Chapter II: Part 2

The next expedition was sent out by the Bureau of Navigation to China, Japan and the East Indies, Lieut. Com. Green being still in charge. The officers composing the party sailed from San Francisco by mail steamer in April, 1881, for Yokohama, where they joined the U. S. Steamer Palos. From Hong Kong north to Vladivostok in Eastern Siberia the cables were owned by a Danish company. From Hong Kong to the south and west they were the property of English companies. Beginning at Vladivostok observations were made at all stations on the Asiatic coast except Penang, as far as Madras, India. It was intended to try and make some use of the automatic method of receiving time signals, on this work, but on arriving in Japan it was found that the recording instrument used by the Danish company was entirely different from that used by the English lines. It consisted of a series of electro-magnets acting on a single armature, which carried a siphon made of silver. The signals consisted of long and short movements, to one side of the middle line, instead of equal deflections on both sides as in the Thompson recorder. An attempt was made to convert this instrument into a relay, by causing the siphon to make and break a circuit, but it was not successful. The movements of the siphon were not regular enough, and the contact was not firm. Consequently the mirror method of exchanging signals was still adhered to.

The longitude of the position occupied in Vladivostok, had been determined telegraphically from Pulkova, by the Russians, using the land lines across Siberia. The English had also determined the position at Madras, using the cables through the Mediterranean and Red Seas. The work of the United States Expedition joined these two positions, completing a chain of measurements extending over many thousand miles, made by observers of different nationalities in various climates. It was to be expected that considerable discrepancy would be found in the final result, but taking the longitude of Vladivostok as brought from Madras, and comparing it with that determined by the Russians, the difference was only 0^{s}.39. Taking everything into consideration, this result was gratifyingly close. Upon the conclusion of this series of determinations, the connection of Lieut. Commander Green with the work was severed, he receiving his promotion to the rank of Commander.

The next work was under the charge of Lieut. Com. Davis, and consisted in the determination in 1883-84, of positions in Mexico, Central America and the west coast of South America. Cables had just been completed, extending from Galveston, Texas, to Vera Cruz, thence across Mexico to the Pacific and down that coast to Lima, Peru, where connection was made with another system extending to Valparaiso. Galveston was a point determined by the Coast Survey, and the measurement thence to Vera Cruz was the first one made. It was completed in May '83, and in the Autumn of the same year the party proceeded to the South American coast, and stations were established and observations made at various points from Valparaiso to Panama, and at one point, La Libertad, in Central America. It was at first the intention to extend the series across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and connect with Vera Cruz, but lack of time prevented this, and as the station at Panama determined nearly ten years before, afforded a convenient starting point, the idea was abandoned. From Valparaiso, a measurement was made with the coöperation of Dr. Gould to his observatory at Cordova, using the line across the Andes, and exchanging signals automatically. These measurements constituted the final links in a long chain, extending from the prime meridian Greenwich across the Atlantic to the United States, thence via the West Indies to Panama, down the west coast of South America to Valparaiso, across the Andes to Cordova and Buenos Ayres, up the east coast to Pernambuco, across the Atlantic to Lisbon, and thence to Greenwich, altogether a distance of eighteen to twenty thousand miles. The two longitudes of Cordova, as brought from Greenwich by the two routes, differed from each other by only 0^{s}.048, a result which speaks well for the accuracy of the methods employed. When preparations were being made for this expedition, it was determined to accomplish if possible something in the way of getting rid of the personal equation in exchanging signals. An idea which had been suggested by work done by Major Campbell, R. E. in the measurement between Bombay and Aden, seemed to promise well. It was to be used with the siphon or other form of recorder. The ordinary double current cable key with two levers, was arranged with an additional lever in such a manner that while in ordinary use in the telegraph office, it could also be put in circuit with the chronometer and chronograph in the observatory, and a signal sent through the cable would have its time of sending registered on the chronograph. Ordinarily in speaking over a cable line, connection is made in such a way that the current sent does not pass through the recorder at the sending station, as a violent movement of the siphon would result. By means of a shunt, however, it is possible to control this movement somewhat. Suppose now, that the connections at each station are made in such a way, by means of this key and the shunt, that a signal sent from one, is registered on both recorders and on the sender's chronograph. The observers leaving their assistants to take care of the chronographs, go to the respective telegraph offices, and all being ready, the observer A taps his key. This sends an impulse through the cable, which appears on A's recorder, as a violent jump or kick of the siphon. On B's recorder it is registered as a deflection like the ordinary dot or dash, at the same instant is recorded on A's chronograph the time of sending. As soon as B sees the signal on his recorder, he taps his key also registering the signals on both recorders and on his chronograph. A, seeing B's signal again taps his key, and so on, as long as desired. The result is that each observer has a record on his siphon fillet of all signals sent and received, while the times of those he sent are recorded on his chronograph. By the use of the diagonal scale and the Rule of Three, he can without difficulty find the times of the signals received. The siphon recorders are well made, and the paper moves with great regularity. This system was used in the measurement between Galveston and Vera Cruz with great success. It was intended to employ the same method throughout the measurement on the west coast of America, but on arriving at Lima, it was found that the company owning the lines south of that point still used the mirror galvanometer, and it was of course necessary to return to the old method. The improved key was used however, which eliminated the error in sending signals.

After this work was completed and the results published in 1885, nothing was done in this line by the Bureau of Navigation for some years. Upon the return of the writer in the spring of 1888, from a cruise in the South Pacific, he found that the subject of sending an expedition to complete the measurements in Mexico and Central America was under consideration in the Bureau of Navigation and the Hydrographic office. It was finally decided that the work should be done, and the writer was placed in charge. The instruments were brought out of their retirement, and by the aid of the Hydrographic Office a very complete outfit was furnished, and in November of last year a start was made from New York, the expedition proceeding by mail steamer to Vera Cruz. Here the spot occupied by Lieut. Com. Davis in '83 was found, his transit pier, which was still standing was repaired, and instruments mounted. Lieut. Charles Laird, U. S. N., who had been identified with the longitude work since the China expedition in 1881, was left in charge of the observatory at Vera Cruz, and the writer proceeded with his party to the small town of Coatzacoalcos, at the mouth of the river of the same name. This point is about one hundred and twenty miles southeast of Vera Cruz, and is the landing place of the cable. A land line extends from this point to Salina Cruz on the Pacific coast, a distance of about two hundred miles. In exchanging time signals between Vera Cruz and Coatzacoalcos, the automatic method was employed, the cable being short. The old wooden observatories were used at these points, but as they were too heavy for transportation across the Isthmus, tents made especially for astronomical purposes were substituted for them in the observations made on the Pacific coast. The journey across the Isthmus was slow, about two weeks being employed in traveling two hundred miles, though as the route was devious, the actual distance was nearer three hundred. Some of the instruments were heavy, and after being taken in canoes a hundred miles up the Coatzacoalcos river, against a rapid current, they were loaded on a train of pack mules, and carried the rest of the way by land. While the first party was crossing the Isthmus, the other was on its way from Vera Cruz, and being ready at about the same time, a successful measurement was made between Coatzacoalcos and Salina Cruz, exchanging signals automatically. The Coatzacoalcos party then crossed to Salina Cruz, while the other proceeded to La Libertad in Salvador, where the station established in the Spring of '84, was again occupied. The measurement between these places being completed, the Libertad party went on to San Juan del Sur, in Nicaragua, near the terminus of the proposed interoceanic canal. In the measurement between this point and Salina Cruz, as well as in the one preceding, the exchange was effected by mirror signals. This completed the season's work, and the two parties made the best of their way home via Panama, arriving in Washington in April and May respectively. The computation of the observations is not yet complete though well advanced; it was the intention to publish preliminary results this Fall, but owing to lack of time that can not be done.

Another piece of work is laid out for the same party for the coming winter, which is the measurement from Santiago de Cuba, through Hayti and San Domingo to La Guayra in Venezuela, over the cables of a French company, which have just been completed. This work will consume about six months, and the expedition which is to start almost immediately will probably return in April or May next. The determination of the longitude of La Guayra will give a point from which many other measurements may be made along the north coast of South America, furnishing material for extensive corrections of the charts of that region.

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Having presented an outline of the work done so far, as well as that proposed for the near future, I will now mention some of the trials and tribulations, as well as the pleasures experienced in carrying out the object desired in an expedition of this kind. The greatest politeness and kindness have always been experienced from the officials and employees of the various telegraph companies over whose lines work has been carried on. The government officials of the foreign countries visited, have also invariably shown the utmost politeness, but sometimes this politeness has been visibly tinged with suspicion. The measurements in Peru and Chili were made amid the closing scenes of the war between the countries. Upon the arrival of the expedition in Lima, an interview was had with the Chilian Commander-in-Chief who had possession of the city, and permission was requested and readily granted to occupy a station in Arica. Upon arriving at the latter place some days after, the Chilian governor in charge was found to have instructions to facilitate the work, and readily granted permission to establish the observatory in a convenient locality, but flatly refused to allow a wire to be extended to the telegraph office, and also refused to forward to his immediate superior, a request that it might be allowed. He evidently supposed the party were emissaries of the United States, sent to treat secretly with conquered Peru, but how he expected this was to be done remains a secret. By a vigorous use of the telegraph in communicating with the U. S. Ministers to both Chili and Peru, his objections were silenced, and the wire was put up. The observatory at Arica was erected on the side of a hill to the windward of the town, because it afforded a clear view, and was less dirty than other eligible sites. It also was a safe position in case of a possible earthquake or tidal wave, by which Arica had already been twice visited with disastrous effect. In digging for a foundation for the transit pier, several mummies of the ancient Peruvians were unearthed at a depth of a foot. They had evidently belonged to the poorer class of people, as their wrappings were composed of coarse mats, instead of the fine cloth with which the wealthier people were usually interred. One was the body of a female with long hair, which had been turned to a reddish yellow color by the alkali in the soil. The whole coast of Peru is barren and desolate, except in the river valleys, it being seldom visited by rain, while it is nearly always overhung with heavy clouds and fog banks, which render astronomical work exceedingly difficult. Even when partially clear in the day time, it generally becomes cloudy at night. Many times the observer would be at his place before sunset ready to seize the first suitable star revealed by the darkness, only to be baffled by thick banks of cloud which would cover the entire sky in from five to ten minutes.

In northern Peru, with a latitude of about five degrees south, is the town of Paita. It is an assemblage of mud-colored houses, at the foot of high, mud colored bluffs. On top of these bluffs is a perfectly barren table land extending inland and up and down the coast for many miles. Before visiting it the observers were informed that its one good point was the perfect astronomical weather which always prevailed. Clouds were unknown, and such a thing as rain had never been heard of. The extreme dryness of the atmosphere was so favorable to health that no one ever died, and when a consumptive invalid was imported by the inhabitants in the hope of starting a cemetery, he blasted their expectations by recovering. Judge then of their feeling, when upon arriving at this delightful place, they were met with the information that while it was true that the sky was, in general, perfectly clear both by night and day, yet about once in seven years, rain could be expected, and that the year then present was the rainy one. And sure enough it did rain. The usually dusty streets became rivers and quagmires, the rocky valleys in the vicinity were transformed into roaring torrents, and the table land usually an arid desert became a swamp with a rank growth of vegetation. However by using every opportunity and snatching stars between clouds and showers the work was finally completed.

Upon arriving in Panama shortly after this experience, the party was met with the pleasant intelligence that yellow fever was prevalent, and that the foreigners were dying like sheep. Nearly every day of the party's stay, some one died of sufficient importance to have the church bells tolled for his funeral, while of the ordinary people little notice was taken. Every morning, the writer remembers passing a carpenter's shop where nothing was made but coffins, and the supply was evidently not equal to the demand, for finally the proprietor began to import them, apparently by the ship load. The weather however was delightful, and the nights were the most perfect, astronomically speaking, that could be desired.

The observers who went from Japan to Vladivostok were obliged to wait several weeks at Nagasaki, before an opportunity offered for proceeding to their destination, and when they finally arrived, the getting away again was a problem. Communication with the outside world by water was only open during the summer months, and even then it was more accidental than otherwise. The party established the observatory however, and settled down to work, letting the future take care of itself. In the early part of the work, rather an amusing incident occurred. As the community was full of all sorts and conditions of men, Koreans, Chinamen and Russian exiles, the last not political but criminal offenders; it was thought wise to have a sentry stationed at the observatory to guard against any possible harm to the instruments. So the Governor of the town was asked to furnish a soldier for that purpose, which request was readily granted, and one night the sentry was posted with orders to let no one touch the observatory. These orders he construed literally, and when the observers appeared to commence their night's work, he kept them off at the point of the bayonet. His only language being Russian with which the observers were not familiar, it was impossible to explain the true state of affairs, and it was only after hunting up an interpreter and communicating with his commanding officer that an entry was finally effected. A good deal of bad weather was experienced at this place, but at the end of six weeks enough observations had been made for the required purpose, and the party was fortunate enough to secure passage to Nagasaki, in a small steamer that had brought a load of coal out from Germany.

In the expedition to the Asiatic coast one of the most interesting experiences was the trip to Manila in the Philippine Islands. This is quite a large town when intact, but a great portion of it is usually in the condition of being shaken down by an earthquake or blown over by a typhoon. The inhabitants are full of energy, however, and find time between downfalls to build up again. The cable from Hong Kong lands at a point about one hundred and twenty miles from Manila, and the writer was directed to proceed thither, with a chronometer and chronograph for the purpose of transmitting time signals. The first part of the journey was made in a small coasting steamer uncommonly dirty, and occupied about thirty-six hours. At the end of that time the village of Sual in the Gulf of Lingayen was reached. This was distant from the cable station about thirty miles, and the remainder of the journey was made in a native boat, with mat sails, and bamboo outriggers, part of the time through channels between numerous small islands and for some distance in the open sea. The progress was slow, but it was a pleasant way of traveling, except for the sleeping accommodations which were primitive; consisting of a palm leaf mat thrown over a platform made of split bamboo, in which all the knots had been carefully preserved. About three days, including stoppages, were consumed in this thirty mile voyage, and the traveler finally reached his destination to be received with the greatest hospitality by the staff at the telegraph station, and just in time to allay the fears of the observers at Hong Kong and Manila who had begun to think him lost. About three weeks were spent here, and as the work only occupied a short time at night, the days were pleasantly passed in exploring the surrounding country, making friends with the natives, shooting and photographing the scenery. The return to Manila was by the same route and occupied nearly the same length of time.

The measurement from Singapore to Madras was over one of the longest lines of cable ever used for this purpose, the distance being about 1600 nautical miles. The Atlantic cables used by Dr. Gould in 1866 were a little more than 1,850 miles in length. There was an intermediate station at Penang about 400 miles from Singapore, where all the work of the line was repeated. For the longitude measurement however the cables were connected through to form an unbroken line. The mirror was the only instrument that could be used and even with this the signals were feeble and much affected by earth currents.

The observing parties have never been troubled by wild beasts, but while at Saigon in Cochin, China, a rifle was always kept handy for use in case of the appearance of a tiger. The observatory here was located near the edge of a jungle, and alongside the telegraph station, on the veranda of which a large tiger had been shot by one of the operators only a short time before.

In the expedition of last winter to Mexico and Central America, the principal annoyance was caused by insects which were numerous and malignant. At Coatzacoalcos they were found in the greatest abundance, though the whole isthmus of Tehuantepec is alive with them. Fleas and mosquitoes were expected of course, but added to this were numerous others much worse. Of the family of "ticks" four varieties were seen and felt, ranging in size from almost microscopic to a length of a third of an inch. The most numerous were about as large as a grain of mustard seed, and one who walked or rode through the bushes or high grass would find himself literally covered. One of the worst insects encountered was the "nigua" which is in appearance something like a small flea. It burrows into the toes and soles of the feet, lays a number of eggs, which hatch and produce painful sores. A gruesome story is current in that region, about an enthusiastic English naturalist, who found specimens of these encamped in his feet, and concluded to take them home in that way, in order to observe the effect, but died of them before reaching England. All the party were afflicted with these pests, but were always fortunate enough to discover them and dig them out with the point of a knife before any bad results were experienced. The village of Coatzacoalcos is prettily situated, the climate, especially in winter, is very agreeable and the river offers a commodious harbor, but as long as the insects are so unpleasant, few people will care to live there if they can avoid it.

There have been directly determined by these various expeditions, about forty secondary meridians. Many more positions depend upon these, so they may be said to have made a large addition to our accurate knowledge of the earth's surface. Telegraphic facilities are being constantly extended, and as the Bureau of Navigation has now a very complete outfit for this work, which only needs occasional repairs, it is hoped that it may be kept up for some time in the future.

REPORT--GEOGRAPHY OF THE LAND.

BY HERBERT G. OGDEN.

In my annual report a year ago, I presented to you briefly our knowledge of the great geographic divisions of the world. It might be instructive to continue the subject this evening by relating the additional information we have acquired during the year; but as the items are not of great value and the most important are more in the form of rumors than of facts, I have restricted myself more to the interests of the western hemisphere, and particularly to those affecting the United States.

In Europe we have still the visions of war that have agitated her peoples for years past; the decapitation of the Turk, and division of his European empire to appease the ambition of "friendly powers." It is not until we pass by this civilized section and reach the far east, that we recognize the dawn of progress in the year; the birth of events that may in time increase the happiness and welfare of many people.

The influence of the United States in extending the principle so early enunciated, "that all men are born free and equal" has been most marked. The western hemisphere is virtually under the rule of men chosen by the people, and though we cannot claim that in all instances the result has been satisfactory, there has, nevertheless, been a steady advance; political disturbances have become less frequent and with prolonged tranquillity the arts of peace, commercial enterprise and internal improvements, have received an impetus that will wed more strongly the advocates of personal liberty to their ideal God.

Educated men in both hemispheres predict ultimate success or failure for our form of government and advance cogent arguments in support of the views they express. The complications of the great economic questions that confront us afford texts for arguments that cause many to doubt the wisdom of entrusting the welfare of a great nation to the votes of the masses; nevertheless, the people are firm in the belief that they can conduct their own affairs; and those whom they intrust with temporary power are seldom so short-sighted as not to realize that a violation of the trust will meet with certain retribution. Those appointed to govern must also be teachers, and if in the enthusiasm of a new creed it shall be shown they have taught the people error instead of truth, a national uprising sweeps them from control, and for a time conservatism becomes the guide. To the people of the old world, the apparent prosperity that has followed our system doubtless receives the most earnest thought; and the contrast to their own condition excites their desires to experiment themselves in more liberal forms, and reap the rewards they believe have followed such measures in America.

While American methods may extend their influence in this manner to European nations, and even to the nations of Asia, we should not rest self-confident of the superiority of our institutions, and that they alone are the permeating influence that inspire so many with the thoughts of liberal government that brings disquiet to crowned heads. The application of recent discoveries and inventions, to the affairs of every-day life, have raised the power of the individual and caused such a general increase of intellectual vigor, that independence of rulers by divine right is no longer a cause for wonder, but is considered by the intelligent as the natural state for the modern man.

Since the expedition of Com. Perry our influence in Japan has been marked, and this most progressive of the Eastern nations has sought counsel and advice from new America and the men who constitute the nation. But the progressive people of these isles have been too earnest in their efforts to advance, to rely solely upon one set of men, or the example of one nation, and we find they have been gathering in that which is good from all sections of the civilized world. The record of their progress, however, bears the stamp of America, and we may justly claim that it was the influence of freedom that first led these interesting people into the paths they have followed with such gratifying results, and which many believe will culminate in the establishment of a powerful and enlightened nation. Recent advices announce the formation of a legislative body, organized on the principle of the Congress of the United States--a step that indicates Japan may yet find a place in the category of states that are destined to exert a marked influence in the control of human affairs.

How different is the neighboring empire of China. Within a stone's throw, almost, of the advancing civilization of Japan, inhabited by a people of marked ability but restricted by race traditions to a condition of inactive conservatism, that seems almost to preclude the possibility of material advance in centuries to come. The population of this empire is so great that the density has been averaged at two and three hundred persons per square mile, and in some districts that it is as great as seven hundred. We can readily conceive the poverty that must exist in such an average population for such an extended area. And we may realize the cries of distress that come from great calamities by the experiences in our own history, even modified as they have been by our superior facilities for affording relief, and the comparative insignificance of the numbers who have required assistance. Recall for a moment one of the great floods of the Yellow river, where thousands have perished and tens of thousands have been rendered destitute within a few hours, and conceive the sufferings, hardships, and greater number that must yet succumb before those who survived the first great rush of the waters can be furnished relief; remembering that the means of intercommunication are the most primitive, and that the immediate neighbors of the sufferers are in no condition to render more assistance than will relieve the most urgent necessities of a comparatively insignificant number. May we not, then, if only from a humanitarian point of view, greet with pleasure the reception of the imperial decree authorizing the introduction in the empire of useful inventions of civilized man, and directing the construction of a great railroad through the heart of the empire, with Pekin as one of the termini. This road will cross the Yellow river, affording relief to this populous district in time of disaster; and it is understood will eventually be extended to traverse the empire, forming a means of rapid communication between distant provinces. We may believe, also, that in time it will be the medium of opening to us a new region for geographic research, not in the celestial empire alone, but also in the rich fields of central Asia that are now being occupied by Chinese emigration.

Doubtless the greatest geographic discoveries of the age have been made in central Africa. It was but a few years ago that we were in doubt as to the true sources of the Nile, and the location of the mouths of great rivers that had been followed in the interior, was as much a mystery as though the rivers had flowed into a heated cauldron and the waters had been dissipated in mist, by the winds, to the four corners of the earth. It was then that grave fears were aroused for the safety of Livingstone, who had done so much, and whose efforts it was hoped would yet solve the great geographic problems his travels had evolved. A man, patient in suffering, and with a tenacity of purpose that overcomes the greatest obstacles, he had endeared himself to those who sought knowledge from his labors, and it was, therefore, with unfeigned regret that men spoke of the possibility that calamity had overtaken him, and that the work of the last years of his life would possibly be lost. The editor of an influential New York journal, sympathizing with the deep interest that was felt, and doubtless actuated to some extent by the notoriety success would bring to his journal, determined upon organizing an expedition to ascertain Livingstone's fate, and thus brought before the world the hitherto obscure correspondent Henry M. Stanley. The rare good judgment that selected Mr. Stanley for the command of such a hazardous expedition was more than demonstrated by subsequent events. The first reports that Livingstone had been succored were received with incredulity, but as the facts became known incredulity gave way to unstinted praise, and Mr. Stanley was accorded a place among those who had justly earned a reward from the whole civilized world.

A few years after his return from his successful mission for the relief of Livingstone, he was commissioned in the joint interests of the _New York Herald_ and _London Daily Telegraph_, to command an expedition for the exploration of central Africa. Traversing the continent from east to west, he added largely to our knowledge of the lake region and was the first to bring us facts of the course of the Congo. This expedition placed him before the world as one of the greatest of explorers, and it seems, therefore, to have been but natural that, when a great humanitarian expedition was to be organized nearly ten years later to penetrate into the still unknown regions of the equatorial belt for the relief of Emin Pasha, that he should have been selected to command it. How faithfully he performed this task we are only just learning, and our admiration increases with every new chapter that is placed before us. That he was successful in the main object of the expedition is self-evident, having brought Emin Pasha and the remnant of his followers to the coast with him. The expedition has also been fruitful in geographic details, and though we have not as yet the data to change the maps to accord with all the newly discovered facts, we may feel assured of their value. Perhaps the best summary of the more important discoveries can be given in the explorer's own words, which I have taken from one of his recent letters:

"Over and above the happy ending of our appointed duties we have not been unfortunate in geographical discoveries. The Aruwimi is now known from its source to its bourne. The great Congo forest, covering as large an area as France and the Iberian peninsula, we can now certify to be an absolute fact. The Mountains of the Moon, this time beyond the least doubt, have been located, and Ruwenzori, 'The Cloud King,' robed in eternal snow, has been seen and its flanks explored and some of its shoulders ascended, Mounts Gordon Bennett and MacKinnan Cones being but great sentries warding off the approach to the inner area of 'The Cloud King.'

"On the southeast of the range the connection between Albert Edward Nyanza and the Albert Nyanza has been discovered, and the extent of the former lake is now known for the first time. Range after range of mountains has been traversed, separated by such tracts of pasture lands as would make your cowboys out west mad with envy. And right under the burning equator we have fed on blackberries and bilberries and quenched our thirst with crystal water fresh from snow beds. We have also been able to add nearly six thousand square miles of water to Victoria Nyanza.

"Our naturalist will expatiate upon the new species of animals, birds and plants he has discovered. Our surgeon will tell what he knows of the climate and its amenities. It will take us all we know how to say what new store of knowledge has been gathered from this unexpected field of discoveries. I always suspected that in the central regions, between the equatorial lakes, something worth seeing would be found, but I was not prepared for such a harvest of new facts."

The exploration of Africa, however, has not been confined to the central belt. Expeditions have been developing the southern section of the continent; the French have been active in the watershed of the Niger, and in the east there seems to have been a general advance of English, Germans, Portuguese and Italians. The latter, it is stated, have acquired several million square miles of territory in Mozambique, an acquisition that would indicate our maps have heretofore given this particular division of territory an area much too insignificant.

We also learn that Capt. Trevier, a French traveler, has crossed the continent by ascending the Congo to Stanley Falls, thence southeasterly through the lake region to the coast at some point in Mozambique, in a journey of eighteen months; a journey that must bring us a harvest of new facts.

On the western hemisphere there has been considerable activity in a variety of interest, tending to develop the political, commercial and natural resources.

Four new states have been admitted to the American Union, and measures have been introduced in the Congress looking to the admission of two more. These acts mark an era in the progress of the great northwest significant of a national prosperity that a generation ago would have been deemed visionary. We have also to record a tentative union formed by the Central American states, that at the expiration of the term of ten years prescribed by the compact, we may hope will be solidified by a bond to make the union perpetual. In South America a bloodless revolution presented to the family of nations a new republic in the United States of Brazil. All thoughtful men must at least feel a throb of sympathy for Dom Pedro, who in a night lost the allegiance of his people and the rule of an empire. Sympathy, perhaps, that he does not crave, for history affords us no parallel of a monarch who taught his people liberalism, and knowing it could but lead to the downfall of his empire. It seems to be true, also, that although depriving him of power, the people whom he loved and ruled with such liberality, have not forgotten his many virtues, and that the Emperor Dom Pedro will be revered in republican Brazil as heartily as though his descendants had been permitted to inherit the empire. We cannot tell if the new order of affairs will prove permanent, but the education of the Brazilians in the belief that a republic was inevitable, gives strong grounds to hope the experiment of self-government will not be a failure. The influence the successful establishment of this republic is to exert in other parts of the world is a problem that has already brought new worries to the rulers of Europe, and not without a reason, for a republican America is an object lesson that the intelligence of the age will not be slow to learn.

The assembly of the "Three Americas Congress" in Washington, is also an event that may wield an influence in the future. Perhaps it may not be seen for years to come, but it lays the foundation for commercial and geographic developments that would redound to the credit of the western hemisphere.

We have seen during the year the virtual failure of the Panama Canal company; for it is unreasonable to believe that a corporation so heavily involved with such a small proportion of its allotted labor accomplished, can secure the large sum that would be requisite to continue operations to completion. The failure of this company has imparted a fresh impetus to the Nicaragua scheme and ground was broken on this route in October last. As the Nicaragua route presents many natural advantages and is free from such stupendous engineering works as were contemplated at Panama, we may hope for its completion. The surveys were conducted with deliberation and have evidenced great skill on the part of those who supervised them, so that we may reasonably expect the construction will proceed with the same care, and resolve the question of success into the simple problem of cost.

A partial account has been furnished by Dr. Nansen of his journey across Greenland a year ago. The result will be disappointing to those who anticipated the discovery of open country with green fields and the general reversal of the Arctic conditions. He describes the region as being covered with a great shield of ice, dome-like in shape, and which he estimates to have a maximum thickness of six or seven thousand feet. For a great part of his journey he traveled at an elevation of about eight thousand feet, and the cold at times was so intense that he believes the temperature must have been at least 50° below zero on the Fahrenheit scale. No land was visible in the interior and he estimates the highest mountains must be covered with at least several hundred feet of snow ice. The expedition was one of great danger, and we may say was accomplished only through the good judgment of the explorer. The scientific results have not yet been considered, but the explorer suggests it is an excellent region to study an existing ice field, and estimates that persistent observations might prove productive of value in the science of meteorology.

The Canadians have been active during the year in the exploration of the vast territory to the northward of their supposed habitable regions. In the report of Dr. Dawson relating the result of his labors in the northwest, up to the date of its compilation, we find much that is new and a great deal that is of interest. We cannot enter into the details of his itinerary, but we may note as one fact that surely will excite surprise, the conclusion he reaches that there is a territory of about 60,000 square miles, the most part to the northward of the sixtieth parallel, in which agricultural pursuits may be successfully followed in conjunction with the natural development of the other resources of the territory. This does not imply that it may become an agricultural region, and should hardly be construed as more than a prediction that the pioneers who attempt to develop the region need not die of starvation.

We have also to record as a matter of interest in the Arctic region, the successful establishment of the two parties sent out by the United States to determine the location of the 141st meridian, the boundary line between Alaska and the British Provinces north of Mt. St. Elias. The parties are located on the Yukon and Porcupine rivers above their confluence at Ft. Yukon. They are well equipped, and it is expected they will explore a considerable territory and bring back with them valuable information beyond the special object of the expedition. Indeed, it may be said, this is but the beginning of a thorough examination of Alaskan territory, that will eventually form a basis for the demarkation of the international boundary. This country is full of surprises in its details, and whatever examinations are made must be thorough to be effective. Only recently, a small indentation, as it has been carried on the maps since Vancouver's time, and known as Holkham Bay, has been found to be a considerable body of water, extending back from Stephen's passage in two arms, each nearly thirty miles in length and nearly reaching the assumed location of the Alaska boundary. So perfectly is the bifurcation and extension of the arms hidden by islands, that it was only during the past summer when in the regular course of work the shores of the bay were to be traversed, that the extent of the bay became known.

The determination of the boundaries of the land areas on the surface of the earth has ever been a matter of the greatest interest to the students of geography. It was the incentive that led the daring navigators of old to undertake the perilous voyages that in these days read like romances; and in the light of the more perfect knowledge we now have of the hidden dangers to which they were exposed, we may pass by their shortcomings in the admiration we must feel for their heroism and endurance. To these men we owe our first conception of the probable distribution of the areas of land and water, but the lines they gave us were only approximate; and had not scientific effort followed in their tracks we may reasonably believe the progress of civilization would have been retarded by generations. True it is, also, that even to-day we have not that precise knowledge that is requisite for the safety of quick navigation, nor to calculate the possibility of the future improvement of undeveloped regions. The commerce of the world in coming years will demand the accuracy in the location of distant regions as great as we now have in civilized centres, for time will be too precious to lose a day of it in the precautions that the navigator must now follow in approaching undeveloped coasts. That these truths have guided those who seek to do their share for the future in the labor of the present, we have ample evidence in the activity of all civilized governments during the last century. It is a source of shame and infinite regret that our own government has done so little in this vast field: that the intelligence of our people has not been awakened to put forth their energy in so good a cause, that would eventually increase their own prosperity. But we have not been altogether inactive and complaint must be in the quantity, not the quality of our labors. The establishment of "definite locations," for the control of sections and regions, is the first step in eliminating errors that have been committed and in providing greater accuracy in the future. At a recent meeting of the Society we had a paper presented on this subject, from which we can judge of the good work that has been done by our navy in these determinations, and gain an insight of the similar labor that has been prosecuted by other nations. The bands of electric cables that girdle the earth, afford the most approved means of ascertaining the longitudes of these positions; and if we but study a cable chart, it will be found the work yet to be accomplished before the facilities the cables now afford are exhausted, is not inconsiderable. We hope, therefore, this good work may be continued, and that surveying and charting the regions thus approached, will shortly follow. There is much labor of this character still required on our own continent, and we will be delinquent in our duty as a progressive people if we do not follow the good beginning already made to its legitimate conclusion.

The duties of government are manifold, and for the benefit of those governed must include legislation that will make manifest the natural resources of the State. The geographic development and political advancement of our own country in the century of our national existence, is a marked instance of the wisdom of preparing for the future by such acts as legitimately fall within the province of legislation.

The new nation began her existence under extraordinary circumstances. With only an experimental form of government, she was to develop a vast region of unknown resources; but happily imbued with the belief that "knowledge is power," it was not long before systematic efforts were put forth to learn the wealth we had and how it might be utilized. The congress of the confederation provided the first act in 1785, for the organization of the land surveys and land parcelling system, that title to the unoccupied territories in the west might be securely vested in the individual. We have record of the stimulus this act gave to the settlement of a large territory, and raised the demand for surveys in the still further west, developing the geography of a vast region that has since become the home of millions of people. The original act was amended as early as 1796, and since then has frequently been added to in the effort to meet the new conditions evolved in the rapid development of the country. Other great regions were explored by the army, sometimes under special acts, until finally we had learned with some degree of reliability, the general adaptability of our whole territory. The discovery of the great mineral wealth of the west, and the improved means of communication afforded by the construction of continental railways, however, imposed new conditions and it was found more detailed information would be necessary to meet the demands of the increasing population. We thus reached another stage where expeditions equipped for scientific investigation were organized, and through their labors brought us knowledge of still greater value; and to-day we see these merged into one body in the geological survey, whose special duty is the scientific exploration and study of our great territory.

While this had been passing in the interior, bringing life to unoccupied regions, the districts on the coast that had long been settled, were also struggling with new problems. The material progress of the civilized world, and the pressure from the regions behind them that had been recently peopled, demanded greater commercial facilities. Early in the century, almost coincident with the establishment of the land surveys, provision had been made for the survey of the coasts, and although through various causes it was not vigorously prosecuted until a third of the century had passed, when the time came for its economic use in meeting the new conditions imposed by the general progress of the nation, the knowledge had been gained that was essential to advance and develop the great interests affected. The improvements required, however, could only be secured through active exertion, the actual work of man; but so pressing has been the want and so persistent has been the labor, that should we chart the results it would be a surprise to those who believe the "local geography" has not been changed.

The demands upon the older communities arising from the increase in commercial and industrial enterprise, have caused them too, to feel the want of more detailed information of their surroundings, and they have, in consequence, undertaken more precise surveys of their territories, generally availing themselves of the assistance offered by the general government. This work will doubtless extend in time to all the States, and be followed, when its value has been made manifest, by the detailed surveys of precision that have been found necessary as economic measures in the civilized States of the old world.

It is rarely we can foresee the full results of great national enterprises; the special object that calls forth the exertion may be readily comprehended, but the new conditions evolved from success, and sometimes from only the partial accomplishment of the original design, may be factors in governing the future beyond our power to surmise.

The work of improving the navigation of the Mississippi River, is an instance of this character so marked, and apparently destined to extend its influence through so many generations, that a brief record of the change it has effected in geographic environment will not be without interest, and, perchance, not without value.

The area drained by the Mississippi river and tributaries, is forty-one per cent. of the area of the United States, exclusive of Alaska; and by the census of 1880 the population of this great district was forty-three per cent. of the whole Union. It seems probable that a large proportion of this population is directly interested in the river system, and if we add to it the number of those who are indirectly benefited, we should doubtless find a majority of our people more or less dependent upon its maintenance. It is only to the alluvial valley, however, the great strip from Cairo to the Gulf, that I wish particularly to call your attention this evening. This is really the great highway for traffic; the cause of the great work that has been prosecuted; and the scene of the geographic development that will mark an epoch in the history of the river.

Ten years ago the importance of the improvement of this water-way was so forcibly impressed upon Congress, that an act was passed organizing a "Mississippi River Commission," to make an exhaustive study of the whole subject and submit plans for the improvement of the river and to prevent the destructive floods that are of almost annual occurrence. Or in the language of the act: "It shall be the duty of said Commission to take into consideration and mature such plan or plans, and estimates, as will correct, permanently locate, and deepen the channel and protect the banks of the Mississippi river; improve and give safety and ease to the navigation thereof; prevent destructive floods; promote and facilitate commerce, trade, and the postal service."