Chapter III: Part 3

On, on, went the novel train, through weary miles of forest, across the scorched plain, rattling over the hard sun-baked footprints of the elephant and rhinoceros; on through grassy glades where the nimble antelope bounded, scared out of our path, and the zebra and giraffe were startled by the rattling of these strange disturbers of their solitude; on still, through miles of swamp, with its croaking legions; on through scenes of surpassing beauty, bright flowers and gleaming birds and butterflies; on past the bleaching bones of other travelers waylaid or exhausted, till the sun creeps up high overhead and eager glances are cast at green spots where water once had been; on, till the pace grows slow with weariness and thirst, and still on, till it revives again as the welcome messenger from the front appears in sight with water or the camp-fires tell of food and rest.

Completing this difficult section of the journey and mounting {246} to the beautiful forests and numerous villages of Unyamwesi, we had arrived upon the central heights of the continent, which everything around us bespoke its best part; the clearer, more healthy air, the rich land, the open forests, the numerous and industrious people, all spoke eloquently of a better and brighter state of things in the interior of Africa than on its outside.

At Urambo we elicited the pleased surprise of our friend, the famous chief Mirambo. Said Mirambo, laying his hand emphatically on one of the boat sections, "This boat and these carts are mine, and all Unyamwesi is yours." It was his way of expressing sympathy and admiration of what he considered to be a very wonderful enterprise, and we left him pondering more deeply than ever on the doings of the "white men."

The rains were now at hand and the country rich and verdant; we hastened on with all speed possible to enable us to cross the Malagarasi river before it should be too swollen. Emerging from elevated forest land to a view of the valley of the river, it appears like a vast level expanse of harmless grass, but the swift river is flowing in the bottom. The toll required by the natives being paid, we descended to the river through the thick grass. We crossed the river in tiny dug-out or bark canoes managed by the natives. One old man, a leader among these ferrymen, we had especial cause to notice; we called him "the old admiral." He wore a curious skull cap apparently made of bladder, and presented a most odd appearance. To him we paid a special fee of propitiation for the boatmen. As we proceeded down toward the river the first sign of it among the long grass was quiet shallow water on the path; this grew deeper and deeper as we walked on until we were immersed to the armpits, the grass rising avenue-like overhead. We emerged upon a small island or rising ground, and the river proper was before us. On this little eminence stood "the old admiral" superintending all. The porters and their ordinary loads all crossed in the usual way, two or three at a time in the little canoes. The two large carts, with the bow and stern compartments of the boats, were floated along the watery avenue by the buoyancy of their tank-like loads; the others came, sections and carts, separately. The fare for each load was one yard of calico, but when the carts appeared there was general astonishment among the ferrymen, who showed signs of clearing off altogether; "the old admiral" alone was unmoved; his stolid countenance showed no sign, but a deep bass growl, {247} "Eight yards, eight yards for these!" expressed at once his nonchalance and his determination; and eight yards we had to pay. All was safely got over in a day. Two of the bark canoes were lashed together with poles across, and one section or one cart at a time laid on top, and thus all was carried across.

Obstacles which further back would have been regarded as great hindrances were now made little of; success seemed assured to all, and the men even began to rehearse their triumphal entry into Ujiji. One more difficult river, the Lusugi, we had to cross. We reached its banks, down a rocky descent, late one night in a heavy fall of rain. We waited an hour or two next morning till the river had somewhat subsided, and then commenced work. Two or three volunteers swam across with a stout rope, which was then hauled tight across the stream. The porters, holding this rope in one hand, slowly but surely made their way across. Then the carts and sections were attached to a block running on the rope, and so, carefully attended by two or three men, were floated over in safety.

Ujiji was now only a few marches ahead. The view of the lake was caught at last, a narrow strip of its waters gleaming in the sun in the distance, and next morning we slowly marched into Ujiji in a compact body. The boat was duly launched and has now been for years at work on Lake Tanganyika in the cause of civilization and Christianity.

The _completion_ of this journey, however, was but the _commencement_ of a still larger enterprise in the region reached. Stations were established among the tribes on the lake shores; a larger vessel, with steam power, was built and launched on the lake, and a substantial mission was established and is still at work at a point which is only 400 miles from that point on the Congo river accessible to the steamers of the missions there.

* * * * *

All the work I have described was done at the expense of the London Missionary Society.

{248}

REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON EXPLORATION IN ALASKA.

(_Accepted April 3, 1891_.)

_Washington, D. C., April 3, 1891_.

TO THE BOARD OF MANAGERS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY,
_Washington, D. C._

_Gentlemen_: Your Committee, instructed "to consider the advisability of further Alaskan exploration by the Society this year and if deemed advisable, to consider and report upon ways and means for accomplishing it," respectfully submit the following report:

The general question of desirability has been decided affirmatively by the Board of Managers; it therefore is inferred that the question of advisability may be taken as involved in that of ways and means.

In outlining a plan of work, concerning which such inquiry is to be made, it has been found necessary, in the lack of formulated opinion by the Society, to make assumptions as to what should be its purpose and policy in undertaking exploration. It is assumed tentatively that in order best to further the object for which the Society is organized, namely, "the increase and diffusion of geographic knowledge," the aim in exploration should be not so much to promote the growth of science as to diffuse a general interest in geographic work in its several departments, and, adhering to the principle of attractiveness, to increase the sum of knowledge by discovery and by the addition of general and elementary facts rather than by detailed investigation, for appreciation of which scientific training must be presupposed. It is furthermore believed that the policy of the Society should be to invite coöperation, offering opportunity at the same time for special study in related sciences; to effect the organization and devise the plan, and itself to take part directly in field work only so far as may be necessary to initiate and promote it.

Your Committee find that apparently it will be practicable, {249} with coöperation, for the Society to extend this year the exploration work of last year in the vicinity of Mount St. Elias. Specifically it is recommended that the plan be to determine directly, from a long base line near the coast, the height of the mountain, to ascend it, to observe systematically the unique phenomena of physical geography of the Malaspina glacier from Icy bay to the initial point of last year's exploration, and to explore the Seward glacier to its head if deemed advisable after the ascent of the peak.

In view of the fact that it is the purpose of the Coast and Geodetic Survey to carry the international boundary survey into this region within one or two years, it is considered inexpedient for the Society to undertake extended topographic work. It is, however, submitted, as a principle which this Society should emphasize in projecting exploration, that facts of physical geography have minimum value and may lead to false conclusions unless correlated through their space relations; and it is recommended that the expedition aim always to employ such means as may be practicable for making record of its course and of its observations in approximate geometric relation to surroundings.

Conditional offers of coöperation have been made by the Revenue Marine Service, the Geological Survey, the Coast and Geodetic Survey, and the Century Company of New York. Transportation from Seattle to Alaska and return, it is thought, may be secured on the steamer Corwin, and that vessel's commander, Captain Hooper, has expressed a desire to extend his coast-line exploration of last year by making a survey of Disenchantment bay. The Geological Survey offers to detail Mr. Russell to conduct the expedition, and to bear the expense of a number of field hands and of their equipment. The Coast and Geodetic Survey has expressed a desire to aid, if practicable, by beginning boundary work in the same field this year, and incidentally to do other surveying with special relation to the work of the expedition. The Century Company offers to send an artist experienced in Alpine work and to pay the greater portion of his expenses. The opportunity for study of the fauna and flora of the region it is thought should not be neglected.

The cost to the Society, wholly in items of field expense otherwise unprovided for, which may be considered as the cost of enabling the combination to work as one organization, is estimated at $500.

{250} The expedition should leave Seattle in the latter part of May, aiming to reach Icy bay by the first of June, and field work should close by the end of September.

Your committee consider further exploration in Alaska by the Society this year as practicable, and recommend that the proposed expedition be authorized, and that Mr. Russell be at once invited to organize and conduct it, under the auspices of the Society.

Very respectfully,

G. K. GILBERT,
EVERETT HAYDEN,
WILLARD D. JOHNSON,
_Committee on Exploration_.

NOTES.

_La Carte de France, dite de l'Etat Major, par M. J. Collet. Paris, 1887. 8vo, pp. 92, with 4 plates._--This pamphlet describes the great "Staff Map" of France, recently completed, giving its history, the methods employed in the field and office work, the contents of the map, and the means of representing the various features therein described. The scale of the map is 1:80,000. Relief is represented by hachures, for drawing which approximate contour lines have been located, but these are not otherwise used. A great variety of cultural features are shown, many of which are ephemeral, and which contribute to the overloading of the map with details. Moreover, as the time which has ordinarily elapsed between the survey and the issuance of the work in printed form is ten or twelve years, most of this culture has become not only of no value but misleading by the time it is published.

The account of the organization and methods by which the map has been produced is of special interest. The primary triangulation upon which it is based is one of the most elaborate and accurate ever executed in any country. No expense has been spared in this direction. Within this triangulation is a secondary triangulation, also very elaborate, from the stations of which numerous additional points are cut in, or located by unclosed triangles. All this work is of the highest order of excellence, being infinitely more accurate than the map requires. {251} With this, however, the accuracy appears to end. The detail consists of the map, or the map proper, little more than a compilation of commune cadastral plans. These were fitted to the triangulation points and to one another, a process which appears to have been by no means easy of satisfactory accomplishment. This adjustment having been completed, the culture was brought up to date of survey and a survey was made of the relief features by the use of such inferior instruments as the clinometer compass and chain.

The principal and obvious criticism upon such work is that it is top-heavy. The triangulation is far more elaborate than is required, while the provision for making the map itself is by no means comparable with it: it is as far below the requirements of the scale as the triangulation is above it.

This leads up to a broader proposition, which may be stated thus: That the general tendency of surveying organizations is in the direction illustrated by that of the "French Staff." Organized originally for map-making, they progress little by little in the direction of devoting their energies to geodetic work, while at the same time the topographic work proper, for which they were created, is belittled and neglected. As a consequence the latter depreciates in quality and diminishes in quantity; the main purpose of the organization is lost, and a mere means becomes the ultimate end of the work. This tendency should be recognized in map-making organizations. The weakness of our modern maps is seldom in the primary control. It is easy to do triangulation of sufficient accuracy for the control of maps upon such scales as that above considered, little knowledge or experience being required beyond that gained at our engineering schools; while the more accurate triangulation, generally known as geodetic work, requires merely better instruments, more time, and more experienced observers.

The weak features of maps are generally the details, the part of the work that, strange to say, is usually relegated to the lowest grade of professional men. This weakness consists in an insufficiency of minor locations for the control of the sketch and in unfaithful sketching. It is the sketching that requires the most careful attention and the best and most experienced men. The instrumental portion of the work is the least difficult; the artistic portion, or sketching, is the most difficult. It would seem more logical and would doubtless produce better results to reverse the {252} usual order of promotion and place the topographer above the triangulator. Moreover, the triangulation should be regarded as merely a means for the correction of the sketching, and it should be required only that it be of sufficiently high grade to meet this condition. The minor locations should be sufficiently numerous and well distributed to fully control and correct the sketching; and finally the sketching should be as faithful a representation of the topography as is consistent with the necessary generalization of the surface features.

H. G.

* * * * *

_Polar Regions_.--The _Societe de Geographie_ of Paris in its Proceedings publishes the following communication from M. Ch. Rabot on the new Danish expedition engaged in the exploration of the eastern coast of Greenland, under the command of Lieutenant Ryder, of the royal Danish navy. The expedition has in view the examination of the unknown coast between Franz-Josef fiord, in latitude 73°, and the most northerly point reached by Commander Holm and Lieutenant Garde, about latitude 66°. Lieutenant Ryder left Copenhagen June 7, 1891, in the Norwegian whaler _Hekla_, which had been chartered by the Danish government. The first ice was met on the 20th, in latitude 68° 12', longitude 13° 05' west. Unable to pass through the pack to the Greenland shore after several attempts, the ship proceeded northward, and in the vicinity of Jan Mayen made soundings and successful dredgings. Several attempts to reach the coast of Greenland were made from the 75th parallel southward, but without success up to July 2, when the _Hekla_ was in latitude 71° 31', longitude 6° 30' west. Since that date there has been no direct news, but on July 26, in latitude 72° 40', longitude 14° 25' west, the English whaler _Active_ saw the _Hekla_ a few miles to the northeast, heading to the south-southwest. On August 2 the _Active_, in latitude 71° 40', approached within 12 miles of the coast, and on August 20, in 70° 30', was within 7 miles of the mainland. In both instances the intervening sea was free of ice. The English captain believes that the _Hekla_ made the eastern coast in about 71° 30'. The _Hekla_ is provisioned for the winter, and there is a prospect of marked success by the Danish officers in their undertaking.

* * * * *

{253} _The Crossing of Tibet_.--The explorations of Mr. Rockhill in Tibet and his renewed attempt to reach Lassa, the "holy city" of that country, creates an unusual interest for Americans in the account of the crossing of Tibet by M. G. Bonvalot, Prince Henri d'Orleans, and P. Dedeken, published in the last Bulletin of the Paris Geographical Society.

Six days' journey from Moscow brought the party through Russia and Turkestan to Kouldja (45° N., 41° W.), in extreme western Mongolia. Having obtained authority from the Chinese governor of the province to proceed, the party, aggregating 15 in number, left that place September 12, 1889, with Batang, China, as an objective point. On October 5, after a journey of about 450 miles, during which they crossed the Thian-chan ("heavenly") mountains by Narat pass, they camped at Korla, near Bagratch-koul. Here they were warned that they could proceed no farther, and the governor of Ili sent an order to arrest them. The mandarin and other local authorities did not, however, actively oppose their departure, which took place during the night of October 10, the party then consisting of 20 horsemen and 40 pack-animals. On October 28 they reached Kara-douran, the western end of Lob-nor. A side trip by d'Orleans and Dedeken to Lob-nor proved it to be no longer a lake but a series of swamps and sandy islands, with the water nowhere more than four feet deep. Meantime Bonavolot accumulated supplies and replaced from the hardy Mongols the more timid among their camp-followers, the party being reduced to seven, with a few extra men for a short distance.

Quitting Tcharkalik on November 17, they followed the route taken by Carey; but on the advice of the natives they resolved after crossing the Altyn-tagh to go directly southward instead of turning eastward, and thus to attempt a new route, on which they were beset by the usual physical discomforts attendant on travel at great elevations. On these mountain ranges they saw only wild sheep, blue hares, wild horses, crows and partridges. On December 5, just south of a large salt lake (Ouzoun-tchour), they, saw a caravan of Kalmouk pilgrims returning from Lassa by an unknown route, which they refused to make known, and decided to temporarily abandon their idea of reaching Batang and instead to go direct to Lassa by retracing the caravan trail. From this point (about 38° 30' N. and 87° 30' W.) they proceeded directly southward. The region penetrated was unknown, the winds {254} violent the entire day, the desert treeless and without water, the route lined with the carcasses of camels and their drivers, the only fuel the dung of wandering yaks or caravan camels, and the trail so indistinct that at times they marched by compass. The elevation gradually and steadily increased to 15,000 and even 16,500 feet; the mountain fever became worse, the storms more violent and continuous, and the temperature ranged from 7° (-14° C.), with wind, at midday to 30° below zero (-33° C.) at night. One by one their horses and camels died, and also an old Kirgese who followed them. Extensive glaciers were passed, from which flow on the one side the Salouen and Mekong into Indian ocean, and on the other the Yang-tse to China sea. On January 8, 1890, they skirted a large unfrozen lake named Montcalm, 50 miles long by 12 miles wide, and on January 14 traversed Duplex pass, 20,000 feet elevation. On the 31st they finally ran across a man, a wild Tibetan, small, thin, with enormous lips, long knotted hair, clothed in sheepskin and armed with a saber and flint-lock gun, whom they called "appa" (father); he knew neither Chinese nor Mogul, but spoke Tibetan of which the travelers knew scarcely a dozen words. Other Tibetans, with flocks of sheep, soon appeared and sold them mutton, a little salt, and rancid butter, and then followed on horseback for fifteen days without losing sight of the explorers. Often they were counseled in Mogul by those in authority to turn back.

In the middle of February they reached lake Nam-tso ("heaven"), or Tengri-nor, a large frozen body of water. Out of 40 camels only 15 remained, and, of 20 horses but one survived; three of the party of seven were in desperate state of health, while all were worn out and almost without provisions. They were finally obliged to stop in a mountain pass of the Nindjin-tangla, which led directly to Lassa, then not more than sixty miles distant. On February 17 the Tibetan authorities sent a large party to meet them and ask their intentions. Mistaken for Russians, it took 13 days to convince the authorities that they were French. They received presents from the authorities and obtained costumes from Lassa, but found it impossible to visit the "holy city." After 49 days of negotiation, on April 5, provided with arms, provisions and horses, and also a safe permit from the Talia lama to cross Tibet to Batang by an unknown route, they started eastward, on a course nearly {255} parallel to and north of Salouen river, reaching Sô and once again seeing houses on April 15. They arrived at Batang early in June, their route some distance west of it having joined the Imperial highway from Pekin to Lassa over which l'Abbe Huc travelled. From Tatsien-lou, where the French Tibetan mission is located, their route turned southward to Red river, which was reached, at Manhoau, on September 21, when their journey practically ended, as Hanoai was reached two days later.

An excellent map of the itinerary, by Prince Henri, accompanies the article.

A. W. G.

* * * * *

_Third Annual Report on the Statistics of Railways in the United States to the Interstate Commerce Commission, for the year ending June 30, 1890_: Washington, Government Printing Office, 1891 (advance copy, pp. 1-100).--This pamphlet, by Professor Henry C. Adams, is issued in advance of the full report, which is promised to comprise about 875 pages. It contains a summary, digest and discussion of the full report.

It appears that the total railroad mileage on June 30, 1890, was 163,597, an increase of 5,838 miles during the year. The increase came mainly from southeastern and western states. This mileage was owned by 1,797 distinct corporate bodies, but entirely controlled in one way or another by only 747 companies. To illustrate the extent to which consolidation of railroad property has gone, it may be stated that 47.5 per cent of all railroad mileage is controlled by but forty companies, and that 65.4 per cent is controlled by seventy-five companies. The greatest mileage controlled by one company is 6,053, operated by the Southern Pacific company.

The total capital and bonded debt of railroad companies was $9,871,378,389, or $60,340 per mile. Stock and bonds were about equal in amount. Mr. Adams estimates the value of railroad property by capitalizing at 5 per cent the dividends and interest on bonds paid during the year, reaching as a result $6,627,461,140, or about 2/3 of the nominal capital and bonded debt. The justice of this method may fairly be questioned. A comparison of the ruling prices of dividend-paying stocks with the rate per cent of the dividend shows that 5 per cent stocks are above par and that 4 per cent stocks average nearly par. {256} Moreover, it is well known that many railroads are built and operated, not for their own immediate earnings but to give value to other property of the companies, notably to lands, from the sale or lease of which the companies derive profits. Again, many railroads are built, not for present but for future profits, after they shall have induced settlement of their territory; and, furthermore, numerous branch roads have been built as defensive measures to prevent rivals from occupying territory; and in many cases earnings are used in betterment of property instead of distributing it as dividends. In all these cases the roads have value, although they are not paying dividends.

Taking all these matters into account, it does not appear that the railroad stocks of the country have, collectively, been watered to any great extent, if by "watering" is meant expanding nominal values above actual values.

Concerning dividends paid on stock, Mr. Adams presents a table showing that 63.76 per cent of all stock paid no dividends; that but 6.47 per cent paid less than 4 per cent; that 25.26 per cent paid from 4 to 8 per cent, the remainder paying above 8 per cent. It appears that in the northeastern states much the highest dividends were paid, while in the west, so far as dividends are concerned, the stockholders have to wait for future developments.

The total passenger mileage for the year was 11,847,785,617, a slight increase over the previous year. The total freight mileage was 76,207,047,298, an increase of nearly 10 per cent over that of the previous year. The gross earnings of the year were $1,051,877,632, and the operating expenses $692,093,971, leaving as the income from operations $359,783,661. The income from other sources was $126,767,064, and the total deductions from income were $384,792,138, leaving as the net income $101,758,587, out of which there was paid as dividends on stock $89,688,204.

The magnitude of the railway interests of the country is set forth in the above enormous figures. It is still further emphasized by the fact that nearly three-quarters of a million men are in the employ of this industry. Assuming that each such employé supports two others besides himself, it is seen that the railroad interest supports two and a quarter millions, or more than one thirtieth of the inhabitants of the country.

H. G.

{257}

INDEX.

ABBE, CLEVELAND, cited on isostaths, 43 --, Record of communication by, viii -- -- -- discussion by, viii

ABORIGINES of South America, 7

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, Russian, Quotation from records of, 212

ADAMS, HENRY C., Review of report on railway operations by, 255

ADELUNG, J. C., Geographic work by, 211 --, Quotation from, on de l'Isle's map, 212, 213, 214

ADMIRALTY BAY, 56

AFRICA, Area of, 32 --, Conquest and division of, 31 --, Natural divisions of, 238 --, Population of, 238 -- (The Heart of); E. C. Hore, 238

AGASSIZ GLACIER, Ascent of, 147 -- -- named, 73

AGE of St. Elias range, 175

ALASKA (An expedition to Mount St. Elias,); I. C. Russell, 53 --, Boundaries of, 237 --, Early works concerning, 206 --, Report of committee on exploration in, 248

ALLEN, JAMES, cited on isostaths, 44

ALPENSTOCKS, Necessity for, 165

ALPINE glaciers, 176, 180

ALTON, EDMUND, Contribution to exploration fund by, 75

ALVORD, H. E., Remarks by, at field meeting, x

AMAZON, Discovery of the, 11 --, Sketch of the, 4

AMENDMENT to by-laws proposed, xii

ANDES, General description of the, 1

ANEMOMETER formula devised by C. F. Marvin, 49

ANGOT, A., Reference to work of, 46

ANTIQUITIES of Peru, 8

ARCHANGELICA, Mention of, 89, 114

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC, Sketch of, 19

ASIA, Exploration in, 253

ATREVIDA, Mention of the, 63, 92, 105

AURIFEROUS sands from Yakutat bay, 196

AVALANCHES, 145, 155

BAIE DE MONTI, 56 -- named by La Pérouse, 60

BAKER, MARCUS, cited on early eclipses, 220 -- -- -- Mount St. Elias, 232 --, Explorations by, 70, 72 --, Reference to bibliography by, 58 --, Record of discussion by, viii, ix

BASE LINE, Measurement of, 86

BATES, H. W., Quotation from, on South America, 29

BEAR, Meeting with the, 94, 109

BELCHER, SIR EDWARD, Explorations by, 68, 69

BELL, A. GRAHAM, Contribution to exploration fund by, 75

BELL, CHARLES J., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75

BELLIN, S., Geographic work by, 207

BERING BAY, Mention of, 56

BERING'S first voyage (The cartography and observations of); A. W. Greely, 205 -- provisions, 219

BERING, VITUS, Explorations by, 58

BERG, M., cited on thunderstorms, 44

BIEN, MORRIS, Contribution to exploration fund by, 75

BIGELOW, F. H., Record of communication by, viii

BIRNIE, JR., ROGERS, Contribution to exploration fund by, 75

BLACK GLACIER, Brief account of, 101, 104

BLODGETT, J. H., Record of discussion by, vii, ix

BLOSSOM ISLAND, Description of, 113, 122

BOARD ON GEOGRAPHIC NAMES, Institution of the, 39

BONVALOT, G., Crossing of Tibet by, 253

BOURSIN, HENRY, Mention of, 79

BRAZIL, Revolution in, 36 --, Sketch of, 17

BROKA, GEORGE, Explorations by, 73, 74

BUACHE, PHILLIPE, Geographic work by, 208

BUCHAN, ALEX., Reference to work of, 44

BUCKLE, SIR HENRY, Quotation from, on tropical America, 29

BY-LAWS, Proposed amendment to the, xii

CAMP hands, 166

CARPENTER, Z. T., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75

CARTOGRAPHY, Discussion of, 251 -- (The) and Observations of Bering's First Voyage; A. W. Greely, 205

CASCADE GLACIER named, 144

CENTURY COMPANY, Offer of coöperation by, 249

CHAIX HILLS named, 73

CHARIOT, THE, Mention of, 140

CHATHAM, Mention of, 66

CHERIKOF, ALEXEI, Explorations of, 58

CHINA, Exploration in, 253

CHRISTIE, J. H., Member of expedition, 76 --, Work of, 82, 83, 84, 96, 103, 112, 113, 123, 162

CLIMATE of South America, 6

CLOVER, RICHARDSON, Contribution to exploration fund by, 75

COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY, Explorations by, 70, 72 --, Offer of coöperation by, 249

COLD WAVES, Prediction of, 51

COLLETT, M. J., Review of map described by, 250

COMMERCE of South America, 17, 19, 23

COOK, CAPTAIN JAMES, Explorations of, 58

CORDILLERAS of South America, 1

CORWIN CLIFFS, Mention of, 138

CORWIN (The) in Disenchantment bay, 100 -- Return of the, 163

CREVASSES, 181, 182 -- at Pinnacle pass, 130

CROSS SOUND, visited by Vancouver's expedition, 67

CRUMBACK, J. H., Member of expedition, 76 --, Work of, 96, 103, 122, 125, 129, 131, 135, 137

CURTIS, W. E., Record of communication by, xi

CYCLONES, Theory of, 42

DAGELET, M., Mention of, 60

DAHLGREN, ULRICA, Presentation of flag by, viii

{258}

DALL, W. H., cited on Bering's first voyage, 205 -- -- -- -- supplies, 219 -- -- -- de l'Isle's map, 218 -- -- -- early eclipses, 219 -- -- -- Mount St. Elias, 231 --, Explorations by, 70, 72 --, Quotation from, on map by de l'Isle, 207 --, Record of discussion by, vii --, Reference to bibliography by, 58

DALTON, JOHN, Glacier named for, 98 --, Mention of, 73

D'ANVILLE, M., cited on early eclipses, 229

DAVIS, W. M., Reference to meteorologic review by, 47

DEDEKEN, P., Crossing of Tibet by, 253

DEFINITION of formations in St. Elias region, 167

DEKALB, COURTENAY, Record of communication by, ix

DE L'ISLE, J. N., Authenticity of map by, 211, 213 --, Geographic work by, 206 --, Map by, 207 --, Quotation from, on eclipses, 220

DE MONTI BAY, Arrival at, 79

DESCUBIERTA (The), Mention of, 63

DESENGAÑO BAY, named by Malaspina, 63

DEVIL'S CLUB (_Panax horridum_), Mention of, 95, 115

DIGGES' SOUND, named by Vancouver, 68

DILLER, J. S., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75

DIP at Pinnacle pass, 140

DISCOVERY (The), Mention of, 66

DISENCHANTMENT BAY, Canoe trip in, 96, 103 --, Last view of, 163 --, Mention of, 56 --, visited by Malaspina, 63, 64

DIXON, CAPTAIN GEORGE, Explorations of, 60, 62

DOBBINS, J. W., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75

DOBBS, ARTHUR, Geographic work by, 210

DOME PASS named, 146

DONEY, L. S., Member of expedition, 76 --, Work of, 85, 158, 159, 160, 162

D'ORLEANS, PRINCE HENRI, Crossing of Tibet by, 253

DOUGLASS, E. M., Record of discussion by, xi

DOUGLASS, CAPTAIN, Explorations of, 62

DRY BAY, Mention of, 55

DU BOCAGE, BARBIC, Geographic work by, 211 --, Quotation from, on de l'Isle's map, 216

DU FOSSE, E., cited on early publications, 207

DU HALDE, PÈRE, Geographic work by, 206 --, Quotation from, on de l'Isle's map, 218

EARTHQUAKES, South American, 2

ECLIPSES, Early, observed in Kamshatka, 219, 229

EIFFEL TOWER, Use of, in meteorology, 46

EKHOLM, NILS, cited on isostaths, 43

ELDORADO, Early accounts of, 14

ELECTION of officers, xii

ESPERANZA, POINT, Mention of, 14, 85

EXPEDITION (An) to Mount St. Elias, Alaska; I. C. Russell, 53

EXPLORATION in Alaska, 248

FARENHOLT, LIEUTENANT COMMANDER O. F., of U. S. S. _Pinta_, 79

FAULTED pebble from Pinnacle pass, 171

FAULTS 83, 136 --, Thrust, in Hitchcock range, 118

FERREL, WILLIAM, cited on cyclones, 42 --, Reference to treatise by, 47

FINLEY, J. P., Reference to work of, 50

FLORAL HILLS, Brief account of, 105, 108

FLORAL PASS, Brief account of, 105, 108, 110

FORMATIONS of the St. Elias region, 167

FOSSILS at Pinnacle pass, 140 --, Description of, of Yakutat system, 172

FOSSIL PLANTS, Report on, by Lester F. Ward, 199, 200

FRANCE, Review of Staff Map of, 250

GABBRO on the Marvine glacier, 123

GALIANO, DON DIONISIO ALCALA, Mention of, 63

GALIANO GLACIER, Visit to, 89, 90

GANNETT, HENRY, Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 --, Instructions from, 194 --, Review of railway operations by, 255 -- -- -- Staff Map of France, by, 250

GANNETT, S. S., Computation of height of Mount St. Elias, by, 235

GEOGRAPHIC names, Board of, 39

GEOGRAPHY of the Air; A. W. Greely, 41 -- -- -- Land; H. G. Ogden, 31

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, Acknowledgments to, 40 --, Instructions from, 192, 193, 194 --, Offer of coöperation by, 249

GEOLOGY of the St. Elias region, 167, 174, 190, 191

GILBERT, G. K., Instructions from, 192, 193 --, Record of discussion by, vii, ix, x --, Remarks by, at field meeting, x --, Report on exploration by, 250

GLACIAL currents, 187 -- river, Example of, 183 -- streams, 183, 184

GLACIER BAY, Mention of, 67

GLACIERS in Disenchantment bay in 1792, 64, 65, 97 -- -- -- -- observed by Malaspina, 64, 65 -- -- -- -- -- -- Puget, 67, 68 -- of the St. Elias region, 176 -- west of Icy bay, 187

GRACE, M. P., Financial operations by, 23

GREELY, A. W., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 -- cited on Mississippi floods, 38 --; Geography of the Air, 41 --, Note by, on polar regions, 252 -- -- -- -- the crossing of Tibet, 253 --, Record of communication by, vii, viii, xi --; The Cartography and Observations of Bering's First Voyage, 205

GUIANA, Sketch of, 13

GUIDES, Use of, in ascending St. Elias, 166

GUYOT GLACIER named, 73

HAENKE, D. TADEO, Haenke island named for, 65

HAENKE ISLAND, Condition of, when seen by Malaspina, 63, 64, 65, 97 --, Visit to, 96, 103

HANN, JULIUS, cited on cyclones, 42

HAYDEN, DR. F. V., Glacier named for, 108

HAYDEN, EVERETT, Contributions to exploration fund by, 75 --, Record of discussion by, vii, viii, ix, xi --, Report on exploration by, 250

HAYDEN GLACIER, Brief account of, 108, 110, 111

HAYS, J. W., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75

HAZEN, H. A., Reference to work of, 50

HEIGHT and position of St. Elias, 189, 190

HENDRIKSEN, REVEREND CARL J., Mention of, 80, 83

HILL, S. A., Reference to work of, 47

HILL, R. T., Record of communication by, xiii

HITCHCOCK, PROFESSOR EDWARD, Range named for, 112

HITCHCOCK RANGE, Brief account of, 112 -- from Pinnacle pass, 133 --, Structure of, 118

{259}

HOOGEWERFF, J. A., Record of communication by, viii

HOOPER, CAPTAIN C. L., Navigation of Disenchantment bay, 56, 100 --, Offer of coöperation by, 249

HORE, E. C., Record of address by, vii --; The Heart of Africa, 238

HOSMER, E. S., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 --, Return of, 83 --, Volunteer assistant, 76

HOTCHKISS, JED., Record of communication by, ix, x --, Testimonial to, x

HOVEY, H. C., Record of communication by, x --, Remarks by, at field meeting, x

HOWELL, E. E., Record of communication by, xi

HUBBARD, GARDINER G., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 --, Glacier named for, 99 --, Presentation of flag by, viii --, Record of presidential address by, xiii --; South America: Annual address by the President, 1

HUBBARD GLACIER, Brief description of, 99

HUC, L'ABBÉ, Route of, 255

HUGHES, T. MCKENNEY, Record of communication by, x

ICEBERGS, Formation of, 98, 99, 101, 102 -- in Yakutat bay, Description of, 87

ICE tunnels, 184

INCAS of Peru, 8

INDIANS of South America, 7

INSTRUCTIONS from Geological Survey, 192, 193, 194 -- -- National Geographic Society, 194

IRVING, PROFESSOR R. D., Mountain named for, 144

JACKSON, SHELDON, Record of discussion by, ix

JOHNSON, J. B., Record of discussion by, xi

JOHNSON, WILLARD D., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 --, Exploration planned by, 75 --, Record of discussion by, vii --, Report on exploration by, 250

JUDD, J. G., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75

JUNGEN, ENSIGN C. W., Mention of, 81

KAMSHATKA, Cartography of, 217 --, Early eclipses in, 219, 229

KERR, MARK B., assigned as an assistant, 75 -- cited on Mount St. Elias, 39 --, Report on topographic work by, 195

KHANTAAK ISLAND, Village on, 79, 80

KING, HARRY, Contribution to exploration fund by, 75

KNAPP, HON. LYMAN E., Mention of, 79

KNIGHT ISLAND, Scenery near, 83 -- named by Puget, 68

KNOWLTON, F. H., Report on fossil plants, 199

LA BOUSSOLE, Mention of, 58

LAKE CASTANI named, 73

LAKELETS on the glaciers, 119, 120

LAKES, Abandoned beds of, near Blossom island, 116

LA PÉROUSE, J. F. S., Explorations of, 58, 60

LA PLATA river, Sketch of, 5

LASSA, recent attempt to reach, 253

L'ASTROLABE, Mention of, 58

LAURIDSEN, P., cited on early maps, 215 --, Quotation from, on de l'Isle's map, 217

LEACH, BOYNTON, Contribution to exploration fund by, 75

LEVÉE systems of the Mississippi, 37

LIBBEY, PROFESSOR WILLIAM, Explorations by, 72, 73

LINDENKOHL, A., Computation of position of Mount St. Elias by, 235

LINDSLEY, W. L., Member of expedition, 76 --, Work of, 122, 131, 134, 135, 139, 144, 149, 150, 153, 157, 158, 164

LITTLEHALES, G. W., Record of discussion by, vii

LITUYA BAY, Mention of, 55

LOB-NOR, Character of, 253

LOGAN, SIR W. E., Mountain named for, 141

LONDON MISSIONARY SOCIETY, Acknowledgments to, 247

LUCIA GLACIER, Brief account of, 192 -- --, Crossing of, 105, 106, 108, 109

LYNN CANAL, Mention of, 78

MALASPINA, ALEJANDRO, cited on Mount St. Elias, 231 --, Explorations of, 62, 66

MALASPINA GLACIER, Character of, 187 -- described and named, 71, 72 --, Excursion on, 120, 121, 162 -- from Blossom island, 118, 119 --, Mention of, 56

MALDONADO, Reference to, 62, 63

MAPS of Alaska, Rare, 206 -- (Staff) of France, Review of the, 250

MARVIN, C. F., Reference to work of, 48

MARVINE, A. R., Glacier named for, 112

MARVINE GLACIER, Account of, 112, 122, 124

MCCARTENEY, C. M., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75

MCGEE, W J, Record of communication by, xiii --, Record of discussion by, x, xi

MELVILLE, G. W., Record of communication by, viii

MENDENHALL, T. C., Record of discussion by, xi

METEOROLOGY, Condition of, 41

MEYER, HUGO, Reference to work of, 47

MIRAGE in Yakutat bay, 87

MISSISSIPPI RIVER, Flood of, 37

MONSOONS, Characteristics of, 47

MONGOLIA, Exploration in, 255

MOON, Mountains of the, 240

MORAINES, 195 --, Medial, on the Marvine glacier, 123 -- on the Malaspina glacier, 134 -- near Yakutat bay, 191

MOUNTAINS of South America, 1

MOUNT AUGUSTA, Avalanches on the sides of, 145 -- Elevation of, 117

MOUNT BERING, Height and condition of, 65

MOUNT COOK, Appearance of, 92 -- named, 72 --, Rocks composing, 92

MOUNT FAIRWEATHER, Height of, 69

MOUNT LOGAN named, 141

MOUNT MALASPINA, Elevation of, 117 -- named, 72

MOUNT NEWTON named, 146

MOUNT ST. ELIAS, Expedition to, 53 -- (see St. Elias, Mount).

MOUNT VANCOUVER named, 72

MUIR GLACIER, Visit to, 78, 79

MULGRAVE, LORD, Port Mulgrave named for, 60

NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY, Instructions from, 194

NÉVÉ fields, 180, 181, 182

NEWELL, F. H., Record of communication by, xi

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NEWTON GLACIER, Ascent of, 150

NEWTON, HENRY, Mountain named for, 146

NEW YORK TIMES, Expedition of the, 72, 73

NICARAGUA CANAL, Progress of the, 37

NOLIN, J. B., Geographic work by, 211

NOMENCLATURE, Geographic, 39

NORDHOFF, CHARLES, Contribution to exploration fund by, 75

NORRIS GLACIER, Mention of, 78

NUNATAK in Lucia glacier, 106

OFFICERS, Election of, xii

OGDEN, H. G.; Geography of the Land, 31 --, Record of communication by, xi --, Record of discussion by, viii, xi

OIL stoves, Use of, 164

OREL, Mention of the, 70

ORINOCO RIVER, Sketch of, 3

ORTHOGRAPHY of geographic names, 39

ORTON, JAMES, Quotation from, on South America, 28

OTKRYTIE, Mention of the, 69

OUTFIT necessary for Alaskan expeditions, 165

PANAX HORRIDUM, 95, 115

PAMPAS, Characteristics of, 19

PANAMA CANAL project, Revival of the, 37

PAN-AMERICAN congress, Work of the, 36 -- railway route, 27

PARTRIDGE, WILLAIM, Member of expedition, 76 --, Work of, 158, 159, 162

PARTSCH, DR., Reference to work of, 46

PEARY, R. E., Record of communication by, viii

PERU, Incas of, 8 --, Sketch of, 22

PHIPPS, C. J., Port Mulgrave named for, 60

PIEDMONT glaciers, Characteristics of, 122, 176, 185, 186 -- --, Example of, 120, 121 -- type of glaciers, Mention of, 57

PIMPLUNA rocks, Mention of, 70, 187

PINNACLE PASS cliffs, Account of, 132, 137 -- --, Height of, 137 -- --, View from, 132 --, Description of, 130, 132 -- named, 130

PINNACLE SYSTEM, Description of rocks of, 167 -- named, 131

PINTA, Mention of the, 79, 81

PIZARRO, GONZALO, Discovery of the Amazon by, 11

PLANTS on Blossom island, 114

POINT ESPERANZA, Camp at, 82, 84, 85

POINT GLORIOUS named, 137

POINT RIOU, Mention of, 69

POLAR regions, Recent work in, 252

POMORTSEW, DR., Reference to work of, 46

POPULATION of Africa, 238 -- of South America, 6, 15

PORT MULGRAVE, 56 -- named by Dixon, 60

POWELL, J. W., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 --, Record of communication by, viii -- -- -- discussion by, x -- -- -- introductory remarks by, xiii

POWELL, WILLIAM B., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75

PUERTO DEL DESENGAÑO, Mention of, 56

PUGET, PETER, Explorations of, 66, 68

PYRAMID HARBOR, Mention of, 78

QUEEN CHARLOTTE, Mention of the, 60 --, Voyage on the, 78, 79

RABOT, CH., cited on polar exploration, 252

RAILROADS, South American, 25 --, Statistics of, 255

RALEIGH, SIR WALTER, Expeditions by, 14

RATIONS, 164

REPORT on sands from Yakutat bay by J. Stanley-Brown, 196

RESOLUTION relating to publication, xii

REVENUE MARINE SERVICE, Offer of coöperation by, 249

REYNOLDS, J. J., Remarks by, at field meeting, x

RIO DE LA PLATA, Sketch of, 5

RIVERS, Glacial, 183 -- of South America, 3

ROCKHILL, W. W., Reference to explorations by, 253

ROPE CLIFF named, 149

ROUTE (New), Suggested, 163, 164

RUSSELL, I. C.; An Expedition to Mount St. Elias, 53 -- cited on Mount St. Elias, 39 --, Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 --, Height and Position of Mount St. Elias, 231 --, Proposed exploration by, 249 --, Record of communication by, vii, xi -- -- -- discussion by, vii, ix

RUSSELL, THOMAS, Acknowledgments to, 62 -- cited on cyclones, 43 --, Reference to work of, 51

RUSSIAN Academy of Sciences, Quotation from records of, 212

"RUSSIAN OFFICER," Geographic work by the, 209 --, Identity of the, 222 --, Quotation from the, on de l'Isle's map, 215, 217 -- -- -- -- -- -- writings, 221

SALMON fishing, 162

SANDS, Auriferous, from Yakutat bay, 196

SAN FRANCISCO RIVER, Sketch of, 5

SANGAI, Active vulcanism of, 2

SCHWATKA, LIEUTENANT FREDERICK, Explorations by, 72, 73

SERPENTINE on the Marvine glacier, 123

SETON-KARR, H. W., Explorations of, 72, 73

SEWARD GLACIER, Crevasses on, 133, 179, 180 --, Crossing of, 142 --, Description of, 177, 178, 179

SEWARD, HON. W. H., Glacier named for, 129

SHARP, BENJAMIN, Record of communication by, xiii

SHENDUN, Field meeting at, ix, x

SIEMENS, WERNER VON, cited on air currents, 45

SITKA, Arrival at, 79

SNOW crests, Figures of, 143 -- line, Description of Alpine glaciers above, 180 -- -- -- -- -- -- below, 183 -- --, Elevation of, 92, 111 -- on mountain crests, 182

SOUNDINGS in Disenchantment bay, 56

SOUTH AMERICA: Annual address by the President; Gardiner G. Hubbard, 1

SPRUNG, A., cited on air currents, 45

STAMY, THOMAS, Member of expedition, 76 --, Work of, 137, 139, 144, 150, 153, 157, 158, 160

STANLEY-BROWN, J., Record of communication by, vii --, Report on sands from Yakutat bay by, 196

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ST. ELIAS, Described by La Pérouse, 59, 60 --, Discovery of, by Bering, 58 -- expedition, Review of, 39 --, First full view of, 135 -- (Height and position of Mount); I. C. Russell, 231 -- -- -- -- -- 40, 189, 190 -- -- -- -- -- determined by La Pérouse, 60 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- Tebenkof, 69 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- Malaspina, 64, 65, 66 -- range, Age of, 175 -- --, Character of peaks of, 175 -- region, Glaciers of the, 176 -- schist, Description of rocks of, 167, 173 --, Suggested new route to, 163, 164 -- uplift, 190

STEIN, ROBERT, Translations by, 59, 64, 65, 66

STEPNIAK, SERGIUS, Record of address by, viii

STRAIT OF ANNAN, 56

STRUCTURE, 174

STRUVE, CH., Acknowledgments to, 221

STRUVE, O., cited on manuscript records, 220

SWISS guides in Alaskan exploration, 166

SULPHUR, Mention of the, 69

TAKU GLACIER, Mention of, 78

TAKU INLET, Visit to, 78

TANGANYIKA, LAKE, Characteristics of, 241

TEBENKOF, CAPTAIN, Notes on Alaska by, 69, 70

TERRACE on northern shore of Yakutat bay, 82, 85 -- point, Brief account of, 106

THUNDERSTORMS, Relation of, to air-pressure, 44

THOMPSON, GILBERT, Contribution to exploration fund by, 75

TIBET, Note on the crossing of, 253

TIDE-WATER glaciers defined, 101

TOPOGRAPHIC work, Report on, 195

TOPHAM, EDWIN, Explorations by, 73, 74

TOPHAM, W. H., Explorations by, 73, 74 --, Reference to map by, 177

TORNADOES, Results of, 50

TRADE, South American, 23

TRIANGULATION, Commencement of, 86

TUCKER, J. RANDOLPH, Remarks by, at field meeting, x

TUNNELS, Ice, 184

TYNDALL GLACIER named, 73

TYNDALL, J., cited on marginal crevasses, 127

VAN BEBBER, A., Reference to work of, 47

VANCOUVER, CAPTAIN GEORGE, Explorations by, 66, 68

VERATRUM VIRIDE, Mention of, 114

VOLCANOES of the Andes, 2

WARD, LESTER F., Report on fossil plants, 199, 200

WAXEL, SWEN, Quotations from, on de l'Isle's map, 223 --, Translations from letter by, 224 --, Work of, 222

WHITE, THOMAS, Member of expedition, 76 --, Work of, 158, 160

WILLIAMS, C. A., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75

WILLIAMS, WILLIAM, Explorations by, 73, 74

WILLIS, BAILY, Contribution to exploration fund by, 75

WILSON, H. M., Record of communication by, ix

YAKUTAT BAY, Arrival at, 79 --, Base camp on western shore of, 86, 89 --, Shores of described, 57 --, Synonomy of, 56

YAKUTAT INDIANS described by Dixon, 61 -- system, Description of rocks of, 167 -- -- named, 131

{i}

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

VOLUME III, 1891

WASHINGTON

PUBLISHED BY THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY

1892

{ii}

OFFICERS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY

1891

GARDINER G. HUBBARD, _President_

HERBERT G. OGDEN |
EVERETT HAYDEN |
A. W. GREELY | _Vice-Presidents_
C. HART MERRIAM |
HENRY GANNETT |

CHARLES J. BELL, _Treasurer_

MARCUS BAKER |
C. A. KENASTON | _Secretaries_

ROGERS BIRNIE, JR. |
G. K. GILBERT |
G. BROWN GOODE |
WILLARD D. JOHNSON |
W J MCGEE | _Managers_
T. C. MENDENHALL |
W. B. POWELL |
B. H. WARDER |

PRINTERS
JUDD & DETWEILER
WASHINGTON

ENGRAVERS
MOSS ENGRAVING CO.
NEW YORK

{iii}

_CONTENTS_.

Page.
South America: Annual Address by the President, GARDINER G.
HUBBARD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Geography of the Land: Annual Report by Vice-President HERBERT G.
OGDEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Geography of the Air: Annual Report by Vice-President A. W.
GREELY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

An Expedition to Mount St. Elias, Alaska; by ISRAEL C. RUSSELL . 53
Introduction--The Southern Coast of Alaska . . . . . . . . . 55
Part I--Previous Explorations in the St. Elias Region . . . . 58
Part II--Narrative of the St. Elias Expedition of 1890 . . . 75
Part III--Sketch of the Geology of the St. Elias Region . . . 167
Part IV--Glaciers of the St. Elias Region . . . . . . . . . . 176
Part V--Height and Position of Mount St. Elias . . . . . . . 189
Appendix A--Official Instructions governing the Expedition . 192
Appendix B--Report on topographic Work; by MARK B. KERR . . . 195
Appendix C--Report on auriferous Sands from Yakutat Bay; by
J. STANLEY-BROWN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Appendix D--Report on fossil Plants; by LESTER F. WARD . . . 199
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

The Cartography and Observations of Bering's First Voyage; by
A. W. GREELY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

Height and Position of Mount St. Elias; by ISRAEL C. RUSSELL . . 231

The Heart of Africa; by E. C. HORE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

Report of Committee on Exploration in Alaska . . . . . . . . . . 248

Notes--La Carte de France, dite de l'Etat Major, par M. J. COLLET 250

Polar Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

The Crossing of Tibet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

Statistics of Railways in United States . . . . . . . . . 255

Index to volume III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

Title-page and Imprimatur of Board of Mangers . . . . . . . . i

Contents and Illustrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

Publications of the National Geographic Society . . . . . . . v

Proceedings of the National Geographic Society . . . . . . . vii

Officers of the Society for 1892 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv

Members of the Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv

{iv}

_ILLUSTRATIONS_.