Chapter XI: Part 11

EYALET ([=i]'a-let), a former administrative division of the Turkish Empire, subdivided into sanjaks or provinces, and kazas or districts. It was ruled by a pasha, and gave place to the vilayet on the reorganization of the empire in 1871.

EYCK ([=i]k), Hubert and Jan van, brothers, famous painters of the old Flemish school, born at Maaseyck, Hubert in 1366, Jan probably about 1385. They lived first at Bruges, whence the younger brother is called John of Bruges, and afterwards at Ghent, to which they removed about 1420. Here they executed the celebrated _Adoration of the Lamb_ for the Cathedral of Ghent; a painting which, in its different parts, contains above three hundred figures, and is a masterpiece. It was in two horizontal divisions, comprising ten panels, of which only the two central ones remain at Ghent, the others being at Berlin. Hubert did not live to see it completed. He died at Ghent (1426), as did also his sister Margaret, who was likewise a painter (1431). Jan finished the work in 1432, and returned to Bruges, where he remained till his death, which took place in 1441, and executed several excellent pieces. His reputation became very great even during his lifetime, by his share in the introduction of oil-painting; the original invention of which has been incorrectly ascribed to him by many. Jan van Eyck also introduced improvements in linear and aerial perspective, and in painting upon glass. Three portraits by Jan van Eyck, _The Scholar_, _The Man with a Turban_, and _Giovanni Arnolfini and his Wife_, are in the National Gallery, London; the _Madonna of the Chancellor Rollin_ is in the Louvre.--Cf. W. H. J. Weale, _John and Hubert van Eyck_.

EYE, the organ of vision, is an instrument presenting some analogy to a photographic camera. It is provided with a lens for focussing images upon a sensitive membrane called the _retina_. The walls of the globe of the eye are formed principally of two fibrous membranes: one white and opaque--the _sclerotic_ (Gr. _skl[=e]ros_, hard)--which envelops two-thirds of the globe posteriorly; and the other transparent, and resembling a horny plate, whence its name, _cornea_ (Lat. _corneus_, horny). The sclerotic is a tough fibrous coat, and is the part to which the phrase 'white of the eye' is applied. In the front of the globe the sclerotic is abruptly transformed into the transparent portion (the cornea), which is circular, and which forms a window through which one can see into the interior. A membrane, the _conjunctiva_, so named because it unites the eye to the lid, spreads over the anterior portion of the globe, and then folds back on itself and lines the internal surface of the eyelids. On the internal surface of the sclerotic is a vascular membrane called the _choroid_. This is essentially the blood-vessel coat of the eyeball. About the place where the sclerotic passes into the cornea the choroid becomes continuous with the _iris_, a round curtain, the structure seen through the cornea, differently coloured in different individuals. In its centre is a round hole, the _pupil_, which appears as if it were a black spot. The _iris_ forms a diaphragm suspended in the space behind the cornea which is filled with clear fluid, the _aqueous humour_. The _iris_ consists of a framework of connective tissue, and its posterior surface is lined by cells containing pigment which gives the colour to the eye. In its substance are bundles of involuntary muscular fibres, arranged in a ring round the margin of the pupil. In a bright light the circular fibres contract and the pupil is made smaller; but in the dark these fibres relax and allow the pupil to dilate more or less widely, thus allowing more luminous rays to enter the eye. Just behind the pupil is the _crystalline lens_, resembling a small, very strongly magnifying glass, convex on each side, though more so behind. Minute bands of muscle in the choroid can alter the convexity of the lens, and thus adapt its focus to the position of objects at different distances. The large space in the globe of the eye that intervenes between the retina lining its inner surface and the lens in front is occupied by a transparent jelly-like mass called the _vitreous body_. The internal surface of the choroid, or rather the pigmentary layer which covers it, is lined by the retina or nervous tunic upon which the images of the objects that we see are focussed. The retina is a very complex mechanism consisting of certain elements which are stimulated by light, and others that transmit the effects of such stimulation as a nervous current to the optic nerve which carries it to the brain. It is composed of cones and cylinders or _rods_, joined together like the stakes of a palisade, perpendicular to the plane of the membrane, and forming by their free extremities a mosaic, each microscopic division of which is about 0.0008 of a line in diameter according to Helmholtz, and represents a section of a rod. These rods and cones are believed to be the agents by whose aid the waves of light become transformed into the stimulus of a sensation. The ocular globe is put in motion in the orbit by six muscles, grouped two by two, which raise or lower the eye, turn it inward or outward, or on its antero-posterior axis. In these movements the centre of the globe is immovable, and the eye moves round its transverse and vertical diameters. These three orders of movements are independent of each other, and may be made singly or in combination, in such a manner as to direct the pupil towards all points of the circumference of the orbit. Each eye is furnished with two eyelids, moved by muscles, which shield it from too much light and keep it from being injured. They are fringed with short, fine hairs called eyelashes; and along the edge of the lids is a row of glands similar to the sebaceous glands of the skin. The eyebrows, ridges of thickened integument and muscle, situated on the upper circumference of the orbit and covered with short hairs, also regulate to some extent the admission of light by muscular contraction. In reptiles, some fishes (sharks, &c.), in birds, and in some mammals a third eyelid or nictitating membrane is present, and can be drawn over the surface of the eye so as to clear it of foreign matters, and also to modify the light. The lachrymal apparatus is composed of, firstly, the _lachrymal gland_, which lies in a depression of the orbital arch; secondly, the _lachrymal canals_, by which the tears are poured out upon the conjunctiva a little above the border of the upper lid; thirdly, the _lachrymal ducts_, which are destined to receive the tears after they have bathed the eye, and of which the orifices or _lachrymal points_ are seen near the internal ends of the lids; fourthly, the _lachrymal sac_, in which the lachrymal ducts terminate, that empties the tears into the _nasal canal_. The tears, by running over the surface of the conjunctiva, render it supple and facilitate the movements of the globe and eyelids by lessening the friction. The influence of moral or physical causes increases their secretion, and when the lachrymal ducts do not suffice to carry them off they run over the lids.

_Vision._--The retina renders the eye sensible of light, and we may therefore consider it as the essential organ of vision. The function of the other portions is to focus the luminous rays on the surface of the retina, a condition necessary for distinct vision and the clear perception of objects. The visual impressions are transmitted from the retina to the brain by means of the optic nerve. The two optic nerves converge from the eyes toward the centre of the base of the brain, where there is a partial interlacement of their fibres in such a manner that a portion of the right nerve goes to the left side of the brain, and a part of the left nerve to the right side; this is called the _chiasma_ or _commissure_ of the optic nerves. The principal advantage of having two eyes is in the estimation of distance and the perception of relief. In order to see a point as single by two eyes we must make its two images fall on corresponding points of the retinas; and this implies a greater or less convergence of the optic axes according as the object is nearer or more remote. To accommodate the eye to different distances the lens is capable of altering itself with great precision and rapidity. When we look at a near object, the anterior surface of the lens bulges forward, becoming more convex the nearer the object; the more distant the object the more the lens is flattened. When the transparency of the cornea, the crystalline lens, or any of the contents of the globe of the eye is destroyed, either partially or entirely, then will partial or total blindness follow, since no image can be formed upon the retina; but although all the media and the cornea be perfectly transparent, and retain their proper forms, which likewise is necessary to distinct vision, yet injury or inactivity of the optic nerve, or injury of the parts of the brain with which it is connected, may produce disturbance of vision or total blindness. Defective vision may also arise from the crystalline lens being so convex as to form an image before the rays reach the retina (a defect known as short sight or myopia), in which case distinct vision will be procured by interposing a concave lens between the eye and the object of such a curvature as shall cause the rays that pass through the crystalline lens to meet on the retina; or the lens may be too flat, a defect which is corrected by convex lenses. In old age, and in fact in most people after about forty-five years of age, the elasticity of the lens becomes reduced, and convex lenses become necessary to make it possible to focus near objects. This condition is known as _presbyopia_. In the lower organisms the organs of sight appear as mere pigment spots. In higher forms, simple lenses or refracting bodies occur. Insects, crustaceans, &c., have large masses of simple eyes or ocelli aggregated together to form compound eyes--the separate facets or lenses being optically distinct, and sometimes numbering many thousands. In the cephalopods well-developed eyes presenting a distant analogy in structure to those of the highest animals are found; and in all vertebrate animals the organ of vision corresponds generally to what has been described, though they vary much in structure and adaptation to the surroundings of the animal.--Cf. J. Herbert Parsons, _Diseases of the Eye_.

EYE ([=a]), a municipal borough, England, county Suffolk, 19 miles north of Ipswich. Up till 1885 it sent a member to Parliament, and it still gives its name to a parliamentary division of East Suffolk. Pop. 1781.

EYEBRIGHT (_Euphrasia officin[=a]lis_), a small plant belonging to the nat. ord. Scrophulariaceae, which is common in Britain and most parts of Europe, in North Asia, &c. It is an annual, half-parasitic on grass-roots, from 3 to 8 inches high, often much branched. The whole plant has a bitter taste. Under the name of _euphrasy_ it formerly enjoyed a great reputation in diseases of the eyes.

EYEMOUTH, a fishing-town of Berwickshire, Scotland, at the mouth of the Eye, an important place in the thirteenth century. Pop. 2477.

EYE-PIECE, in a telescope, microscope, or other optical instrument, the lens, or combination of lenses to which the eye is applied. As the use of a single lens limits the field of view, eye-pieces are generally formed from two lenses or lens systems, called the eye-lens and the field-lens, placed at a distance apart. The Ramsden or positive eye-piece consists of two lenses of equal focal length placed at a distance apart equal to two-thirds of the focal length of either lens. The object looked at requires to be a short distance in front of the field-lens. In the Huyghens or negative eye-piece the focal lengths of the field- and eye-lenses are in the ratio 3 to 1, and the distance between the lenses is twice the focal length of the eye-lens. As a result the image formed by, say, the objective of a telescope is in focus when between the two lenses.

EYLAU ([=i]'lou), a small town, about 28 miles distant from Koenigsberg, in Prussia, famous for a bloody battle fought between Napoleon and the allied Russians and Prussians, on the 7th and 8th of Feb., 1807. Both sides claimed the victory. The loss of the Allies was about 20,000 men, while that of the French must have been considerably greater.

EYRE ([=a]r), Edward John, Australian explorer and colonial governor, born in Yorkshire 1815, died in 1901. He went to Australia in 1833, in 1839 discovered Lake Torrens, and in 1840 explored its eastern shores and the adjacent Flinders Range. He then commenced his perilous journey along the shores of the Great Australian Bight, and reached King George's Sound, in Western Australia, a distance of 1200 miles, with a single native boy, having left Adelaide more than a year before. In 1845 he published _Discoveries in Central Australia_. After filling several governorships, he was appointed Governor of Jamaica in 1862. In 1865 he was confronted with a negro rebellion, which he crushed with some severity, and was recalled. On his return to England John Stuart Mill and other so-called humanitarians took measures to try him for murder, but failed. Tennyson and Carlyle were among his most strenuous defenders.

EYRE, LAKE, a large salt-water lake of South Australia. Area about 4000 sq. miles, but it is subject to great fluctuations in size.

EZE'KIEL (Heb. _Yehezg[=e]l_, 'God shall strengthen'), the third of the great prophets, a priest, and the son of Buzi. He was carried away when young (about 599 B.C.) into the Babylonian captivity. His prophetic career extended over a period of twenty-two years, from the fifth to the twenty-seventh year of the captivity. The _Book of Ezekiel_ contains predictions made before the fall of Jerusalem, 586 B.C. (chaps. i-xxiv); prophecies against some of the neighbouring tribes (chaps. xxv-xxxii); prophecies concerning the future of Israel (xxxiii-xxxix); and a series of visions relating to the circumstances of the people after the restoration.

EZRA, a celebrated Jewish scribe and priest. Under his guidance the second expedition of the Jews set out from Babylon to Palestine in the reign of Artaxerxes I, about 458 B.C. The important services rendered by Ezra to his countrymen on that occasion, and also in arranging, and in some measure, it is believed, settling the canon of Scripture, are specially acknowledged by the Jews, and he has even been regarded as the second founder of the nation. Josephus states that he died in Jerusalem; others assert that he returned to Babylon, and died there at the age of 120 years. _The Book of Ezra_ contains an account of the favours bestowed upon the Jews by the Persian monarchs, the rebuilding of the temple, Ezra's mission to Jerusalem, and the various regulations and forms introduced by him. It is written partly in Hebrew and partly in Chaldee; this has led some to conclude that it is the work of different hands.

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F

F, the sixth letter of the English alphabet, is a labio-dental articulation, formed by the passage of breath between the lower lip and the upper front teeth. It is classed as a surd spirant, its corresponding sonant spirant being _v_, which is distinguished from _f_ by being pronounced with voice instead of breath, as may be perceived by pronouncing _ef, ev_. The figure of the letter F is the same as that of the ancient Greek digamma, which it also closely resembles in power. As a mediaeval Roman numeral F stands for 40, and with a bar above it, it is 40,000. F, in music, is the fourth note of the diatonic scale.

FAAM-TEA, or FAHAM-TEA, a name given to the dried leaves of the _Angraecum fragrans_, an orchid growing in the Mauritius and in India, and much prized for the fragrance of its leaves, an infusion of which is used as a stomachic and as an expectorant in pulmonary complaints.

FABER, Frederick William, D.D., a theologian and hymn-writer, the nephew of George Stanley Faber, born at Durham in 1814, died 26th Sept., 1863. In 1845 he became a convert to Roman Catholicism, and founded the oratory of St. Philip Neri, afterwards transferred to Brompton.

FABIAN SOCIETY, a Socialist organization, founded in 1888, whose object, as defined by the basis which members are required to sign, is the nationalization of all land and industrial capital for the benefit of the whole community; this result to be attained, not by any violent upheaval, but by educating the minds of the masses and gradually extending the control of the State over the factors of production. Its policy, as expounded in _Fabian Essays_ (1889) by a number of its early members, is frankly opportunist, and contemplates the use of existing political machinery and the acceptance of any measure of reform which will further the ultimate aims of the society. The name is derived from that of the Roman general, Quintus Fabius Maximus, known as Cunctator from the cautious tactics by which he ultimately defeated Hannibal. Prominent members of the society at different times have been Bernard Shaw, Sidney Webb, H. G. Wells, and J. A. Hobson. The society has branches in Great Britain, the Colonies, and America, and has issued a number of publications, notably _Fabian Tracts_. A research department recently established has done useful work. The growth of the labour movement has rather diminished the importance of the society, and has led to some secessions from its ranks.

FABII (f[=a]'bi-[=i]), an ancient and renowned family of Rome, who, having undertaken the duty of defending Roman territory against the incursions of the Veientines, established themselves at a post on the River Cremera. Being drawn into an ambush, they were killed to a man (477 B.C.). A boy who happened to be left in Rome became the second founder of the family. Among its celebrated members in aftertimes was Fabius Maximus, whose policy of defensive warfare was so successful against Hannibal in the second Punic War (218-201 B.C.); and Quintus Fabius Pictor, who lived about the same time and wrote a history of Rome in Greek, thus being the earliest Roman historian.

FABLE (Lat. _fabula_, narrative), in literature, a term applied originally to every imaginative tale, but confined in modern use to short stories, either in prose or verse, in which animals and sometimes inanimate things are feigned to act and speak with human interests and passions for the purpose of inculcating a moral lesson in a pleasant and pointed manner. The fable consists properly of two parts--the symbolical representation and the application, or the instruction intended to be deduced from it, which latter is called the _moral_ of the tale, and must be apparent in the fable itself. The oldest fables are supposed to be the Oriental; among these the Indian fables of Pilpay or Bidpai, and the fables of the Arabian Lokman, are celebrated. Amongst the Greeks, Aesop is the master of a simple but very effective style of fable. The fables of Phaedrus are a second-rate Latin version of those of Aesop. In modern times Gellert and Lessing among the Germans, Gay among the English, the Spanish Yriarte, the Italian Pignotti, and the Russian Ivan Krylov, are celebrated. The first place, however, amongst modern fabulists belongs to the French writer La Fontaine. R. L. Stevenson wrote a collection of fables.--Cf. Walter Jerrold, _The Big Book of Fables_.

FABLIAUX (fab'li-[=o]; O.F. _fabliaus_, Lat. _fabella_, dim. of _fabula_, story), in French literature, the short metrical tales of the Trouveres, or early poets of the Langue d'Oil, composed for the most part in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. These productions were intended merely for recitation, not for singing, and had as their principal subjects the current gossip and news of the day, which were treated in a witty and sarcastic way. The fabliaux lashed not only the clergy and nobility in their degeneracy, but even mocked the religious chivalrous spirit, and the religious and knightly doctrines and ceremonies.

FABRE, Jean Henri, French entomologist, born at Sainte-Leone, Aveyron, in 1823, died 11th Oct., 1915. The son of very poor parents, he received a free education at Rodez, and then went to the normal school at Vaucluse, and at the age of eighteen he began his career as teacher. He was in charge of a primary school, and in his spare time studied mathematics and physics. He subsequently became professor of physics at the College of Ajaccio, and his interest in insects having in the meantime been aroused, he turned his entire attention to entomological pursuits. His reputation as a naturalist increased, and his work was praised by Darwin. He was particularly noted for the remarkable patience with which he investigated the life-history of insects, and for his minute and painstaking observations. His works first appeared in the _Annales des sciences naturelles_ from 1855-8, and were afterwards amplified in his _Souvenirs Entomologiques_ in 10 volumes, published between 1878 and 1907. He was made a chevalier of the Legion of Honour, and in 1912 the French Government granted him a pension. His works were translated into English by A. Texeira de Mattos.

FABRIA'NO, an episcopal city of Italy, province of Ancona. Pop. 23,750.

FABRICIUS, Gaius (with the cognomen Luscinus), an ancient Roman, celebrated on account of his fearlessness, integrity, moderation, and contempt of riches. After having conquered the Samnites and Lucanians, and enriched his country with the spoils, of which he alone took nothing, he was sent on an embassy to Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, who tried in vain to corrupt him by large presents. When consul in 279 B.C., Fabricius delivered up to Pyrrhus his treacherous physician, who had offered to poison his royal master for a sum of money. In gratitude for the service the king released the Roman prisoners without ransom. In 275 B.C. Fabricius was chosen censor. He died about 250 B.C.

FABRICIUS, Johann Albrecht, a German scholar, born at Leipzig in 1668, died in 1736. He became professor of rhetoric and moral philosophy at Hamburg, and published many learned works, amongst which are his _Bibliotheca Latina_, _Bibliotheca Ecclesiastica_, and _Bibliotheca Antiquaria_.

FABRICIUS, Johann Christian, German entomologist, born 1743, died 3rd March, 1808. After studying at Copenhagen, Leyden, Edinburgh, and under Linnaeus at Upsala, he obtained the post of professor of natural history in the University of Kiel. In 1755 appeared his _Systema Entomologiae_, which gave to this science an entirely new form. In 1778 he published his _Philosophia Entomologica_, written upon the plan of the well-known _Philosophia Botanica_ of Linnaeus.

FACCIOLATI (f[.a]t-cho-lae't[=e]), Jacopo, Italian classical scholar, born 1682, died 1769; professor in the University of Padua. The most important work with which he was connected was the _Tot[=i]us Latinit[=a]tis Lexicon_, compiled by Forcellini under his direction and with his co-operation.

FACE, the front part of the head, the seat of most of the sense-organs. The bony basis of the face, exclusive of the thirty-two teeth (these not being in the strict sense bones), is composed of fourteen bones, called, in anatomy, the _bones of the face_. The anterior part of the brain-case (frontal bone) also forms an important feature of the face. Of all these bones the lower jaw only is movable, being articulated with the base of the skull. The other bones are firmly joined together and incapable of motion. In most mammals the jaws project much more than in men, and form the prominent feature of the face, while the forehead recedes. See _Facial Angle_.

FACE'TIAE, humorous sayings, witticisms, jests. There have been many collections of such. Amongst the most notable are the _Asteia_ (Jests) of Hierocles, an old Greek collection, the _Liber Facetiarum_ of Poggio Bracciolini, and Joe Miller's _Jest-Book_.

FACIAL ANGLE, an angle of importance in the method of skull measurement introduced by Camper, the Dutch anatomist, who sought to establish a connection between the magnitude of this angle and the intelligence of different animals and men, maintaining that it is always greater as the intellectual powers are greater. Suppose a straight line drawn at the base of the skull, posteriorly across the external orifice of the ear to the bottom of the nose, and another straight line from the bottom of the nose, or from the roots of the upper incisors, to the most prominent part of the forehead, then both lines will form an angle which will be more or less acute. In apes this angle is only from 45deg to 60deg; in the skull of a negro, about 70deg; in a European, from 75deg to 85deg. In another mode of drawing the lines the angle included between them varies in man from 90deg to 120deg, and is more capable of comparison among vertebrate animals than the angle of Camper. Though of some importance in the comparison of races, this angle is fallacious as a test of individual capacity.

1, European. 2, Negro.]

FACIAL NERVE, a motor nerve which supplies the muscles of expression on either side of the face. Injury to this nerve produces _facial paralysis_, the result of which is that the affected side is smooth, unwrinkled, and motionless, the eyelids are wide open and cannot be closed, and the muscles of the sound side having it all their own way drag the mouth to that side.

FACTOR, in arithmetic, is any number which divides a given number without a remainder, thus 3, 5, 7 are all factors of 105. In algebra, any expressions multiplied together to form a product are said to be factors of the product; for example, x + 1, x + 2, x + 3 are factors of x^3 + 6x^2 + 11x + 6.

FACTOR, in commerce, an agent employed to do business for another in buying or selling, or in the charge of property. A factor differs from a broker in holding a wider and more discretionary commission from his employer, in being able to buy and sell in his own name, and in having a lien on goods for his outlay. The difference, however, depends so much upon the usage of the particular trade, or upon the special instructions constituting the agency, that no exact line of demarcation can really be drawn between them. The term factor has in common usage generally given place to the terms agent and broker, the former applied in the more general, the latter in the more restricted sense. It is still retained in some special cases, as in that of house-factors and factors on landed property in Scotland, who have charge of the letting and general management of house property, farms, &c.; called in England estate agents.

FAC'TORY (from _factor_), a name which appears originally to have been given to establishments of merchants and factors resident in foreign countries; it now more commonly signifies a place in which the various processes of a particular manufacture are carried on simultaneously. The rapid growth of factories in this sense is a comparatively recent development of industry, resulting from the free use of machinery and the consequent subdivision of labour. Amongst the advantages of the factory system are generally counted: first, increased productiveness arising from the minute division of labour; second, the mechanical accuracy and the cheapness of the product turned out by machinery; third, the facilities for union and co-operation for common improvement afforded by bringing large masses of workmen together. But this last consideration is probably more than counter-balanced by the smaller amount of independent intelligence called forth in the individual worker, through the monotony of the minutely subdivided operations. Decided disadvantages of the factory system are the unhealthiness of the crowded rooms, where the air is full of deleterious elements; and the increasing demand on the labour of women and children, interfering as it does with the economy of domestic life.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. W. Cooke-Taylor, _Factory System and Factory Acts_; B. L. Hutchins, _A History of Factory Legislation_.

FACTORY ACTS, Acts passed for the regulation of factories and similar establishments. Considering that women and children were not qualified fully to protect themselves against the strain of competition, the British legislature has passed a series of Acts to regulate the conditions of their employment in factories. The immediate occasion of the first Act passed to regulate factory employment in England was the outbreak of an epidemic disease which committed great havoc among the younger persons employed in factories in the district round Manchester at the beginning of the nineteenth century. An Act was passed (1802) in which provision was made for the regular cleansing and ventilation of mills and factories, and also for limiting the hours of labour to twelve daily. In 1819 an Act followed which prescribed an hour and a half for meals in the course of a working day, and prohibited children under nine years of age being employed in factory work at all. Various Acts were passed up to 1878, when a general Factory and Workshop Act was passed, consolidating the previous series of statutes. Its scope was extended by a further series of enactments, until in the year 1901 the last general Act was passed, which consolidates and amends all previous legislation. The Act contains general provisions regarding drainage, sanitary conveniences, overcrowding, ventilation, fencing of dangerous machinery, &c. Factories are distinguished from workshops as making use of steam or other mechanical power. In textile factories the hours of labour for women and young persons (the latter between 14 and 18 years of age) are restricted to 10, but only 6-1/2 on Saturday and 56 in the week. In non-textile factories and workshops the hours may be 10-1/2 per day and 60 per week at most. Children (of 12 to 14 years) were not allowed to be employed more than 6-1/2 hours on any one day. (The Education Acts now prohibit almost entirely the employment of 'school children' in factories and workshops.) Provision is made for a certain number of annual holidays. Special provisions for particular kinds of factories are made, and under these the employment of females and young persons is regulated in bleaching- and dyeing-works, lace-factories, manufactories of earthenware, lucifer matches, percussion caps, cartridges, blast-furnaces, copper-mills, forges, foundries, manufactories of machinery, metal, india-rubber, gutta-percha, paper, glass, tobacco, letterpress printing, bookbinding, &c. The Act of 1901 included laundries carried on by way of trade or for the purposes of gain. An Act of 1907 extended the Act of 1901 to laundries carried on as ancillary to another business or incidentally to the purposes of any public institution. A short Act passed in 1911 gave power to make regulations applicable to cotton-cloth factories. Certain exceptions in regard to working over-time are provided for; thus women may sometimes work 14 hours a day. So far there has been no direct interference in any of the Factory Acts with the labour of adult male persons; but it is obvious that indirectly the position of the male labourer also is affected by legislation of this sort.

FAC'ULAE (Lat. _facula_, a torch), bright markings on the sun's disc, i.e. portions more brilliant than the general surface. They are supposed to be parts of the luminous surface, or photosphere, which are elevated to a greater height, and therefore suffer less absorption of their light in its passage through the overlying gases and vapours. Like the spots, they are in a state of constant change, and exhibit a similar periodicity in numbers and extent.

FACULTIES, COURT OF, in English law, a jurisdiction or tribunal belonging to the archbishop. It does not hold pleas in any suits, but has power to grant licences or dispensations, such as, to marry without banns, or to remove bodies previously buried.

FACULTY, the members, taken collectively, of the medical or legal professions; thus we speak of the medical faculty, and (in Scotland) of the faculty of advocates. The term is also used for the professors and teachers collectively of the several departments in a university; as, the faculty of arts, of theology, of medicine, or of law.

FACULTY, in law, is a power to do something, the right to do which the law admits, or a special privilege granted by law to do something which would otherwise be forbidden.

FAECES, the excrementitious part evacuated by animals. It varies, of course, with different species of animals, according to their diet. The main constituents are unassimilable parts of the food, on which the digestive process has no effect, and other portions, quite nutritious, but which have escaped digestion, also certain waste matters, &c. In disease the composition varies extremely.

FAED (f[=a]d), John, R.S.A., artist, born in Kirkcudbrightshire in 1820, died in 1902. He showed artistic talent at an early age, and in 1841 went to Edinburgh to study. Some years later he acquired a considerable reputation, and was elected to the Royal Scottish Academy in 1851. Among his principal works are: _Shakespeare and his Contemporaries_; _An Incident of Scottish Justice_; _The Morning after Flodden_; _A Wappenshaw_; two series of drawings illustrating _The Cotter's Saturday Night_ and _The Soldier's Return_; _John Anderson, My Jo_; _Auld Mare Maggie_; _The Gamekeeper's Daughter_; _The Hiring Fair_.

FAED, Thomas, R.A., younger brother of the preceding, born at the same place in 1826, died in 1900. He studied in Edinburgh, where at an early age he became known as a clever painter of rustic subjects. In 1852 he settled in London, where he won a high reputation. The subjects he painted are for the most part domestic or pathetic, and in these he invented and told his own story, and that with a success that emulates Wilkie. Among his principal works are: _Sir Walter Scott and his Friends_ (1849), _The Mitherless Bairn_ (1855), _The First Break in the Family_ (1857), _Sunday in the Backwoods_ (1859), _His Only Pair_ (1860), _From Dawn to Sunset_ (1861), _The Last o' the Clan_ (1865). A number of Faed's works have been engraved in large size, and have been very popular.

FAENZA (f[.a]-en'za), an episcopal city of N. Italy, in the province of and 19 miles south-west of Ravenna. It is supposed to have been the first Italian city in which the earthenware called _faience_ (q.v.) was introduced. The manufacture still flourishes here, and there is also a considerable trade in spinning and weaving silk. Pop. (commune), 40,164.

FAGACEAE, a nat. ord. of apetalous Dicotyledons, all trees and shrubs, mostly natives of temperate regions. It includes the beeches and oaks, and the sweet chestnut (Castanea).

FAGGING, a custom which formerly prevailed generally at most of the English schools, and is still practised at Eton, Winchester, Harrow, Rugby, and one or two other places. It consists in making the junior boys act as servants or 'fags' in the performance of multifarious menial offices for elder boys, such as carrying messages or preparing breakfast for their master, in return for which the elder boy accepts a certain responsibility for keeping order, and becomes the recognized adviser and protector of his 'fags'.

FAGGOT-VOTE, a term formerly applied in Britain to a vote procured by the purchase of property so as to constitute a nominal qualification without a substantial basis. Faggot-votes were chiefly used in county elections for members of Parliament. The way in which they were usually manufactured was by the purchase of a property which was divided into as many lots as would constitute separate votes, and given to different persons, who need not be resident members of the constituency. The practice disappeared after the Reform Act of 1884.

FAGUET, Emile, French literary historian, critic, and journalist, born at La Roche-sur-Yon in 1847, died in 1916. He became professor of poetry at the Sorbonne in 1897. Endowed with a keen power of analysis and a wealth of original ideas, he was one of the most brilliant French critics of the nineteenth century. Whilst praising the literature of the seventeenth century, Faguet somewhat depreciated the writers of the eighteenth century. Among his numerous works are: _Le theatre contemporain_ (1880-91), _Dix-huitieme siecle_ (1890), _Seizieme siecle_ (1893), _Drame ancien et drame moderne_ (1898), _Histoire de la litterature francaise_ (1900), _Propos litteraires_ (1902), _Initiation into Literature_, and _Initiation into Philosophy_.

FAGUS. See _Beech_.

FAHLERZ (fael'erts), or grey copper ore, is of a steel-grey or iron-black colour. It occurs crystallized in the form of the tetrahedron, also massive and disseminated. Its fracture is uneven or imperfectly conchoidal. Specific gravity, 4.5-5.1. _Tetrahedrite_, the typical species, is composed of copper, sulphur, and antimony. Part of the copper is often replaced by iron, zinc, silver, or mercury, and part of the antimony by arsenic.

FAHLUNITE, a mineral of a greenish colour occurring in six-sided prisms. It is a pseudomorph after iolite, and consists mainly of hydrous aluminium silicate. It takes its name from Fahlun in Sweden.

FAHRENHEIT (fae'r[.e]n-h[=i]t), Gabriel Daniel, German physicist, known for his arrangement of the thermometer, was born at Danzig in 1686, died in 1736. Abandoning the commercial profession for which he had been designed, he settled in Holland to study natural philosophy. In 1720 he effected a great improvement by the use of quicksilver instead of spirits of wine in thermometers. He invented the Fahrenheit scale (see _Thermometer_), and made several valuable discoveries in physics. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1724.

FAIDHERBE (f[=a]-derb), Louis Leon Cesar, a French general, born in 1818, died in 1889. He entered the army in 1840, served in Africa and the West Indies, was appointed Governor of Senegal in 1854, and afterwards of a district in Algiers from 1867 to 1870. After the fall of Napoleon III, he was summoned by the Government of the National Defence to France and appointed commander of the army of the north. He fought some bloody but indecisive battles with the Germans under Manteuffel and Goeben. After the war he was elected to the Assembly by Lille, his native place, but on the triumph of Thiers retired from politics to private life. He wrote _Epigraphie Phenicienne_, and valuable monographs on Senegal, the Sudan, and other parts of Africa.

FAIENCE (f[.a]-yens'), imitation porcelain, a kind of fine pottery, superior to the common pottery in its glazing, beauty of form, and richness of painting. Several kinds of faience are distinguished by critics. It derived its name from the town of Faenza, in Italy, where a fine sort of pottery called _majolica_ was manufactured as early as the fourteenth century. The majolica reached its greatest perfection between 1530 and 1560. In the Louvre, the Musee de Cluny, the British and Victoria and Albert Museums, at Berlin, and at Dresden are rich collections of it. The modern faience appears to have been invented about the middle of the sixteenth century, at Faenza, as an imitation of majolica, and obtained its name in France, where a man from Faenza, having discovered a similar kind of clay at Nevers, had introduced the manufacture of it. True faience is made of a yellowish or ruddy earth, covered with an enamel which is usually white, but may be coloured. This enamel is a glass rendered opaque by oxide of tin or other suitable material, and is intended not only to glaze the body, but to conceal it entirely. See _Pottery_.--Cf. M. L. Solon, _The Old French Faience_.

FAILLY (f[.a]-y[=e]), Pierre Louis Charles Achille de, French general, born in 1810, died in 1892. He distinguished himself in the Crimean War, and commanded a division against the Austrians in 1859. He was the means of introducing the Chassepot rifle into the French army, and commanded the troops which dispersed Garibaldi's irregulars at Mentana. At the outbreak of the Franco-German War Failly received the command of the 5th Corps, but was very unfortunate or unskilful in his organization of operations. His masterly inactivity in the early weeks of the war caused great popular indignation in France. Sedan ended his career as a soldier.

FAILSWORTH, a town of England, in Lancashire, 4 miles north-east of Manchester, with cotton-mills. Silk-weaving and hat-making are also carried on. Pop. 16,972.

FAINEANTS (f[=a]-n[=a]-[.a][n.]; Fr., 'do-nothings'), a sarcastic epithet applied to the later Merovingian kings of France, who were puppets in the hands of the mayors of the palace. Louis V, the last of the Carlovingian dynasty, received the same designation.

FAINTING, or SYNCOPE, a sudden suspension of the heart's action, of sensation, and the power of motion. It may be produced by loss of blood, pain, emotional disturbance, or organic or other diseases of the heart. It is to be treated by placing the patient on his back in a recumbent position or even with head slightly depressed, sprinkling cold water on his face, applying stimulant scents to the nostrils, or anything which tends to bring back the blood to the brain. The admission of fresh cool air and the loosening of any tight articles of dress are important.

FAIRBAIRN, Patrick, Scottish theologian, born 1805, died 1874. He became a minister of the Established Church, but joined the Free Church at the disruption in 1843. In 1853 he was appointed professor of divinity in the Free Church College, Aberdeen, and in 1856 principal of the Free Church College, Glasgow. Among his works are: _Typology of Scripture_; _Jonah: his Life, Character, and Mission_; _Ezekiel_; _Prophecy_; _Hermeneutical Manual_; _Pastoral Epistles of St. Paul_. He edited and wrote extensively for the _Imperial Bible Dictionary_.

FAIRBAIRN, Sir William, British civil engineer, born at Kelso, Roxburghshire, in 1789, died 18th Aug., 1874. He was apprenticed as an engine-wright at a colliery in North Shields, and commenced business on his own account in Manchester with James Lillie in 1817, where he made many improvements in machinery, such as the use of iron instead of wood in the shafting of cotton-mills. About 1831, his attention having been attracted to the use of iron as a material for shipbuilding, he built the first iron ship. His firm became extensively employed in iron shipbuilding at Manchester and at Millwall, London, and had a great share in the development of the trade. He shares with Stephenson the merit of constructing the great tubular bridge across the Menai Strait. Fairbairn was one of the earliest members of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, of which he was president in 1861 and 1862. He was created a baronet in 1869. Sir William wrote many valuable professional books and papers, amongst which are: _On Canal Steam Navigation_ (1831); _Iron: its History, Properties, and Manufacture_ (1841); _Application of Iron to Building Purposes_ (1854); _Iron Ship-building_ (1865). His brother Sir Peter, born 1799, died 1861, had also great mechanical ability, and founded large machine-works at Leeds.

FAIRFAX, Edward, the translator into English verse of Tasso's _Jerusalem Delivered_, was the natural son of Sir Thomas Fairfax of Denton, and born in the last quarter of the sixteenth century. He settled at Newhall, in the parish of Fewston, Yorkshire, to a life of studious leisure. The first edition of his translation bears the date of 1600. One or two eclogues by him also remain. He died in 1635.

FAIRFAX, Thomas, Lord, parliamentary general during the English Civil War, born in 1611 at Denton, in Yorkshire, died at Nun Appleton, Yorkshire, 12th Nov., 1671. He was the son and heir of Ferdinando, Lord Fairfax, to whose title and estates he succeeded in 1648. After serving in the Netherlands with some reputation, he returned to England, and on the rupture between Charles I and the Parliament joined the forces of the latter. In 1642 he was appointed General of the Horse, and two years later held a chief command in the army sent to co-operate with the Scots. In 1645, on the resignation of the Earl of Essex, Fairfax became general-in-chief of the Parliamentary army. After the victory at Naseby he marched into the western counties, quelling all opposition, put down the insurgents in Kent and Essex in 1647, and captured Colchester. In April, 1649, he was occupied along with Cromwell in suppressing revolt in the army; but positively declined to march against the Scottish Presbyterians. He was a member of Cromwell's first Parliament. He co-operated in the restoration of Charles II, being one of the committee charged to secure his return.

FAIRFORD, a town in Gloucestershire, England, 8 miles east by south of Cirencester, with a church the twenty-eight windows of which are filled with beautiful stained glass, formerly ascribed to Albert Duerer, but now known to have been designed and executed in England. Fairford was the birth-place of John Keble. Pop. 1410.

FAIR HEAD, a basaltic promontory on the north coast of Ireland, County Antrim, rising to the height of 636 feet.

FAIRIES AND ELVES. The fairies of folk-belief must be distinguished from the fairies of imaginative literature. Shakespeare, for instance, drew upon the fairy-lore of living tradition to create a new fairy mythology (as in _A Midsummer Night's Dream_) which became a literary convention. In the fairy stories of Hans Andersen the folk-material was similarly used in a free and individual manner. A distinction must likewise be drawn between the Celtic fairies and the Teutonic elves. The former are mainly females, like the nymphs of Homer, ruled over by a fairy queen, while the latter are mainly males, ruled over by an elf-king. Mab, the fairy queen, had no consort in British fairy literature until Oberon, King of the Fairies, was imported from mediaeval romance. His name 'Auberon', anciently 'Alberon', is identical with that of the German elfin king 'Alberich'. Indeed, the very names 'fairy' and 'fay' were introduced into these islands from abroad. More than one class of supernatural beings referred to in Gaelic as the _side_ (Irish) or _sith_ (Scottish), and pronounced _shee_, are now called 'fairies'. These include the Danann deities of Irish mythology and 'the mothers' (Y Mamau) of Welsh folk-lore. The word _side_ or _sith_ has the secondary meaning of 'peace', and refers to the silence of death and the silence of fairy movements. It may also be translated as 'supernatural', 'Otherworld', or 'unearthly'. Mysterious diseases that come in epidemics and afterwards disappear are referred to as diseases of the side or sith. Cat demons are _cait shith_, the cuckoo is _eun sith_, the mythical 'water horse' is _each sith_, a monstrous dog that passes over land and sea by night is _cu sith_, while the 'will-o'-the-wisp' is _teine sith_ ('supernatural fire'). In Iceland _side_ refers to the dwellings (earth mounds, &c.) of the Dananns, &c., as well as to the supernatural inhabitants. The fairies of folk-belief always come from the west on eddies of wind, and cannot be seen except by those who have 'second sight', or those whose eyes have been anointed with a green balsam possessed by fairies. Sometimes the fairies render themselves visible to all, but one who grasps the garment of a fairy finds his hand closing on nothing. The usual height of fairies is about 3 feet, but they have power to shrink and pass through a crack in a door. They may also assume great stature. The Danann _side_ of Ireland are of human or above human height. In Scotland 'green ladies' are of ordinary human size. The chief fairy colours are blue (the eyes), golden (the hair), and green, red, and grey (for clothing). Occasionally fairy beings are white and black. A black fairy with a red spot above the heart is referred to in Scottish stories, but is rare. He can be slain by piercing the red spot. The _side_ or _sith_ may be attired entirely in green with red caps, or have red cloaks and green skirts. A beautiful fairy queen may suddenly transform herself into an ugly old hag with black and white face and garments, as did the fairy who carried off Thomas the Rhymer to the Underworld. The dead were supposed to go to Fairyland, the Pagan Paradise. Those who died before their time were doomed to visit their former haunts as 'green ladies', i.e. green ghosts, until their measure of life was completed. Stories that tell of visions of the dead in the Underworld refer to them feasting and dancing, or reaping corn and plucking fruit in well-watered valleys. The resemblance of the Celtic Agricultural Paradise to the Otherworld of the Egyptian Osiris, which was originally situated under the ground, is of special interest. Both in the Underworld Paradise and on the 'Isles of the Blest' (the Celtic _Avalon_ or 'apple land' and 'Land of the Ever-Young') is a tree of life, which may be an apple tree, a hazel tree, or a rowan tree. The apples, nuts, or berries confer longevity on the gods and the souls of human beings that partake of them. On those human beings who have won their favour, the fairies bestow weapons, implements, musical instruments, songs, tunes, and medicines, and the power to work charms and foretell future events. In the Underworld, fairies engage in metal working and other industries. Sometimes they visit houses, and spin and weave with supernatural skill and speed in a single night big bales of clothing material, or make beautiful garments. Fairies possess gems, gold, silver, and copper in their underground dwellings. Cornish miners hear them working in their mines. The 'banshee' (Ir. _ben-side_) is a Fate who is seen washing the blood-stained clothing, or the 'death clothes', of those who are doomed to die a sudden death. She either howls, or sings a weird song, or can be heard 'knocking' as she strikes the clothing with a beetle during the washing, when a tragedy is at hand. Fairy women of great beauty have human lovers, but vanish for ever after a few meetings, with the result that their lovers become demented. Fairy men (_fer-side_) likewise upset the minds of girls. The fairies abduct human children, leaving 'changelings' in cradles, or carry off wives to act as 'wet nurses' or midwives. Men who die suddenly are supposed to be transported to Fairyland. King Arthur, the Rev. Mr. Kirk of Aberfoyle, Thomas the Rhymer, and others were removed to the Fairy Paradise. Among the Celtic _side_ are _pixies_, _geniti-glinni_ (valley genii), _Bocanachs_ (male goblins), _Bananachs_ (female goblins), _Demna aeir_ (spirits of the air), &c. Fairies may appear in animal forms, chiefly as beautiful birds. Elves are workers in metals, like Wayland Smith, and guardians of treasure who assume the forms of fish, otters, serpents, &c. Black elves dwell under the ground, and white elves haunt the air and the sea. Sea-elves are 'nikkers'. The Greek 'Fates', like the Celtic fairies, spin, weave, and embroider wedding and other garments in a single night for those they favour, and sometimes appear in groups of three, as old hags, to foretell tragic events or work spells. Celtic 'women of the _side_' sometimes appear in groups of three. The nereids are, like the fairy ladies, beautiful and capricious, and are likewise invariably blue eyed and golden haired. 'Nereid born' refers to the changeling idea. Nereids travel on whirlwinds, and, like the Celtic fairies, cause spinning spirals of dust on highways. They confer gifts on mortals, and accept offerings of food. Lacon the poet sings, "I will set a great bowl of white milk for the nymphs". In the Scottish Highlands the milk offering was poured on the ground for those 'under the earth', or into a hollowed stone (_clach-na-gruagaich_). The Indian 'nagas' have power to change from serpent to human form, or to appear as half-human, half-reptile beings. Like the Celtic fairies, they have been referred to by some writers as aborigines who hid from invaders in earth-houses, in forests, and among the hills. In this connection P. C. Roy, the translator of the _Mahabharata_, writes: "Nagas are semi-divine and can move through air and water and ascend to high heaven itself when they like, and have their home at Patala (the Underworld). To take them for some non-Aryan race, as has become the fashion with some ... is the very height of absurdity.... None of these writers, however, is acquainted with Sanskrit, and that is their best excuse." The fairies and elves of China and Japan resemble those of Europe. In Polynesia there are fairy-like beings. They are called _Patupaiarehe_, and dwell in lonely places, appearing only at night. Human beings receive gifts from them, or knowledge of how to make nets, weapons, &c. The changeling idea is as prevalent as in Europe. It is of special interest to find that the Polynesian fairies have, like the Celtic, fair hair and white skins. Other peoples believe in the existence of fairy-like beings. See _Folklore_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: T. Keightley, _Fairy Mythology_; E. S. Hartland, _Science of Fairy Tales_; Delattre, _English Fairy Poetry from the Origins to the Seventeenth Century_; H. A. Giles, _China and the Chinese_; J. G. Lawson, _Modern Greek Folklore and Ancient Greek Religion_; Sir George Grey, _Polynesian Mythology_; P. W. Joyce, _Social History of Ancient Ireland_.

FAIR ISLE, an island lying nearly midway between the Orkney and Shetland Islands, 3 miles long by 2 broad. It is inaccessible except at one point, and rises to the height of 711 feet. Some grain is grown, but the surface is mostly in pasture. The men engage in fishing; the women knit a well-known variety of hosiery, introduced, it is said, by Spaniards who escaped from the wreck of one of the vessels belonging to the Spanish Armada. There are two lighthouses. Pop. 147.

FAIR OAKS, BATTLE OF, fought at Fair Oaks, in Virginia, 7 miles east of Richmond, between the Confederates under General Johnston and the Union troops under General McClellan, 31st May, 1862. The loss on each side was nearly 6000 men; the result was indecisive.