15,000 in each of the two subsequent years. The following is the text of the bill, which is in many respects a model legislative document:

COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS.

_Resolve_ to Provide for a Topographical Survey and Map of the Commonwealth. (Chapter 72, 1884.)

_Resolved_, That the governor, with the advice and consent of the council, be and is hereby authorized to appoint a Commission to consist of three citizens of the Commonwealth, qualified by education and experience in topographical science, to confer with the director or representative of the United States Geological Survey, and to accept its coöperation with this Commonwealth in the preparation and completion of a contour topographical survey and map of this Commonwealth hereby authorized to be made. Said Commission shall serve without pay, but all their necessary expenses shall be approved by the governor and council, and paid out of the treasury. This Commission shall have power to arrange with the Director or representative of the United States Geological Survey concerning this survey and map, its scale, method, execution, form and all details of the work in behalf of the Commonwealth, and may accept or reject the plans of the work presented by the United States Geological Survey. Said Commission may expend in the prosecution of this work a sum equal to that which shall be expended therein by the United States Geological Survey, but not exceeding ten thousand dollars, during the year ending on the first day of June, eighteen hundred and eighty-five, and not to exceed the sum of fifteen thousand dollars in any one year thereafter, and the total cost to the Commonwealth of the survey shall not exceed forty thousand dollars.

In pursuance of this resolution Gov. Robinson appointed the following gentlemen as commissioners on the part of the State: Gen. Francis A. Walker, President of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Mr. Henry L. Whiting, Assistant U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey and Prof. N. S. Shaler of Harvard College. The Director of the Geological Survey, upon being notified of this action, laid before the commissioners a proposition for a joint survey in the following terms:

1. It is proposed to make a topographic map of the State of Massachusetts, the expense of which shall be borne conjointly by the Geological Survey and the State of Massachusetts.

2. The Borden triangulation and the Coast and Geodetic Survey triangulation will be utilized as far as possible, and additional triangulation will be made to such extent as may be necessary.

3. The topographic work of the Coast and Geodetic Survey will be utilized as far as it extends.

4. The survey will be executed in a manner sufficiently elaborate to construct a topographic map on a scale of 1:62,500.

5. The topographic reliefs will be represented by contour lines with vertical intervals varying from ten to fifty feet, as such intervals are adapted to local topography.

6. As sheets are completed from time to time copies of the same will be transmitted to the commission.

7. When the work is completed and engraved for the Geological Survey, the Commission, or other State authorities, may have, at the expense of the State, transfers from the copper plates, thus saving the State the cost of final engraving.

8. The survey will be prosecuted at the expense of the Geological Survey for the months of July, August and September. During the last half of the month of September the Commission shall examine the work executed up to that time, and if the results, methods and rates of expenditure are satisfactory to the Commission, the expenses of the work for the month of October shall be borne by the State of Massachusetts, for the month of November by the Geological Survey, and the work thereafter shall continue to be paid alternately by months, by the Geological Survey, and the State of Massachusetts severally. But as the larger expense incident to the beginning of the work is imposed on the Geological Survey, at the close of the work the State of Massachusetts shall pay such additional amount as may be necessary to equalize the expenditures; provided that the total expenditure of the State of Massachusetts shall not exceed forty thousand dollars ($40,000); and if the completion of the survey of the State of Massachusetts and the preparation of the necessary maps on the plan adopted by the survey shall exceed in amount eighty thousand dollars ($80,000), then such excess shall be wholly paid by the Geological Survey.

The commissioners suggested some minor amendments to this proposition, which were accepted, and under these provisions work was commenced and carried forward continuously to its completion. The field work of the state was finished with the close of the season last fall, and the drawing of the maps is now substantially done. The work was done in the field with such accuracy and such degree of detail as to warrant the publication of the map upon a scale of one inch to a mile, or, what is practically the same thing, 1:62,500. The relief of the surface is represented by the contour lines, or lines of equal elevation above sea, traced at vertical intervals of 20 feet. These contour lines, which are becoming a common feature of modern maps, add an additional element. They express quantitatively the third dimension of the country, viz: the elevation. An inspection of such a map not only shows the horizontal location of points, but their vertical location as well. It gives the elevations of all parts of the country represented, above the sea.

The map represents all streams of magnitude sufficient to find place on the scale, and all bodies of water, as lakes, swamps, marshes, etc. In the matter of culture, in which definition is included all the works of man, it seemed desirable to represent only such as are of a relatively permanent nature, and to exclude temporary works, for the very apparent reason that if temporary works were included, the map would be not only a constant subject for revision, but even in the interval between the survey and the publication, the culture might change to a large extent, and the published map be correspondingly incorrect from the outset. In searching for a criterion which could be consistently followed in distinguishing between culture which should and should not be represented, it was found that by limiting the representation to that which may be denominated public culture, that is, that which has relation to communities, as distinguished from individuals, a consistent line could be drawn. Adopting this criterion, the map contains all towns, cities, villages, post offices,--in short, all settlements of any magnitude, all railroads and all roads, with the exception of such as are merely private ways, all public canals, tunnels, bridges, ferries and dams. There were excluded under this ruling isolated houses, private roads, fences and the various kinds of crops, etc. Forest areas are shown. Subsequently, however, in response to the urgent wish of the commissioners, the survey consented to locate the houses upon the maps, although in the engraving these have been omitted. The omission of all private culture leaves the maps very simple and easy to interpret. For convenience the field work was done upon a larger scale than that upon which the maps were to be published, viz: a scale of 1:30,000, or a little more than double the publication scale. The map of the state as planned is comprised in 52 atlas sheets, each of which comprises 15 minutes of latitude by 15 minutes of longitude and an area of about 225 square miles. These sheets upon the scale of publication are about 17½ inches by 13 in dimensions. In two or three cases along the coast it seemed to be in the interest of economy to vary from this arrangement slightly, in order to avoid the multiplication of sheets. Many of the sheets upon the borders of the state project over into other states, and, in cases where the area lying without the state was small, the survey was extended beyond the limits of the state, in order to complete the sheets.

Every map is a sketch, which is corrected by the geometric location of a greater or less number of points. Assuming entire accuracy in the location of the points, that is, assuming that the errors of location of the points are not perceptible upon the map, the measure of accuracy of the map consists in the number of these geometric locations per unit of surface, per square inch, if you will, of the map. The greater the number of these locations the greater the accuracy of the map, but however numerous they may be the map itself is a sketch, the points located being simply mathematical points. Whatever method be employed for making these geometric locations, the sketching is substantially the same everywhere. The methods of making these locations must differ with the character of the country, as regards the amount and form of its relief, the prevalence of forests and other circumstances. There are two general methods of making the geometric locations used in surveying; one, by triangulation; the other by the measurement of a single direction and a distance, which is the method employed in traverse surveying. In practice, the two methods are often combined with one another. Both methods have been employed in Massachusetts. The fundamental basis of the work was the triangulation which had been carried over the state by the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. By this survey points were located at wide intervals over the state. Besides this there was executed between 1830 and 1840, at the expense of the state, a triangulation known as the "Borden Survey." This located a much larger number of points, but less precisely. The Coast and Geodetic Survey kindly undertook the adjustment of this triangulation to an agreement with its own work, and, as many of the lines were common to the two pieces of work, the locations made by the Borden Survey were by this adjustment greatly strengthened. Even after this work was done, however, there remained considerable areas which were destitute of located points, and it became necessary to supplement it. This was done in part by the Coast and Geodetic Survey and in part by the Geological Survey. By these several agencies upwards of 500 points were made available for the use of the topographers. These are in the main well distributed, furnishing upon each sheet a sufficiency, while upon many the number is greatly in excess of the requirements.

The work of location has been done in different parts of the state by different methods as seemed most applicable to the differing conditions of relief, forest covering and culture. Throughout most of the western part of the state the work was done entirely with the plane table, using the method of intersections as the means of location. Each plane table sheet comprised one-half of an atlas sheet, cut along a parallel of latitude. The plane tabler, starting with three or more locations upon his sheet, furnished by the triangulation, expanded over the sheet a graphic triangulation, locating thereby a considerable number of points, before commencing detailed work. This was done as rapidly as possible consistent with a high degree of precision. The reason for covering the sheet with the graphic triangulation beforehand lay in the necessity for locating a considerable number of points before the sheet had opportunity to become distorted by alternations of moisture and drying. This done, the plane tabler went on with his usual routine of work, locating minor points and sketching the topography in contours. The map was as far as possible completed upon the stations, with the country in view. Elevations were determined as the work progressed, with the vertical circle of the alidade, and minor differences of elevation between points whose height was known were measured by aneroid barometer.

In this work several different forms of plane table have been employed. It was commenced with the large heavy movement designed I believe by the Coast and Geodetic Survey. This, however, was found unnecessarily heavy and cumbersome, and it was discovered that the requisite degree of stability could be obtained with much less weight. For this plane table movement there was soon substituted another form in use in the Coast and Geodetic Survey, which is very much lighter. This was soon improved by taking off the slow motion in azimuth, which was found to be unnecessary, and the addition of more powerful clamps, for the purposing of rendering it more stable. A still more stable form, however, coupled with even less weight, was designed by Mr. W. D. Johnson, of the U. S. G. S. and was immediately adopted. This is substantially a modification of the ball and socket movement. It consists of two cups of large size fitting closely to one another and working within one another in such a way as to allow of the adjustment in level, and the clamping of the level adjustment independently of the azimuth movement, clamps for both level and azimuth adjustments being underneath the instrument. This form is extremely stable, admits of quick adjustment and leveling, and it has been from the time of its invention in general use in this state and elsewhere in the Survey.

In the undulating, forest-covered, region in the southeastern part of the state it was found impracticable to use economically the method of intersections, and resort was had to the traverse method for making locations. In this method, as is well known, one station is located from another by the measurement of a distance and direction, the line of stations being connected at each end either upon stations in the triangulation or upon other lines, while from the stations in these traverse lines, points off the lines are located by intersections, if practicable, or by distance and direction measurement. For this kind of work the plane table, at least such a plane table as is generally in use is an inconvenient instrument. The plane table with the telescopic alidade is too cumbersome an instrument to be carried about and set up as frequently as is necessary in this work. Therefore for this purpose theodolites, fitted with stadia wires and stadia rods, have been used. Distances are measured by the angles subtended by the stadia wires upon the rod, whose divisions are of known length, while the directions are measured by the compass attached to the theodolite, and differences of elevation by spirit level and vertical angles. With this instrument lines were run along all the roads and along the principal streams in this part of the state and from these lines the country lying between them was located and sketched.

In the northeastern and in much of the middle portion of the state a mixed method of work was employed, the plane table being used for carrying on the intersection work wherever it could be done, while by traversing the roads, their details, which could not be obtained by the plane table in this region, were reached. These traverses were platted in the office and the maps drawn from notes and sketches made in the field.

The degree of accuracy of the map depends upon the accuracy of the locations, their number and the uniformity of their distribution. Of their accuracy it is only necessary to state that their errors are not sufficiently large to be appreciable upon the scale of the map, for instance the scale being one inch to a mile, an error of 50 feet in the location of a point would be upon the map but one hundredth of an inch,--a barely appreciable quantity, and it is of course easy to make the locations within this limit. Of the number of locations per unit of map surface I shall give statistics drawn from the full experience of the Survey in this state. The area surveyed by the method of intersections exclusively comprises 3,500 square miles, or about two-fifths of the state. In this area 3,123 stations were occupied with the plane table, or slightly less than one to a square mile, or, measured upon the map, one to a square inch. Besides these, 17,846 points were located in this area by intersections, making, with the occupied stations, a total of 20,969 locations within the area, or 6.2 horizontal locations per square inch. In the same area the heights of 34,893 points were measured, being 10 per square inch. I am expressing these figures in terms of inches of the final map, because it is the map with which we are concerned.

The area surveyed by the traverse method is 2500 sq. miles. In this area 5615 miles of traverse lines were run, being 2.2 linear inches per square inch of the map. In running these lines 46,524 stations were made with the theodolite, being 8.3 per linear mile of traverse and 18.6 per sq. inch of map. The number of measurements of height was 92,561, being 37 to the square inch.

The area surveyed by the mixed method comprised 3000 sq. miles. In this 900 stations were made with the plane table, and from them 3718 points were located by intersection, making altogether 4618 points located with the plane table. In addition to this, 6767 miles of traverse were run, being 2.2 linear miles per square mile of area. In these traverses 31,708 instrumental stations were made, or 4.7 per linear mile and 10.6 per sq. mile. The sum of the plane table stations, locations, and the traverse stations, which makes up the total of horizontal locations in this area, is 36,326, being a total of 12.1 points per sq. inch of map. The number of measurements of height in this area is 67,119, being 22.4 per sq. inch. It will be seen that the number of horizontal locations and of height measurements in the area traversed is much greater than in that surveyed by the intersection method, and it might be inferred that the former work is better controlled than the latter. I do not judge, however, that this is the case, owing to the fact that traverse stations are not of as much value for purposes of location as those by intersection. The latter are selected points. The former are not selected points, but on the contrary, a large proportion of them are located simply for carrying forward the line and are of no further service, and very few of them are such as would be fitted for the purpose of controlling areas.

Within the area surveyed by traverse nearly every mile of road has been run. With the exception of those in the cities, nearly every house and every church in the commonwealth has been located, either by intersection with the plane table or by traverse.

The organization of the surveying parties has been of the simplest character. Plane table work has been carried on by one man with an assistant, the latter doing little more than attend the plane tabler and assist him in carrying the instruments. Each of these little plane table parties was furnished with a horse and buggy for transportation. The organization for traverse work has been equally simple, consisting of a traverse man and a rodman. As a horse and buggy would be an impediment in this work, this feature of the outfit has been omitted. In the mixed work the traverse men have been under the immediate control of the plane tabler, so that their movements have been directed by him in detail. The average output per working day of the plane tabler has been for the whole survey 3.1 sq. miles, and of the traverse man 2.8 sq. miles, and, as the expenses of the former have been slightly greater than those of the latter, the cost per square mile of the two methods of work has been substantially the same.

The average cost per square mile of the survey of the State has been a trifle less than $13. This includes the salaries of all men engaged upon the work during the field season, their traveling, subsistence and all other expenses, the salaries of the men engaged in drawing the maps in the office, the cost of supervision and of disbursement,--in short all expenses of whatever character, incurred in the production of the map.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY.

ABSTRACT OF MINUTES.

_First Regular Meeting, Feb. 17, 1888_.--Held in the Law Lecture room of Columbian University, the president, Mr. Hubbard, in the chair.

The president delivered an inaugural address.

Major J. W. Powell lectured on the Physiography of the United States.

_Second Regular Meeting, March 3, 1888_.--Held in the Law Lecture room of the Columbian University, vice-president Bartlett in the chair.

Paper: Patagonia, by Mr. W. E. Curtiss.

_Third Regular Meeting, March 17, 1888_.--Held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, the president, Mr. Hubbard, in the chair.

Paper: Physical Geography of the Sea, by Commander J. R. Bartlett.

_Fourth Regular Meeting, March 31, 1888_.--Held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, the president, Mr. Hubbard, in the chair.

Discussion was had on the proposed Physical Atlas of the United States, participated in by Messrs. Gannett, Gilbert, Ogden, Greely, Marcus Baker, Willis, Bartlett, Merriam, Ward, Henshaw and Abbe.

_Fifth Regular Meeting, April 13, 1888_.--Held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, vice-president Merriam in the chair.

The discussion of the proposed Physical Atlas of the United States was continued, and was participated in by Messrs. Marcus Baker, Greely, Willis, Cosmos Mindeleff, Gilbert Thompson, Kenaston, Gannett and Van Deman.

Paper: The Survey of the Coast, by Mr. Herbert G. Ogden.--(_Published in Vol. 1, No. 1, "National Geographic Magazine."_)

_Sixth Regular Meeting, April 27, 1888_.--Held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, the president, Mr. Hubbard, in the chair.

Papers: The Great Storm of March 11-14, 1888, by Gen. A. W. Greely and Mr. Everett Hayden.--(_Published in Vol. 1, No. 1, "National Geographic Magazine."_)

Geographic Methods in Geologic Investigation, by Prof. W. M. Davis.--(_Published in Vol. 1, No. 1, "National Geographic Magazine."_)

_Seventh Regular Meeting, May 11, 1888_.--Held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, vice-president Merriam in the chair.

Papers: The Survey and Map of Massachusetts, by Mr. Henry Gannett.--(_Published in Vol. 1, No. 1, "National Geographic Magazine."_)

Graphic Triangulation, by Mr. W. D. Johnson.

_Eighth Regular Meeting, May 25, 1888_.--Held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, vice-president Merriam in the chair.

Papers: The Classification of Geographic Forms by Genesis, by Mr. W. J. McGee.--(_Published in Vol. 1, No. 1, "National Geographic Magazine."_)

The Classification of Topographic Forms, by Mr. G. K. Gilbert.

The North Winds of California, by Mr. Gilbert Thompson.

NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY.

CERTIFICATE OF INCORPORATION.

This is to Certify that we whose names are hereunto subscribed, citizens of the United States, and a majority of whom are citizens of the District of Columbia, have associated ourselves together pursuant to the provisions of the Revised Statutes of the United States relating to the District of Columbia, and of an act of Congress entitled: "An Act to amend the Revised Statutes of the United States relating to the District of Columbia and for other purposes," approved April 23, 1884, as a Society and body corporate, to be known by the corporate name of the National Geographic Society, and to continue for the term of one hundred years.

The particular objects and business of this Society are: to increase and diffuse geographic knowledge; to publish the transactions of the Society; to publish a periodical magazine, and other works relating to the science of geography; to dispose of such publications by sale or otherwise; and to acquire a library, under the restrictions and regulations to be established in its By-Laws.

The affairs, funds and property of the corporation shall be in the general charge of Managers, whose number for the first year shall be seventeen, consisting of a President, five Vice Presidents, a Recording Secretary, a Corresponding Secretary, a Treasurer and eight other members, styled Managers, all of whom shall be chosen by ballot at the annual meeting. The duties of these officers and of other officers and standing committees, and their terms and the manner of their election or appointment shall be provided for in the By-Laws.

GARDINER G. HUBBARD. J. W. POWELL.
C. E. DUTTON. HENRY GANNETT.
O. H. TITTMANN. A. H. THOMPSON.
J. HOWARD GORE. A. W. GREELY.
C. HART MERRIAM. HENRY MITCHELL.
J. R. BARTLETT. GEORGE KENNAN.
ROGERS BIRNIE, JR. MARCUS BAKER.
GILBERT THOMPSON.

BY-LAWS.

ARTICLE I.

NAME.

The name of this Society is the "NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY."

ARTICLE II.

OBJECT.

The object of this Society is the increase and diffusion of geographic knowledge.

ARTICLE III.

MEMBERSHIP.

The members of this Society shall be persons who are interested in geographic science. There may be three classes of members, active, corresponding and honorary.

Active members only shall be members of the corporation, shall be entitled to vote and may hold office.

Persons residing at a distance from the District of Columbia may become corresponding members of the Society. They may attend its meetings, take part in its proceedings and contribute to its publications.

Persons who have attained eminence by the promotion of geographic science may become honorary members.

Corresponding members may be transferred to active membership, and, conversely, active members may be transferred to corresponding membership by the Board of Managers.

The election of members shall be entrusted to the Board of Managers. Nominations for membership shall be signed by three active members of the Society; shall state the qualifications of the candidate; and shall be presented to the Recording Secretary. No nomination shall receive action by the Board of Managers until it has been before it at least two weeks, and no candidate shall be elected unless he receives at least nine affirmative votes.

ARTICLE IV.

OFFICERS.

The Officers of the Society shall be a President, five Vice Presidents, a Treasurer, a Recording Secretary and a Corresponding Secretary.

The above mentioned officers, together with eight other members of the Society, known as Managers, shall constitute a Board of Managers. Officers and Managers shall be elected annually, by ballot, a majority of the votes cast being necessary to an election; they shall hold office until their successors are elected; and shall have power to fill vacancies occurring during the year.

The President, or, in his absence, one of the Vice Presidents, shall preside at the meetings of the Society and of the Board of Managers; he shall, together with the Recording Secretary, sign all written contracts and obligations of the Society, and attest its corporate seal; he shall deliver an annual address to the Society.

Each Vice President shall represent in the Society and in the Board of Managers, a department of geographic science, as follows;

Geography of the Land,
Geography of the Sea,
Geography of the Air,
Geography of Life,
Geographic Art.

The Vice Presidents shall foster their respective departments within the Society; they shall present annually to the Society summaries of the work done throughout the world in their several departments.

They shall be elected to their respective departments by the Society.

The Vice Presidents, together with the two Secretaries, shall constitute a committee of the Board of Managers on Communications and Publications.

The Treasurer shall have charge of the funds of the Society, shall collect the dues, and shall disburse under the direction of the Board of Managers; he shall make an annual report; and his accounts shall be audited annually by a committee of the Society and at such other times as the Board of Managers may direct.

The Secretaries shall record the proceedings of the Society and of the Board of Managers; shall conduct the correspondence of the Society; and shall make an annual report.

The Board of Managers shall transact all the business of the Society, except such as may be presented at the annual meeting. It shall formulate rules for the conduct of its business. Nine members of the Board of Managers shall constitute a quorum.

ARTICLE V.

DUES.

The annual dues of active members shall be five dollars, payable during the month of January, or, in the case of new members, within thirty days after election.

Annual dues may be commuted and life membership acquired by the payment of fifty dollars.

No member in arrears shall vote at the annual meeting, and the names of members two years in arrears shall be dropped from the roll of membership.

ARTICLE VI.

MEETINGS.

Regular meetings of the Society shall be held on alternate Fridays, from October until May, inclusive, and, excepting the annual meeting, shall be devoted to communications. The three regular meetings next preceding the annual meeting shall be devoted to the President's annual address and the reports of the Vice Presidents.

The annual meeting for the election of officers shall be the last regular meeting in December.

A quorum for the transaction of business shall consist of twenty-five active members.

Special meetings may be called by the President.

ARTICLE VII.

AMENDMENTS.

These by-laws may be amended by a two-thirds vote of the members present at a regular meeting, provided that notice of the proposed amendment has been given in writing at a regular meeting at least four weeks previously.

OFFICERS.

1888.

_President_.

GARDINER G. HUBBARD.

_Vice Presidents_.

HERBERT G. OGDEN.

J. R. BARTLETT.

A. W. GREELY.