Chapter II: Part 2

There being no protection from the wind this side of Point Barrow, I ordered full speed so as to get to the point and beyond it before the almost inevitable shift to the northward which would bring the ice down and shut us out. The leads between the ice-floes became narrower and fewer in number, and but little better outlook was found as we edged inshore as far as the shoal water would allow us to go. At this time we sighted as many as eight polar bears on the ice, but this was no time to hunt "bear." Coming to the end of our lead we rammed through some pack-ice into another one, which, however, again led into water too shoal for us. Finding from my perch aloft that the ice seemed even heavier to the west, I determined to stand back to the eastward into the more open water we had left by the lead we had come through; but it was too late: this lead had closed and we were prisoners in the pack. There being no other place to go, I reluctantly selected the largest pool, or pocket, got out our ice-anchors, and made fast to a heavy floe, to await further developments. It was found to be in slow motion, and four times during the night we had to move to avoid the heavy floes closing in around us. From this time, the 19th, until the morning of the 24th, we were close prisoners in the heavy pack which had set down with the wind, now northerly, between Point Barrow and Point Tangent.

In the words of the Ancient Mariner of Coleridge:

"The ice was here, the ice was there,
The ice was all around;
It cracked and growled, and roared and howled,
Like noises in a swound."

By incessant watchfulness, almost constant movement, vigorous ramming, faithful working of the engines, and (most important of all) a favorable shift of wind, the good ship, under Divine Providence, escaped without damage or accident. Fortunately within easy reach of land and but twenty-five miles from Point Barrow refuge-station, I had no undue anxiety for life; but I have no hesitation in stating that the readiness, endurance, and subordination of the officers and men of the ship shown in the bringing out of the ship intact from the ice pack, after nearly five days' imprisonment, entitle them to great credit from the proper authorities and justify their commanding officer in the present expression of his high appreciation of their conduct and his warm feelings toward themselves.

About noon of the 25th of August, after a night of hard ramming, we anchored off the west side of Point Barrow, greeted by salutes from the whalers anchored there and by the hearty congratulations of the masters, who soon came on board and learned for the first time that Mackenzie Bay had been reached.

We found that the sailing fleet had gone to the westward, after having been shut in by the ice coming down on Point Barrow and Cape Smyth for several days, during our absence. The few whalers that remained had been watching us from their crows' nests during our imprisonment, but were unable, of course, to afford us any assistance, each ship having to work out her own salvation: companion-vessels are of great service only in case of damage or abandonment. Fortunately, the steam-whalers remaining behind us did not have the pack set down upon them in the shallow bights in which they were cruising, and the long continued north-easter which aided us in our escape enabled them to find leads to get through, not very long after we had escaped. We remained at Point Barrow for a week until they had all returned, except the two most easterly ones, left at Herschel island. As their return was so uncertain, at the end of a week I dropped down to the house of refuge at Cape Smyth, landing provisions to fill the deficiency in their stores, and went to the westward, first going to Icy cape to erect a needed beacon as a warning of the vicinity of Blossom shoals.

Leaving this vicinity on the 5th of September for the northward and westward, and rounding Blossom shoals, we stood to the north, reaching the supposed vicinity of the edge of the ice pack that night. As the nights were now dark we lay-to until morning, when the rapid fall of the temperature of the water and the lessening wind gave indications of its proximity, and a half hour's steaming brought us to the rugged white outline of the pack. Along this we skirted, having reached our highest north (less than 72° N. latitude).

All of that day and the next we continued our course, sighting a portion of the sailing fleet of whalers on the 7th. Communicating with them of our proposed movements and whereabouts during the rest of September and the beginning of October, we then stood to the westward. I must not forget to mention an interesting incident that occurred. A schooner stood down to us from the fleet, and was recognized as the schooner Jane Grey, picked up by the Thetis when under the command of my predecessor the previous summer in the ice--abandoned. She had been righted, pumped out, repaired, and restored to her owner, who had literally sold his farm and put his all into the vessel. As he came within hail our notification was given him, but I noticed that he fairly danced with impatience during its delivery, which was accounted for at the end of the message by his bringing out his men, who were gathered behind the foresail, and giving hearty and prolonged cheers for the Thetis which fairly rang in the silent Arctic air. To this we responded and then went on our way.

We now left the pack and steered through open water for Herald island, which we sighted at half past twelve the next day, the 8th of September; as we approached it closely the bareness and forbidding appearance, which had been concealed at first sight by the bluish dimness of the outline, became very marked. Its sides were almost inaccessible, except from the western end, and it was free from ice, an almost exceptional state of affairs. In close seasons it is impossible to reach it, and, even more than Point Barrow, it may be shut out of the world by ice that refuses to move during the short summer.

We passed the island late in the afternoon within a comparatively short distance, standing on to the west with the hope of seeing Wrangel land before dark. At half past five land was reported ahead from aloft, and soon the high snowy peaks and mountainous outline of Wrangel land was sighted from deck. It stood out beautifully in the late Arctic afternoon, and as we approached it more closely its outline became more and more fantastic and brilliant. At sunset we were a little over ten miles distant, and at dark, as we turned to the southeast for Point Hope, we exchanged hearty congratulations upon our successful passage from Mackenzie Bay to Wrangel land. Arriving at Point Hope upon the evening of the 10th of September, we found that many of the hunting parties had returned from the interior, and preparations were going on for the winter season.

The natives of Point Hope, like the Eskimos generally of northwestern Alaska, have no tribal or other form of government except what exists by control of the head man, oomalik, or chief, whose superiority arises from his wealth and influence. The previous chief had lived a life that made him a terror to the community. His rule was by force alone and by the influence of the rifle, which was his inseparable companion. After a career distinguished for license, murder and robbery, he had come to a timely end by being assassinated by the brother of a wife he was tormenting to death. Since his death, up to the time of our stay in September, anarchy had prevailed. On account of the very indifferent treatment received by the survivors of the wrecked whaler "Little Ohio" from the Eskimos at Point Hope the previous winter, I determined to appoint a head man or chief who would be charged with the responsibility and duty of caring for any shipwrecked persons or destitute whites. Anokolut, who was appointed by me and whose appointment was afterwards confirmed by the Governor of Alaska, had married the niece of the previous chief, and was the best whaleman and hunter of the district. He had been in the employ of the whaling station established the previous year at Point Hope, and had been satisfactory in all his dealings with the whites. His wife was a very superior woman, and their desire for civilized usages was so great that a bread-pan of tin, some granite-ware bowls, and candles, were given and eagerly accepted as contributing to make their domestic lives more comfortable and civilized. An urgent request was made for a cooking-stove, which I promised to give them if I should return the following summer.

The Eskimo lamp which serves as a light, and to some extent as a stove, is a crescent-shaped stone utensil with a shallow trough scooped out; this is a receptacle for the whale-oil, the wick being some native moss laid along the edge of the lamp and trimmed from time to time, the supply of oil being kept up by a lump of blubber suspended over the lamp. The light being indifferent, candles are welcomed as a great improvement and a marked relief to the over-taxed eyes of the men and women during the long nights of the Arctic winter.

During our stay at Point Hope we found much of interest in connection with the Eskimos living there. Their long winters give them an opportunity to keep alive their traditions in their daily meetings in the council-house, and they give an account of their early days in this wise: In the beginning the people had heads like ravens, with eyes in the upper part of their breasts. All the world at this time was wrapt in gloom, with no change of day and night. At that time there lived a powerful chieftain on top of the highest peak. In his hut were suspended two balls that were considered very precious and were therefore carefully guarded. One day, the chief being absent and the guards asleep, some children who had long admired the beautiful balls knocked them down with a stick and they rolled across the floor of the hut and down the side of the mountain. The noise awakened the guards, who hurried after them, while their extraordinary beauty attracted the attention of the people, who also rushed after them, a wild struggle ensuing for their possession; this ended in the breaking of the balls. Light sprang from one and darkness from the other; these spirits of light and darkness claimed sole dominion, but, neither yielding, a compromise was made by which they agreed to an alternate rule. The violent struggle for the mastery so disturbed the world that the anatomy of the people and the surface of the earth were both changed. Light being upon the earth, men began to catch whales in the sea and to carry the flesh and bones to their mountain-homes. One family wandering over the country recently risen from the sea came down upon Point Hope: finding vegetation springing up and whales abundant, they built a hut and made it their home. From this originated the settlement at Point Hope. Their modern history goes on in this wise: Point Hope being favorably situated for whaling and hunting the seal and walrus and for obtaining the reindeer, it naturally became a center of power and population. In the latter part of the eighteenth century, as well as can be determined, the village upon Point Hope, known by the natives as Tigara, had a population of 2,000 souls, with six council-houses. At that time the Eskimos residing upon the Noatok, or Inland river, began to encroach upon the territory of the Tigaramutes until matters came to the pass that about the beginning of this century a great land- and boat-fight took place between the Tigaramutes and the Noatokmutes near Cape Seppings, in which the Tigaramutes were defeated and forced to yield a large portion of the territory formerly controlled by them. So crushed were the Tigaramutes that they lost one-half of their population, which led to the gradual abandonment of all the out-standing villages. Since this time the population has gradually decreased, the diminution being materially aided by the contact of whites, who are principally represented here by the crews of the whaling ships, rendezvousing during the early summer.

As a rule the Arctic coast Eskimos are short in stature, the average height of ten men measured at Point Hope being 5 feet 5.8 inches, and of ten women, 5 feet 2.4 inches. The legs are short in comparison to the length of the body and are always much bowed, this being due to the manner in which they are carried in infancy upon their mother's back, the legs being brought tightly around under the mother's arms. The feet and hands of the women are generally well shapen and small.

All of the Eskimos have good teeth, but as they are subjected to severe usage they deteriorate in every way. They are used as substitutes for pincers, carpenter's vices, and fluting machines. They are used in drawing bolts, untying knots, holding the mouth-piece of a drill, shaping boot-soles, and stretching skins. When they become uneven from constant use in this way, the unevenness is corrected by a levelling down by means of a file or a whetstone, until they finally reach a level too low for mechanical purposes.

Between sixteen and twenty-two years of age the male natives have their lips pierced under each corner of the mouth for labrets.[1] The incision is made and at first sharp-pointed pieces of ivory are put in; when the wound heals the hole is gradually stretched by inserting larger labrets until half an inch in diameter is reached. The poorer natives wear labrets made of coal, walrus ivory, common gravel, and glass stoppers which they obtain from ships and adapt to this use. The stopper of a Worcestershire sauce bottle is very useful for the purpose. The richer ones have agate labrets, the most valued one, however, consisting of a white porcelain-like disk 1½ inches wide, in the center of which is mounted a turquoise nut, hemispherical in shape, nearly an inch wide, fastened with a spruce gum obtained from the interior. We could not ascertain where the turquoise or porcelain-like disk was obtained. The Eskimos say they have always been in the country, and sell them only with the greatest reluctance.

[Footnote 1: _Labrets_ is the name used along the coast for the lip-ornaments worn by the natives.]

Tattooing is general among the women, and is apparently a custom of great antiquity. At the age of six one narrow line is drawn down the center of the chin from the lower lip downward, powdered charcoal being used as coloring matter. At twelve years the line is broadened to half an inch, and a narrow line made parallel to it on each side. But I will not detain you by giving other particulars.

On the 20th of September the Thetis left Point Hope for the south, the rugged season of the Arctic ocean having fully set in. Strong winds and gales from the northeast had compelled us to move from the northern to the southern side of Point Hope, where better protection and anchorage had been found. On the 21st of September we passed out of the Arctic ocean and through Bering Strait, reaching Ounalaska again on the 26th of September. After remaining there until the beginning of October the ship returned to Sitka, and after a prolonged stay in the waters of southeastern Alaska we finally reached the Golden gate of San Francisco, shortly after midnight on the 7th of December.

The cruise of the Thetis was remarkable in several respects, among others in that, thanks to the open season, her stanch build, and successful battling with the ice-pack, she was enabled to reach Mackenzie bay, in British North America, the first government vessel to carry the American flag in those waters. She also made the long stretch from Mackenzie bay to Herald island and Wrangel land in one season, never before done, and she had the honor of being the first vessel of any kind to follow the entire main coast line of Alaska from Port Tongass, in extreme southeastern Alaska, to Demarcation point, in the Arctic ocean.

THE LAW OF STORMS, CONSIDERED WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE NORTH ATLANTIC.

BY EVERETT HAYDEN.

(Abstract of a paper read before the National Geographic Society, Nov. 15, 1889.)

In preparing an abstract of this paper it is of course difficult to adhere very closely to the original, inasmuch as that was illustrated by forty-five lantern slides, while it is only practicable to present a few plates with this abstract. I may therefore be permitted to give only a general outline of the subject, with perhaps a more detailed discussion of one or two of the most notable recent hurricanes off our Atlantic coast.

The term "Law of Storms" is applied to the code of rules that should govern the action of the master of a vessel when he has reason to suspect the approach of a dangerous storm. It will be seen that this definition, like the code itself, is somewhat vague. So many considerations enter as factors in the question that it is wholly impossible to lay down any rules that shall be applicable alike to a high-powered, well-manned steamship, and to a heavily-laden, poorly-equipped and short-handed sailing vessel. Disregarding such differences of conditions (which are, of course, of vital importance in each individual case, but which cannot be discussed in a brief general essay), the two grand divisions of the subject may be compared to _grand strategy_ and _field tactics_. By this I mean that a broad, comprehensive view of the whole subject of ocean storms--their regions, seasons, size, severity, and tracks--is one very important part of the navigator's duty in planning a long campaign, or voyage; and, secondly, the handling of his vessel when actually in the fight--the coolness, clear-headedness, and trained experience that utilizes every resource of the best seamanship and navigation in a fearful struggle with the fury of a hurricane--all of these are also an essential part of the education of the ideal sea-captain.

Thanks to the progress of meteorologic research it is comparatively easy nowadays for anyone to get a very good general idea of the great hurricane regions of the globe, and the seasons when these dreaded tropic cyclones prevail in each of these regions. The evidence on this subject is cumulative and practically conclusive, so that it is universally known and recognized that the hurricane months are the summer months in each hemisphere; hurricanes originate in the tropics, move westward, then poleward into the temperate zones, and finally eastward in higher latitudes, receding gradually from the equator; moreover, the essential difference between hurricanes north and south of the line is as follows: In the Northern Hemisphere the rotation of the cyclonic whirl is _against_ the hands of a watch, and in the Southern, _with_. The noted hurricane regions are the West Indies, coast of China and Japan, Bay of Bengal (especially in May and October, at the time of the change of the monsoons), and the South Indian Ocean (about Mauritius). Less noted regions are the South Pacific (East of Australia), the North Pacific (west of the Mexican coast), and the Arabian Sea. In planning a distant voyage a navigator should therefore consider the hurricane regions through which he must pass, just as he considers the prevailing winds--the trades, monsoons, and ocean currents.

The handling of a ship in a hurricane is a very different sort of a thing from this general survey of the entire field, and, without the eminently practical qualities that we all associate with a good officer of the navy or mercantile marine, no mere theoretic knowledge can avail much. And yet this is one of those cases where practice and theory should go hand in hand,--not theory as something vague and unreal, but theory as based upon a firm foundation of observed facts. If a vessel encounter a hurricane, certain conclusions can be drawn from observations of the shifts of wind, the fluctuations of the barometer, the appearance of the clouds, and the direction of the ocean swell; the master of that vessel will undoubtedly draw such conclusions, and store them away in his mind as part of his fund of experience upon which to base action at some future time. But if he can consider his own observations, while fresh in mind, in connection with the observations made on board many other vessels that encountered the same storm, and modify or verify his conclusions by such comparison, there cannot be a doubt but that the lesson will be of far greater value. Sailors lead a rough life, and their training is often acquired by experience alone. Moreover, there are certain things that tend to discourage effort on the part of junior officers, even on board naval vessels: they realize that their duty is not to originate orders but to execute them, and sooner or later they get out of the habit of reflecting upon the action taken to avoid a storm or manoeuver in one, not knowing at the time what considerations lead to the action that was taken, and not always having anything brought forcibly to their attention to indicate with certainty whether the action was well-considered or ill-advised. Upon finally attaining command themselves they are not, therefore, as well posted as they might otherwise have been. I mention these things to explain the undoubted fact that comparatively few masters of vessels are well posted in certain very important additions to the old law of storms, as it was discovered by Redfield and enforced by Reid, Piddington, Thom, and other early writers. In fact, of all the navigators of various nationalities who have charge to-day of the commerce of the world, probably four-fifths are wholly ignorant of the progress that has been made in this direction in the past fifty years. That such is the case is not, in my opinion, wholly their fault: it is owing to the fact that far too little attention has been paid to clear, forcible, and convincing explanation; it is the fault of the teachers, no less than the scholars,--of meteorologists who talk over the heads of their audiences, instead of stating facts and conclusions in a way to command attention and respect from the practical men who furnish the data, and who deserve some tangible results in return for their long years of voluntary observation.

It is difficult to put this matter very clearly to those who are not familiar with the conditions that govern the management of a vessel at sea, and I shall only attempt to do so in a very general way. It should be understood, first of all, that a hurricane is an enormous whirlwind, so large, in fact, that its circular nature was generally recognized only about fifty years ago. At the immediate center of the whirl there is a calm space, from five or ten to thirty or forty miles in diameter, generally with blue sky and bright sunlight. Within a short distance of this central calm the wind blows with frightful violence, and here a vessel is driven along in absolute helplessness, enveloped in midnight darkness, buried in a flying mass of foam and spray, with every sound annihilated by the roar and shrieks of the elements. The core of the hurricane, as this region has been called, is small, relative to the entire area, and it thus happens that a few miles may make all the difference between shipwreck and safety. The question is, then, to avoid getting into the core, or heart, of the hurricane. It is evident enough that if the wind blow in a strictly circular direction around the center, the bearing or direction of the center must be at exactly right angles (eight points) to the right (or left) of the direction of the wind. In other words, in the Northern Hemisphere (where the direction of rotation is against the hands of a watch) the center bears eight points to the right of the wind (that is, to the right of the direction from which the wind blows); in the case of a hurricane off our coast, for instance, if the wind be NE. at Hatteras the center would bear (according to the 8-point rule) SE. Considering, further, that the entire whirl has a progressive motion along a path, or track, if an observer at Hatteras find that the NE. wind freshens rapidly, without any shift or change of direction, it is equally evident that the center of the storm is approaching directly toward that point. In a similar situation at sea, a shipmaster would naturally see that his vessel was in a position of great danger: evidently the best thing to do would be to run before the wind, thus getting out of the way of the approaching hurricane. This simple case will explain pretty clearly, I think, how rules were at once formulated and adopted, as soon as Redfield had proved the approximately circular character of these storms.

Without going further into this subject, inasmuch as this 8-point rule is perhaps the most important of all the rules--indeed, all of them follow directly from it,--suppose that subsequent research, based upon careful observation and the accurate charting of hundreds of reports from vessels in similar storms in various oceans, proved conclusively that the wind in a hurricane does not blow in strictly circular whirls, but rather spirally inward, so that with a NE. wind off Hatteras the center bears probably S SE., or even South: evidently this is a matter of vital importance to the navigator, and all the old rules should be remodeled to suit the discovery. Such is, indeed, actually the fact, and in most cases nothing could be worse than to run directly before the wind; in any event it would be dangerous, and in the case of a slow-moving cyclone it might readily lead the vessel directly into the core of the hurricane. This is known to have been the case in many instances, and vessels have thus been drawn into the inner whirls of hurricanes and kept there for several days, making one or more complete revolutions around the center before they could extricate themselves. In fact, they might never have gotten out, if the storm itself had not moved off and left them.

The first of the accompanying plates, entitled,

WEST INDIAN HURRICANES, AND OTHER NORTH ATLANTIC STORMS,

gives a brief and yet complete résumé of what is perhaps the best modern practice. In these brief statements the attempt has been made to put concisely, intelligibly, and _completely_ (if one will but read each and every sentence as carefully as they were written), the very latest, most important, and best-established facts, with which every navigator should be familiar. The paragraph entitled "Intensified trade-wind belt," for instance, is very important. A close consideration of the caution expressed in these few lines may prevent a serious mistake that might be made by a too rigid adherence to the old rules. The idea is as follows: It has been proved by Meldrum, from his studies of Mauritius hurricanes, that the SE. trade-winds blow toward a part of the _track_ of a hurricane, rather than at right angles to the direction of its center, and it is therefore unsafe to assume that the center bears at right angles to the wind, or that, because the trade wind increases in strength without any decided change of direction, the center is approaching directly toward the vessel. This principle might naturally be expected to hold for similar storms in other regions, and Abercromby, in a thorough study of the whole subject, has shown that such is the case, although he states that "the position of this belt [of intensified trades] differs in every hurricane region, so that a special set of rules are necessary for each country." It seems to me, I must say, that in the absence of such special rules the law may safely be assumed to be general; its importance to navigators is certainly very great, and its principal effect must be to urge the greatest caution in making any attempt to cross the track of a hurricane, from the dangerous to the navigable semicircle.

{PLATE: WEST INDIAN HURRICANES, AND OTHER NORTH ATLANTIC STORMS.

From the Pilot Chart of the North Atlantic Ocean, August, 1889, with Additional Paragraphs. [_Edition of July, 1890._]

Explanation.--These diagrams are for practical use in West Indian hurricanes. The upper one will also answer for ordinary storms along the transatlantic route. The small arrows fly with the wind, the direction being stated at the end of each dotted line; the long arrow on each diagram is the STORM TRACK, that is, the probable path of the cyclone through the belt of latitude to which the diagram applies.

Use of the Diagrams.--When a falling barometer, freshening rain squalls, &c., indicate a hurricane, select the proper diagram (according to the MONTH and LATITUDE), plot your position upon it by means of the direction of the wind, and thus ascertain the approximate bearing of the storm center. The probable storm track is indicated by the long arrow. If the wind shift, plot your position by means of the new wind-direction (nearer the center if the wind has freshened and the barometer has fallen). In this way you can readily observe every change of position relative to the storm center, and decide what action to take, according to the character of your vessel, the lay of the land, &c. These storms vary greatly in size, but are smallest and most violent in the tropics, where the cloud ring averages about 500 miles in diameter and the region of stormy winds 300 miles, or even less. You can therefore only roughly estimate the DISTANCE of the center, although its BEARING can be obtained from the diagrams with a high degree of probability. There is also considerable variation in the direction of motion and the velocity of the storm along its track, but the general tendency is as stated herewith.

Cyclonic Circulation.--One of the most important indications that an approaching storm is of hurricane violence is the marked cyclonic circulation of the wind, lower and upper clouds, etc. This may be easily appreciated by remembering that a cyclone of any great intensity is an ascending spiral whirl, with a rotary motion (in the Northern Hemisphere) against the hands of a watch, as shown on the diagrams. The surface wind, therefore, blows spirally inward (_not_ circularly, except very near the center); the next upper current (carrying the low scud and rain clouds), in almost an exact circle about the center; the next higher current (the high cumulus), in an outward spiral--and so on, up to the highest cirrus clouds, which radiate directly outward. The angle of divergence between the successive currents is almost exactly two points of the compass. Ordinarily, with a surface wind from N., for instance, the low clouds come from N., also; on the edge of a hurricane, however, they come from N NE., _invariably_. In rear of a hurricane, the wind blows more nearly inward; with a SE. wind, for instance, the center will bear about W., the low clouds coming from S SE. (two points to the right of the wind), etc. Great activity of movement of the upper clouds, while the storm is still distant, indicates that the hurricane is of great violence. If the cirrus plumes that radiate from the distant storm are faint and opalescent in tint, fading gradually behind a slowly thickening haze or veil, the approaching storm is an old one of large area; if of snowy whiteness, projected against a clear blue sky, it is a young cyclone of small area but great intensity.

Intensified Trade-wind Belt.--Another very important fact (established by Meldrum, at Mauritius) may be stated thus: When a hurricane is moving along the equatorial limits of a trade-wind region, there is a belt of intensified trades to windward of its track: not until the barometer has fallen about six-tenths of an inch it is safe to assume that, because the trade-wind increases in force and remains steady in direction, you are on the track of the storm. By attempting too early to cross its track, running free as soon as the wind begins to freshen, you are liable to plunge directly into the vortex of the hurricane.

General Information.--Hurricanes are especially liable to be encountered from July to October, inclusive, in the tropics (north of the 10th parallel), the Gulf of Mexico, and Gulf Stream region. Earliest indications: Barometer above the normal, with cool, very clear, pleasant weather; a long, low, ocean swell from the direction of the distant storm; light, feathery cirrus clouds, radiating from a point on the horizon where a whitish arc indicates the bearing of the center. Unmistakable signs: Falling barometer; halos about the sun and moon; increasing ocean swell; hot, moist weather, with light variable winds; deep red and violet tints at dawn and sunset; a heavy, mountainous cloud bank on the distant horizon; barometer falling more rapidly, with passing rain squalls.

Brief Rules for Action.--If the squalls freshen without any shift of wind, you are on the storm track: run off with the wind on the starboard quarter and keep your compass course (see caution in paragraph entitled "Intensified Trade-wind Belt"). If the wind shift to the right, you are to the right of the storm track: put the ship on the starboard tack and make as much headway as possible, until obliged to lie-to. If the wind shift to the left, you are to the left of the storm track: bring the wind on the starboard quarter and keep your compass course; if obliged to lie-to, do so on the port tack. In scudding, always keep the wind well on the starboard quarter, in order to run out of the storm. Always lie-to on the coming-up tack. Use oil to prevent heavy seas from breaking on board.}

The next plate,

THE HURRICANE OF NOVEMBER 25, 1888,

is a very instructive illustration of an actual hurricane, and one of the most severe on record off our Atlantic coast. The spiral lines have been added to bring out conspicuously the wind-circulation, and several features will at once attract attention: the elongated shape of the storm, along a north and south line (the direction of motion); the wide region where there is a southeasterly gale (exactly analogous to the belt of intensified trades); the long sweep of northeasterly winds along the coast; and the marked variation from a strictly circular whirl. The right-hand side is the dangerous semicircle, and it is here that the navigator is called upon to decide whether he shall dare make the attempt to run before the wind and cross the track of the storm; the left-hand side is the navigable semicircle,--not very _navigable_ in this particular case, we may well believe, with no sea-room to the westward, a fearful N NE. gale, and a terrific sea. This is a case where every resource of seamanship and navigation may fail to save a ship, as the loss of the steamship "Samana" and a dozen other strong vessels, with all on board, bears sad testimony. Let me quote a few lines from a thrilling report by Captain Drew, of the American ship "Sea Witch" (this vessel's position is plotted on the chart about lat. 32° N., long. 75° W.): "Nov. 24: Hurricane from NE.; our position a perilous one, the ship rolling heavily and filling the decks with water; an awful gale, the worst we have ever had,--how will it end? At 3 P.M., the sun out a moment through the thick sky. Nov. 25: Still blowing a hurricane, with awful squalls of rain; the seventh day of the gale. No side-lights can burn; the binnacle-light goes out as fast as we can light it. One blast from the north blew our brand-new lower-maintopsail away like brown paper. We performed the critical manoeuver of wearing ship, which saved the vessel: we were foundering." Verily, this was "out of the jaws of death," and probably there were few more sincere thanksgiving services than those held on board this vessel on Nov. 29th, 1888, as recorded in her log. One other report may be referred to here, as it is of especial interest. It is from the British steamship "Effective," whose position is plotted about half way between Bermuda and New York. At this time the wind was S SE., force 8, and the storm center was moving directly toward her. We learn from Captain Crosby's report that by noon, local time, the wind was strong from south; at 4:30 P.M., a hard gale from east, moderating until midnight, barometer falling very rapidly. Nov. 26th, very heavy gale from NE., ship heading bow to sea; noon, wind east, barometer 28.60; 5 P.M., wind N NE., 28.20; 10 P.M., SW.; midnight, W., 28.20. This report illustrates the experience of a vessel close to the line of sudden shift of wind from SE. to N NE., and sustains very well the spiral lines drawn on the chart, just where there is an absence of data on the chart itself.

{PLATE: THE HURRICANE OF NOVEMBER 25, 1888: NOON, G. M. T.

THE HURRICANE SEASON.--June may be fairly said to be the first of the five hurricane months in the North Atlantic, and the above diagram is presented in order to call special attention to the Law of Storms, especially to certain important modifications of the old laws. The spiral lines indicate the general wind-circulation in this particular hurricane, and the complete data presented on the Chart must convince any one that conclusions based upon such evidence must be worthy of the most careful consideration. This hurricane was one of the most severe on record off our Atlantic coast, and, though much larger than a hurricane in the tropics, similar evidence can be presented to show that the 8-point rule is seldom a safe guide for obtaining the bearing of the center; a 10-point or even a 12-point rule is generally better, although the 8-point rule is fairly correct if applied to the direction of the low clouds, rather than the wind. The long sweep of NE'ly winds along the coast, when there is a hurricane below Hatteras, is a very characteristic and important feature. With a NE'ly wind off Block Island, for instance, it should not be assumed that the center bears SE.: the Chart shows that it may be almost due south. There is likewise a wide region where the wind is from the SE., and a vessel running before this steady SE. wind would plunge deeper and deeper into the hurricane. Similarly in the trades, to windward of the track of a hurricane: not until the barometer has fallen about 6-tenths of an inch is it safe to assume that, because the trade-wind increases in force and remains steady in direction, you are on the track of the storm; by attempting too early to cross its track, running free as soon as the wind begins to freshen, you are liable to plunge directly into the vortex.}

Lack of space does not allow of further details, and I must go on to the next plate,

THE ST. THOMAS-HATTERAS HURRICANE OF SEPT. 3-12, 1889.

This plate is copied exactly from a Supplement issued with the Pilot Chart for October, 1889 (published Sept. 27th), with only the addition of the tracks of the two storms (as indicated by later data) and the tracks of a few vessels (see small charts dated Sept. 3, 4-7, 10). Considering the early date of publication, the wide expanse of ocean covered by the charts, and their essential accuracy (as indicated by later data), it must be acknowledged, I think, by anyone who is at all acquainted with the difficulties incident to this sort of work, that this supplement to the Pilot Chart hit more closely to the truth in this matter than would probably be possible under similar circumstances in one case out of ten. Had later data materially modified conclusions drawn at such an early date, it could not have been a matter of surprise, although this prompt publication would still have served a most valuable purpose in interesting navigators to contribute data likely to help us in establishing the facts. Indeed, the following quotations from the Pilot Chart and Supplement illustrate exactly what was desired, and what was actually accomplished by this publication: "This preliminary publication, issued two weeks after the storm reached our coast, well illustrates the cordial support this office receives from masters of vessels in its efforts to collect and utilize data regarding marine meteorology. It is desired to collect as complete data as possible regarding this storm, in order to publish a final report, and the present publication will be useful as a good working basis for a more complete detailed study of the hurricane." Also, "Special attention is called to the fact that this preliminary publication is only intended to give a brief outline of the facts as indicated by data received up to date of publication." Moreover, the name, nationality, and rig of every vessel whose report had been received in time to be used was published, and every statement made in the accompanying text was based on an exhaustive study of all the data.

It is interesting to note how slightly the very complete data now at hand have modified this hastily-prepared history, and all the circumstances urge similar quick work and prompt publication in every case, before other storms and other conditions have dulled public interest and directed attention elsewhere. The track of the easternmost of the two storms, as plotted on the first little chart, shows that it moved more rapidly than was anticipated, and recurved farther north: the fact is, its very existence was not even suspected till _two hours_ before the final draft of the maps was made, and then only because the German steamship "Savona," from Baltimore for Brazil, suffered such damage from the hurricane on Sept. 5th (see chart dated Sept. 3rd for position) that she was obliged to run in to St. Thomas for repairs, and our consul, Mr. M. A. Turner, forwarded her report by the first steamer to New York. The following is a brief extract from this report, beginning at 10 P.M., Sept. 4th: "Full hurricane, ship lying in trough of sea, laboring heavily and shipping much water. Cargo shifted; jettisoned 600 barrels of flour and 60 tons of coal. Broke steam steering gear and wheel, found rudder adrift, 3 feet of water in the hold, foundations of engines seriously loose and getting worse. Bore up for St. Thomas."

It is impossible, in the space at my disposal, to refer even briefly to the reports of the few vessels whose tracks are plotted on the charts: the stanch steamship "Earnmoor," foundering in the heart of the hurricane on Sept. 5th, eleven of her crew of thirty escaping in an open boat, and of these only seven surviving that fearful drift of twenty-three days; the "Sépet," between the two storms and escaping both; the "Lassell," from the tropics to Block Island, all the way in the grasp of the hurricane, without a sight of sun, moon, or stars, to fix her position; the "Ada Bailey," rolling in the long swell off Hatteras and watching the early indications of the approaching storm for nearly a week before it struck her; the "Hernan Cortes," forced to stand off into fearful danger by the still greater danger of a lee-shore at Hatteras; and the "City of New York," "Teutonic," and "City of Rome," starting on their Titanic race from Liverpool for New York the day after this great hurricane swept past St. Thomas, and reaching their goal with it, and in spite of all its fury. I must dismiss this whole interesting history with the following abstract of the report of Capt. Simmons, of the British brigantine "Victoria," whose original report is brief and to the point, like all the rest (see track of the "Victoria," northwest from St. Thomas, on the first small chart):

I passed through the cyclone, resulting in the total loss of the spars, sails, etc., of my vessel. The SE. sea became so heavy that I was obliged to heave-to. The sky was one sheet of dark gray, at times approaching black. The lightning was excessive only during the latter part of the storm; it appeared as a continuous quivering sheet around a great part of the horizon, extending about 10° above it and lasting many seconds, unaccompanied by thunder; the compass could not be read, the card spinning so that the points were indistinguishable. The lowest barometer reading was 27.86 (aneroid, corrected by comparison at Boston shortly before and at Halifax the following month).

{PLATE: THE ST. THOMAS-HATTERAS HURRICANE OF SEPTEMBER 3-12, 1889.

}

The importance to navigators of a true appreciation of the law of storms--not the mere memorization of a set of rules, but an intelligent comprehension of the subject--is now perhaps clearly evident to the reader: at any rate, that is the object I have aimed at, rather than a mere formal statement of generally accepted principles and an abstruse discussion of isobars and gradients.

It will be seen that _the probable bearing of the center, as indicated by the direction of the wind at a single station_, is the great question, so far as the navigator is concerned. There are men who want and must have a hard-and-fast rule,--an 8-point, a 10-point, or a 12-point rule--something to act on without thought, while every nerve is strained to save the ship's spars, sails, boats, engines, and cargo, from damage or destruction. Under such circumstances, I think that perhaps the safest general plan is to use the old 8-point rule, but _applied to the low clouds, instead of to the wind_. This is equivalent, generally speaking, to a 10-point rule, applied to the wind. That any such rule, if intended for general application, is only roughly approximate, goes without saying, or ought to do so, at least. The angle of bearing changes in different parts of the storm, it varies with the quadrant, with the latitude, with different storms, and with various other conditions, too numerous to be mentioned or even wholly known. One good general rule is that in rear of a hurricane the wind blows somewhat decidedly toward it; and yet that there are marked exceptions is well illustrated by the chart of the hurricane of November 25, 1888, already referred to. As a good example of the wind circulation in a hurricane in the tropics the accompanying diagram is of interest. This represents two days (the 3d and 5th) of the great Cuban hurricane of September, 1888, the intervening day (September 4th) being omitted, for the sake of clearness. Its severity is sufficiently indicated by the fact that it caused the loss of fully a thousand lives in Cuba, and destroyed property of the estimated value of $5,000,000 in the single province of Sagua. Now take any point on any one of these spiral lines, and observe the bearing of the center: in rear of the storm, especially, the 8-point rule is hardly applicable, and action based upon it might result disastrously.

The next and last plate, entitled,

HURRICANES IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC.--TYPICAL CIRCULATION OF THE WIND, FROM ACTUAL OBSERVATION,

gives a still more complete illustration of the wind-circulation in hurricanes, with a brief discussion of the application of the 8-point rule. Especial attention is called to the statement made thereon (referring, of course, to hurricanes in the North Atlantic, but no doubt true for the entire Northern Hemisphere) that

"although the 8-point rule is nearly true when the wind is anywhere from north to south by way of west (that is, generally speaking, in the navigable semicircle), it is liable to be a very poor guide when the wind is from any point in the first or second quadrant."

Also to the following, which is applicable to the Southern Hemisphere by the substitution of "to the left" for "to the right:"

"Perhaps the best general rule is that the center bears about eight points to the right of the direction from which the low clouds come, or, what is practically the same thing, eight points to the right of the wind at the moment of a sudden shift in a heavy squall; after such a shift the wind will remain steady in direction for a time, but the center is meanwhile moving along and the angle of bearing changes until the next shift, when it goes again to eight points, and so on."

Such diagrams, carefully prepared from complete and reliable data, are of far greater practical value to navigators than volumes of explanation: they appeal to the eye and will live in memory long after ideas conveyed by printed words have been forgotten.

{PLATE: HURRICANES IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC.--TYPICAL CIRCULATION OF THE WIND, FROM ACTUAL OBSERVATION. [From the Pilot Chart of the North Atlantic Ocean, July, 1890.]

The above diagrams have been prepared from a large number of observations in order to illustrate the actual circulation of the wind in hurricanes, as a practical guide for navigators during the present hurricane season. The small chart that was presented on the Pilot Chart last month gave all the observations upon which the spiral lines were based for that particular hurricane (Nov. 25, 1888), and the same method has been followed here, only the observations themselves are omitted, for the sake of clearness. Perhaps the most important point to notice is that the surface wind blows in an inward spiral curve, and not circularly, except very near the center. The center therefore generally bears more than eight points to the right of the wind. Another very important point is the fact that although the 8-point rule is nearly true when the wind is anywhere from _North to South by way of West_ (that is, generally speaking, in the navigable semicircle), it is liable to be a very poor guide when the wind is from any point in the first or second quadrant. With the wind from NE., for instance, the center may bear anywhere from South to SE.; with the wind East it may bear from SW. to South; and with the wind SE. it may bear SW., West, or even (in the tropics) W NW. Perhaps the best general rule is that the center bears about eight points to the right of the direction from which the low clouds come, or, what is practically the same thing, eight points to the right of the wind at the moment of a sudden shift in a heavy squall; after such a shift the wind will remain steady in direction for a time, but the center is meanwhile moving along and the angle of bearing changes until the next shift, when it goes again to eight points, and so on.

It will be noticed that the northernmost of these two hurricanes was moving very slowly during the two days selected for illustration: had it been moving faster, the in-draught (or departure from the circular direction) would no doubt have been somewhat less in advance and considerably greater in rear than what is indicated. It is exceptional also to find a storm in this region growing smaller, as this seems to have done on Sept. 10th; it died out altogether in a few days, instead of continuing its motion toward E NE., as is usually the case. In the tropics the usual progressive motion is about W. by N., and this, together with the steady increase in size, is well illustrated in the case of the Cuban hurricane; it should be noted, however, that the interval is here two days, and not one, as in the upper diagram.

Masters of vessels are earnestly requested to keep regular observations for this Office during the hurricane season, even if only position, wind, weather, and barometer, at noon, G. M. T., are noted. A single additional report often adds greatly to the completeness of the data used in preparing these diagrams.}