Chapter III: Part 3

When Eric the Red first settled in the fiord of Igalikko, the Christian religion had not reached Iceland or Norway. Thor with his hammer reigned supreme. But Thor and his worshippers have sunk into oblivion, bequeathing us his hammer, the symbol of industry. The fiords of Greenland are about to witness a new era of enterprise and engineering skill, ere long the North Atlantic Telegraph Cable will repose at the bottom of one of its fiords, again uniting with Europe the countries of Iceland, Greenland, and America.

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In the neighbourhood of high land the water is generally of great depth, and the fiords of Greenland form no exception to the rule; in fact, it is only near the lower and more sloping land that vessels can lay at anchor, and this only in small coves so near to the land that it is the general practice to make fast to the shore by hawsers. Outside of this the water deepens rapidly, and in the middle of many of the fiords there is some 500 fathoms water; I should say that of the deeper fiords 300 fathoms will be found to be the average depth. In some places where the rocks are nearly perpendicular, a fishing-line of 100 fathoms fails to reach the bottom within a few yards of the shore.

Looking at the map of Julianshaab’s district, you will see that some of the fiords terminate at the continental ice, whilst others do not reach it; the former fiords have glaciers, the latter have not.

These glaciers are the outlets of the continental ice, which has a motion from the interior towards the sea coasts, and as the deep valleys or fiords are the only outlets, the ice is forced into them until, by projecting from the land into the sea, or fiord, portions give way and break off, owing to not being sufficiently supported by being adequately immersed, or owing to the rifts and chasms which exist in the glacier. The larger of these portions, when thus detached from the glacier, constitute icebergs.

The glaciers in the fiords of the southern parts of the west coast of Greenland are not very large, and consequently their icebergs are never of great dimensions. I do not think any iceberg produced by the glaciers of the fiords within 100 miles north or south of Julianshaab would ground in 60 fathoms.

The glaciers bring down with them boulders, sand and much fine clay, the result of attrition; the boulders are always rounded, owing to the severe abrasion they have undergone by being transported over the rocks below, whilst under the enormous pressure of the vast thickness of continental ice. This glacial clay floats suspended in the water, several miles from the glacier, rendering it turbid or milky, and depositing itself gradually throughout the whole length of the fiord. So vast has been the quantity, and so long the period of time during which this transport of clay has proceeded, that some fiords have been so completely filled up by it that they are only navigable in boats of light draught and at high water.

From this choking up of the fiord the glacier has ended in being unable to longer launch its icebergs; it has therefore found a new outlet through some other valley, where it will repeat the process of gradually filling up the fiord.

As nearly all the fiords have, or have had, glaciers in them bringing down the clayey deposits I have mentioned, the bottom must be of soft material. If the cable be taken into a fiord having a glacier, I think the clay which will be gradually deposited over it will be of great service in protecting it from injury by marine animals or other damaging agents.

The existence of these fiords is extremely advantageous to the carrying of the telegraph cable to Greenland, and there bringing it on shore. Were it not for these, some difficulties might have been met with in finding a suitable place for the landing, owing to the ice streams on the outside coast; but in several of these fiords, Tessermiut, for example, the water is of such depth as to preclude the possibility of icebergs grounding upon the cable, and the almost perpendicular mountains forming parts of the lateral coasts of the fiords, and the deep water at their bases, offer excellent situations for leading up the cable from the middle of the fiord to the shore, without exposing it in the slightest degree to the grounding of icebergs upon it.

In conclusion, I beg to state, that from the results of seven years’ observation in Greenland, I am of opinion that neither the ice nor the configuration of the coast, will offer any impediment to the successful laying and landing of the telegraph cable in Greenland.

THE ELECTRIC CIRCUITS OF THE PROPOSED NORTH ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH; BY COLONEL TAL. P. SHAFFNER, LL.D., F.R.G.S., OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.

The LORD ASHBURTON.--We have now come to the end of these papers which more particularly come within our province as geographers. There seems to me to be something wanting still. Physical geography is only interesting in so far as the results detailed are associated in some manner either with human feelings, human sympathies, or human interests. Now, the great purpose which has given attraction to the details which we have just listened to, is that of ascertaining whether the physical conditions of these northern regions are suited for the carrying out of the great enterprise which both Continents have at heart. Therefore, it seems to me you will hear with great interest how these details dovetail, as it were, into the necessities required by the establishment of the electric telegraph. The particular features of this scheme will be put before you by Colonel Shaffner, and I trust you will take the same interest in it that I am sure I myself shall.

COLONEL SHAFFNER then read the following, viz.:--

As preliminary, I will briefly refer to the respective circuits proposed on the north-about route, as marked upon the large map before the Society.

LANDING PLACES AND LENGTHS OF CIRCUITS.

SCOTLAND TO FÆRÖE ISLES.--One end of the cable for this section will be landed in one of the many safe bays in north Scotland--the precise place has not been determined. The other end it is proposed to land in a beautiful bay near Thorshaven. This section will be some 225 miles, and the depth of the sea not exceeding 254 fathoms; bottom, mud and shells.

FÆRÖES TO ICELAND.--One end of the cable will probably be landed at Haldervig, near the north of Stromöe Isle. Captain Young strongly recommends this bay, and that the other end be landed in Berufiord, Iceland, a very good place, with deep water and muddy bottom. The cable to this place will be about 240 miles. Depth of sea, maximum, 683 fathoms, bottom mud and shells. It may be found more advantageous, for reasons not necessary now to be discussed, to carry the cable more westward, to or near Portland, and to which place it can be laid on a muddy and sandy bottom, in water of good depth. Both of these places, namely, Berufiord and Portland, are free from any volcanic influences whatever, and ever have been, as far back as the discovery of that remarkable island in the year 863.

ICELAND TO GREENLAND.--This section will be the longest of the series, between 600 and 700 miles. Captain Young has reported in favour of Hvalfiord, a little north of Reikiavik, in the Faxe Bay, but in order to economise as to length of cable, it is quite probable that a more westerly place will be selected, on the south side of Faxe Bay. The other end of the cable he recommends be landed in Julianshaab fiord, on the south-west coast of Greenland. He examined that beautiful bay, and found it to contain deep water, with muddy bottom; and he states that it is his decided opinion that bergs cannot reach the cable when laid in it. The reports of others concur in this opinion. There are other fiords near Cape Farewell, equally favourable. Tessermiut and Illoa fiords are considered well suited for the cables.

Heretofore it was contemplated to land this section of the cable upon the east coast of Greenland, south of latitude 61° north, in or near Prince Christian’s sound, and then, either to carry the cable out at the other end of the sound, or to connect this section with the next by a cable around Cape Farewell; or, by a line across the land, avoiding the inland ice. For the present, the intention to land on the east coast has been abandoned, not because it has been found to be impracticable, but because it has not been proved to be practicable. It is now proposed to carry the cable from Iceland, around Cape Farewell, to one of the fiords on the west side, and from the same fiord run the cable to Labrador. Hereafter the Company may find it best to land on the east coast, and carry out the original intentions as above stated.

GREENLAND TO LABRADOR.--The cable will start from Greenland, and land at or near Hamilton’s Inlet. The soundings taken by Sir Leopold M‘Clintock show 180 fathoms interior from the outer rocks on the coast, so that the cable can be laid into the inlet from the sea in water sufficiently deep to place the cable beyond the reach of icebergs. If, however, the depths be found more favourable from the sea into Byron’s Bay, near and south of Cape Harrison, that place will be equally satisfactory, all questions being considered; and from thence the cable can be carried into Hamilton’s Inlet, through one of the several channels connecting Byron’s Bay with the Inlet. Length of section about 510 miles.

Before the respective cables are laid, each of the places will be carefully sounded, and buoys will be placed indicating the deep trenches; and, besides, steam tenders will be in readiness to serve as pilots. Every precaution will be taken to obtain the most complete information, in regard to the depths of the bays and of the seas.

THE ELECTRIC CIRCUITS.

I will now explain to the Society the respective electric circuits, as practically applied to commercial telegraphy. I propose to illustrate the mode of manipulating one or more circuits singly and combined: when I say singly, I mean from one station to another, and the employment of one voltaic series: when I say combined, I mean the coupling together two or more circuits in succession, all of which are brought into action by the manipulation of any given one. The diagram, I. represents a voltaic current traversing a line on poles: M. is the magnet, B. the battery, and K. the key, or circuit closer at contact point C. of station A., A. the armature of the lever seen in the apparatus at station B. By this diagram it will be seen that the course of the electric current leaves the positive end of the battery B., and passes through the metallic key K. when brought into contact with the metallic point C., thence with the line wire to station B., and there through the respective instruments to the metallic plate P., thence through the earth E. E. to the metallic plate N., up with the wire to the magnet M., thence to the negative pole of the battery B., which completes the voltaic circuit. Before proceeding further, it is proper to say that the course of the current, when it takes the earth at station B., remains a mystery in physics, and I assume its return to the battery from whence it originated. By elevating key K. the circuit will be broken, and it is the opening and closing of the circuit, in time methodically arranged, that constitutes the alphabet for the transmission of intelligence.

I will next call the attention of the society to diagram II., which illustrates the respective circuits contemplated to be organised on the North Atlantic Telegraph. The first circuit connects Scotland with the Færöes by submarine cable of some 225 miles in length. The course of the voltaic current runs through the cable, starting from Scotland, passing through the apparatus at the Færöes, descending into the earth, and thence direct to the source of its origination in Scotland. The current of this circuit passes through the spools of wire at the Færöes constructed as the one which I hold in my hand, and when the wires are thus charged, the cores, or iron centres, become magnetised, and they attract down the armature, which causes the other end of the lever to form a metallic contact so as to close the succeeding circuit extending to Iceland. The course of the current on this second section extends from the Færöes to Iceland, thence through the apparatus, similar to that at the Færöes, and then returns to the battery, from whence it sprung. In like manner the circuit from Iceland to Greenland is opened and closed, and the same action takes place on the circuit from Greenland to America. It will be observed that these circuits are not of equal lengths, but the science of telegraphy has been so carefully studied by the practical manipulator, that the conductors can be adapted to the requirements of each circuit, if desired.

DESCRIPTION OF THE APPARATUSES.--At _Scotland_:--K is the key; c, point to close circuit; B, the battery connected with earth plate N from negative pole N. At FÆRÖE ISLES:--M is the magnet; A, the armature of the lever L; F, the fulcrum post; C, the contact post; B, the battery, with its positive pole P; N and P are earth plates. The black arrows indicate the course of the voltaic current through the cable; dotted line E the current returning to the earth plate N, and to the battery at N. At _Iceland_:--The apparatus is the same as that at the Færöe Isles.

MANIPULATION OF THE APPARATUSES.--When the key K at Scotland is pressed to make a contact at c, battery B sends its electric current in the direction indicated by the arrows to C; through the key K, the submarine cable to the magnet M, through the coils of the magnet M to earth plate P, and thence to earth plate N, as indicated by the dotted line E. In this manner the circuit is completed. At the Færöe Isles, when the current traverses the magnet coils M, the armature A is attracted down, and the lever L makes a contact with C, which closes the next circuit. The current passes from battery B through the cable to the magnet M at Iceland; then to the earth plate P; then with the dotted line EE, to plate N; then up to the fulcrum post F, through the metallic lever L, and the contact post C to the battery B. When the current traverses the coils of magnet M at Iceland, the armature of lever L is attracted down, and a connection is made at C, which closes the next circuit to Greenland. At Greenland there will be a like apparatus, which will close the circuit to Labrador; and at Labrador will be another apparatus which will close another circuit to Quebec. At each place there can be a recording instrument, and dispatches can be received simultaneously at the Færöe Isles, Iceland, Greenland, Labrador, and Quebec.]

The limited time allowed at this meeting of the Society prevents me from going further into detail in explanation of the sciences and the arts pertaining to the subject under consideration. But in order that the Society may more clearly understand that which I have already said, I have arranged the models of apparatuses placed in different parts of this room. Before me is an apparatus supposed to be at North Scotland, that on my right the Færöes station. I will now call the Færöe station by the opening and the closing of the circuit as shown in diagram II., section 1, and it will be seen that the bell at Færöes is made to ring by the instrument at Scotland. I will next call Iceland, which is the station immediately beyond the Færöes, as seen in diagram II. When I call Iceland, the Færöe station connects or couples on the circuit to Iceland; when Iceland hears the call by the ringing of his bell, he immediately responds. The next station desired is Greenland, and when that station is called, Iceland couples on the circuit to Greenland, and in like manner Greenland couples on the circuit to America, and now I communicate by the combination of the respective circuits from Scotland to America by the simple motion of my finger.

I have reduced this illustration to the most simple form, so as to bring it within the comprehension of the most uninitiated. It has not been done for the expert telegrapher. The apparatuses required at the respective stations to effect the working in the manner described, will be more complicated, and a description of them would occupy more time than is allotted to me on the present occasion. I have upon the table one of the instruments used on the continental lines for the uniting of two or more circuits, by which the end heretofore described is effected.

The respective circuits of the North Atlantic Telegraph will be within the bounds of known practicabilities, and we have no reason to expect other than the fullest success and the attainment of a calculated celerity. There are no air lines or lines constructed on poles that work in circuits more than perhaps 500 miles. There is no retardation on such lines. The telegraph from London to St. Petersburg is about 1900 miles, and upon that range there are eight relay stations. From London to Odessa the telegraph is about 3500 miles, and there are about fourteen relay stations. From London to Constantinople it is about 3200 miles, and there are about twelve relay stations. It is a common occurrence to work to the stations mentioned through the aid of mechanical contrivances. It is in this manner that telegraphic manipulation overcomes long distances, and although the original electric spark will not “leap with one bound” from continent to continent by the North Atlantic Telegraph, the intelligence will pass between the hemispheres with a celerity commensurate with the grandeur of the enterprise and the wants of the age.

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THE LORD ASHBURTON: The Society has heard, I have no doubt with much pleasure, the very interesting papers that have been read this evening, and to afford an opportunity for a discussion upon them, their consideration will be continued at the next meeting.

The Society then adjourned.

THE ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY. MEETING, FEBRUARY 11TH, 1861. THE LORD ASHBURTON IN THE CHAIR.

_A crowded Meeting of the Members and their Friends was held at
Burlington House, on Monday Evening, February 11th, 1861, when the
Adjourned Discussion took place._

THE PRESIDENT: I need not read over to you again the names of the very interesting papers that were submitted to you on the last occasion of our meeting. We have now amongst us travellers who have gained experience in every quarter of the globe;--many learned geographers, who have been themselves present in those portions of the earth which have been alluded to in these papers: and I trust that we may have their assistance in correcting what they may see to be wrong; in amplifying and illustrating what we have heard. The subjects which come before us, within our province, are the geographical features; we are not engineers, nor electricians, to judge of the power of electric currents to pass from this or that part of the earth; we are not members of Parliament, who are to determine what aid, what facilities by law are to be afforded to men who have devoted themselves to this great enterprise; nor are we capable of judging of the respective merits of the many plans which have been put forward before the public. All that we can judge of are the geographical facts which have been laid before us, and of those facts there cannot be better judges than the assembly that I see before me. (Applause.) It is, therefore, with hopes of receiving instruction and much knowledge, that I call upon those gentlemen, more particularly, who have been in these scenes, to give us the advantage of their experience, in either amplifying, correcting, or illustrating, the several facts which have been brought before us. (Applause.)

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SIR EDWARD BELCHER, R.N.: I took a very deep interest in the deputation to Lord Palmerston to get the expedition sent out for this northern telegraph; and I am very happy indeed to find that nearly all the arguments that were then used have been so thoroughly realised. I thought, in the first instance, as has been proved, that we should find a great connecting bank between Scotland and the Færöes, and between Iceland and Greenland. As to the difficulties which were raised with reference to the Labrador shore, I am very glad to find that the reefs, which it was said would entirely prevent any cable being laid across there, have vanished with the ice; they have gone southerly somewhere or other, and have not yet been found; at least those reefs that are there are rather helps than otherwise by preventing the ice coming down upon the entrance. I should like very much to have been present at the last meeting to have understood the nature of the soundings;--and while I am speaking of the soundings, I am sorry to say that before another institution--the Civil Engineers--it has been assumed that we surveyors know nothing at all about soundings--that we do not know our business, and that really some civilians will have to teach us our work. Now, as far as I am myself concerned, during the whole of my servitude I adopted a particular means for getting up the bottom in large quantities, and in such large quantities that I thought nothing of bringing up a hatful at a time. I have six cases of microscopic shells, a very handsome collection, all of which I have got up by that means. The very simple mode that I adopted to sink my lead and to get up the soundings from the bottom was this. The sounding lead was encased by a cylinder, and the lead being conical, the cylinder on striking the ground flew up, and the lower part of the lead stuck to the bottom, picked up its quantity of soundings, and as the lead was withdrawn this cylinder (pointing) slipped down and completely protected whatever adhered to the lead from being washed away. The other one which I used for obtaining shells was a small dredge attached to the lead, and as the lead struck the bottom, the flanges scraped up a quantity of earth.

The Labrador coast takes its name “Labrador” from people having found there golden pyrites, as they termed them in those days, when they thought that they had made a discovery of a golden coast. It is a golden coast, inasmuch as the copper contains a great quantity of gold. In approaching that coast, I think that it would have been as well if the “Bulldog” had been furnished with a fine wire chain, such as our jack chains, as used in sweeping up anchors, and had it connected with an electrical machine. As she ran over the ground she might easily have detected at the instant whether there was any copper there. And as to any chance of the cable being corroded or cut, on approaching the shores of Labrador, or any of the places, I think that if application be made to the civil engineers, there are men of talent who would inform them instantly how they were to obviate it.

And if the cable is to be properly laid down, the ground must be properly examined; for it is quite absurd to attempt to lay cables in the teeth of nature. If that cable is to be connected with the Labrador coast, and that coast runs off in ridges under water, as is very natural, a further survey must be made to find where the hollows run. A correct and a very accurate survey should be made, so that the cable may be laid in the hollows.

I am very happy indeed that the experiment has been made, and that the officers have been so successful in planning the ground; and that we have a chance of connecting our coasts with those of our cousins across the Atlantic. (Cheers.)

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MR. PLINY MILES.--I do not know, My Lord, that I can throw any particular light on the subject of the explorations in Iceland and Greenland. I can, however, mention one or two facts that I noticed while travelling in Iceland a few years since. One great consideration of course will be that of climate; we can ascertain from certain circumstances that that country is not so cold as we should imagine it to be from its name and locality. The small hardy race of horses there subsist entirely out of doors in the winter, without any kind of food being given them in the shape of hay, excepting only those horses which they use for domestic purposes, during those months. The rest are without any kind of food, except what they gather from the open country. I saw in one case a mahogany tree on the south coast, not far from Portland, that had unquestionably floated with the gulf stream from the Gulf of Mexico itself. I was told also by Professor Johnson, that it was not unfrequently the case that spruce or other logs from Norway were found driven on to the northern coast, at the same time that logs of wood floated from the southern portion of the North American continent. They are there found together, the one current having come from Spitzbergen, and the other from the gulf stream. Standing on any mountain or height in Iceland, you will see a green and beautiful landscape; in fact, the natives say, “Iceland is the finest country the sun shines upon,” though at some seasons of the year they have very little of the sun to shine. I am satisfied of the feasibility of running the wires from this country to the Færöes and Iceland.

With regard to the absence or presence of trees in Iceland, that has nothing to do with the coldness or the severity of the climate. It is well known that there are trees of large size on the coast of Norway, where the climate is far colder than in any, the most severe seasons that have ever been known in Iceland, or in regions still farther north. It is a fact, that on some portions of the coast of Scotland, and in all parts of the Orkney and Shetland and Færöe Islands, you will not find a single tree six feet high, while they are found in Iceland 18 feet high. I will not attempt to explain, or to give a reason why, we find trees growing in one very severe climate, and not in others, but it is undoubtedly owing, to a certain extent, to the direction of the wind, and to some particular effect of the sea air. At any rate we find no trees whatever on some of our more southern coasts, while, farther north--on the Labrador coast, there are large trees, spruce, pine, larch, and others. So that the fact that there are no trees in Iceland, must not lead persons to suppose that the cold is necessarily extremely severe.

I would just refer to a statement made by a gentleman who read a paper here two weeks ago, with regard to the thickness of ice at Reikiavik. I have a distinct recollection that the lake seldom freezes to the depth of 18 inches. I have been told that sometimes it is not frozen more than two inches during the whole course of the winter, showing most conclusively the mildness of the climate. These circumstances will throw considerable light on the peculiarities of that climate; and prove that it is far more genial than you would naturally suppose from its name and locality. (Applause.)

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[_Referred to in the Remarks of Captain Osborn._]

FÆRÖE ISLES. _About 225 Miles._ SCOTLAND.

ICELAND. _About 240 Miles._ FÆRÖE ISLES.

GREENLAND. _About 670 Miles._ ICELAND.

LABRADOR. _About 510 Miles._ GREENLAND.]

CAPTAIN SHERARD OSBORN, R.N.: I will not attempt to say anything as to the practicability of the route, inasmuch as the distinguished travellers and navigators, who read their papers at the last meeting, have given us sufficient authority to say that there were obstacles on the route undoubtedly, but that all those obstacles are surmountable. Touching the soundings, I would call your attention to the agreeable fact that the entire line of soundings show that there is no depth greater than 1000 fathoms between Scotland and longitude 30 west on the proposed route, or exactly halfway across the Atlantic Ocean. There are then two valleys of deep water, of small width, on either side of Greenland. The soundings diminished, as you see, very abruptly as Greenland is approached, and shallow water will be found probably round Cape Farewell. With regard to the Labrador coast, the principal difficulty was in carrying the cable within the 150 fathoms of water, so that it might not be exposed to the action of the icebergs. I am sure that Arctic men all agree that 150 fathoms would be about the maximum draught of any iceberg, so that the chief object to be secured in placing the cable is to push the 150 fathom mark as near into the coast as possible. They would remember that Sir Leopold M‘Clintock had said that he would like to have a more accurate survey of the Labrador coast, so as to carry the deep water a little closer. If they looked at the map they would see 1190 fathoms carried just to the north of Hamilton Inlet, and there was every reason to believe that the bank of Newfoundland--they might call it so, although it extended a long way up the Labrador coast--deepened suddenly there. As far as one might speculate upon the question, I have no doubt that a more accurate survey would lead to the obtaining of such information as would give us a channel leading close into the Labrador shore, near Cape Harrison. I would propose, that the cable there should open out and form, say, half-a-dozen strands running into the shore at certain distances from each other, so that if a berg drifted down and happened to pick up one, it would not pick up all the rest, and by that means the cable in the deep water would be at all times safe and recoverable by following out those strands. There was one feature that struck me particularly, and on which I wrote to Captain M‘Clintock. No man would dispute that bergs of ice sounding the bottom would rip it up, just as a plough would a ploughed field; and that if that bank was thus ripped up by the floes of ice, there would be hardly any animal or vegetable life upon it; it would be a kind of subterranean desert. Sir Leopold M‘Clintock was continually dredging there, and in a note just received, that distinguished navigator said, “The bank of Hamilton Inlet has from 100 to 200 fathoms upon it. I am of opinion that icebergs which ever drift down there cannot possibly reach the bottom. They ground near the islands at the entrance and are not bergs of the largest size. Shells and other small things were brought up by the sounding machines in 40 or 50 fathoms, _as in other parts of the sea_ where icebergs cannot possibly interfere with them.” Near Frederickshaab Captain Sir L. M‘Clintock says they dredged up in 26 fathoms delicate corals and creatures which could not live at the bottom of the sea if much disturbed by icebergs,--and adds “_so much for the destructive propensities of icebergs_.” How all this came about was a question I do not pretend to solve, but the fact was very curious, as showing that bergs could touch the bottom without sweeping everything before them. I am sure that every geographer will be interested in the following fact, for it related to the late Sir John Ross, who stated that in his voyage in 1818 he brought up mud from 1050 fathoms, the deepest soundings ever obtained at that time; and in the mud were shells and fish. So to that old navigator they first owed that the fact of animal life in great depths had been discovered. We were talking the other day about the difficulties with regard to the intense cold and the aurora borealis affecting the telegraph. It might be interesting for the Society to know that a few seasons ago, Captain Kellett and Captain M‘Clintock were beset in the ice in 74-1/2° north, and they communicated with each other by telegraph from ship to ship. Now 74-1/2° north latitude was a long way in the Arctic zone, and the cable, the practicability of which they were at present discussing, would lie a long way without it. That telegraph was at work throughout the whole winter, and was not in any way affected by that terrible bug-bear the aurora borealis, nor by the intense cold experienced so far north. (Applause.)

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MR. JOHN BALL: It is impossible to over-rate the importance of the subject brought to the attention of the Society by the gentlemen who read their papers. It is very desirable that we should not under-rate the difficulties which still remain, and which I think have not all of them been sufficiently brought forward, and it is by pointing out the difficulties at this early stage that we shall soonest arrive at the solution of those difficulties and the great end which I trust we shall live to see accomplished. I have long felt that this northern route was the right one; but I am not blind to the many difficulties which still remain in our way. With reference to the precise points which come particularly under the attention of this Society, and were brought clearly before us at the last meeting, there are two or three on which I wish to make a few observations. As to the Færöes, I apprehend there is no great difficulty. As to Iceland, it is proposed to land the cable at the south-east side of the island, to carry it across the island, and start again from Reikiavik in order to communicate from thence to Greenland. Now there, are we not unnecessarily encountering very serious difficulties and incurring a great increase of expenditure? It is true that it is possible to cross Iceland--perfectly possible--but so experienced a traveller as Dr. Rae found that it was not practicable without very great sacrifice of time, and encountering great difficulties, to take that direct route pretty nearly from east to west; but has he at all considered what the difficulties and cost of laying down a telegraphic wire are? I think he has mentioned--every traveller in Iceland has mentioned--that large district in the interior of the island over which you must hurry as fast as your horses can carry you, for the simple reason that there is nothing upon which to live; and if you are to lay down a telegraph across that interior desert of Iceland, you must be prepared for a vast number of difficulties and an enormous amount of money, and time, and labour, while they are doing it, and to accomplish it within a reasonable time. But, furthermore, how is it to be done? If you require piles, you must carry every pile into the island, across the island by horses, and supposing you could hire every one of the horses, there are not enough to enable you, in one or two seasons, to accomplish the work. And then, again, I have not alluded to the difficulty which every voyager will have encountered with respect to the breakers. Would it not be better to confine the difficulties to one point alone,--the entrance into the Faxe Fiord? I don’t know whether it is proposed to land it at that point or not, but let the difficulties be confined to one point instead of two. With reference to Labrador, even though it be true that we can carry the 150 fathoms depth near to the coast, still that, my lord, may be as formidable as ten, or twenty, or fifty miles in another place. If it be a part of the coast on which there are icebergs, it is necessary, it appears to me, not only to carry your 150 fathoms of water close in shore, but you must get it safe behind some headland which will throw aside the icebergs. May it not be possible that by making the line a little longer, and running it into the strait of Belle Isle, the true solution will be found?

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SIR RODERICK MURCHISON:--If any Arctic geographer or voyager had been prepared to rise, I would not have occupied the time of the Society for one moment, upon a subject on which I know little. I will only say I am one of the very many well-wishers to every expedition of this sort which the Royal Geographical Society holds within its number. My lord, we are not here, as you have very properly said, to discuss the engineering merits of the project, nor are we really capable of estimating the difficulties that have been apprehended by my friend Mr. Ball; but we are capable of estimating, in a very decisive manner, the facts that Sir Leopold M‘Clintock and Captain Sherard Osborn, who are men of great experience as Arctic voyagers, have pronounced in favour of this scheme.

I make no observations upon the scheme, except to say that had I risen at our last meeting, when your lordship adjourned the discussion to this evening, I should have felt it necessary to say that we owe a deep debt of obligation to those five gentlemen, who brought before us on that occasion their well elaborated and well received papers. They brought before us a mass of geographical knowledge which we never could have possessed, had not this expedition been matured--I say it to his honour--through the patronage of Lord Palmerston, and carried out through the active enterprise of the gentlemen who undertook this service.

Being in favour of all such expeditions, the moment my distinguished friend Captain Allen Young offered to go out in command of the little “Fox,” in which you know I took a deep interest, I went down to Southampton, to attend a great meeting assembled by the Mayor in honour of this expedition. There Colonel Shaffner and Mr. Croskey, and the other gentlemen associated with them, and the Danish officers and others present received from us as Englishmen every encouragement we could offer to promote this enterprise.

My lord, the details of the two expeditions have been so admirably laid before you that I, for one, should have been contented with the results, if I were in any way embarked as a speculator in the success of the undertaking. But not having any pecuniary interest in it, or in any rival speculation, I may say to the gentlemen of the North Atlantic Company, you have put your case so well before the public, that no gentleman associated with other lines can say that it is possible to have treated the subject in a more ingenuous and fair manner. (Hear, hear, and applause.)

And now, my lord, I cannot sit down without saying, it gave me very great satisfaction to hear Dr. Rae expatiate, as he did, upon the warm and hearty reception that he received from all the inhabitants of the Danish settlement of the Færöe Islands and of Iceland. I say this in the presence of the Danish minister; and I am sure Dr. Rae was justified when he spoke in the name of Englishmen, of our gratitude to the King of Denmark, and to the government of that country, for having so warmly assisted us in one of those great enterprises, which may lead us to connect America with our own country. (Applause.)

* * * * *

DR. RAE: My Lord,--The time allowed me at the last meeting of this Society was necessarily so short, that I left unmentioned some important points connected with my journey over Iceland; so I now beg to say a few words in reply to the observations of Mr. Ball.

The interior of Iceland over which we travelled is not devoid of grass, there being sufficient for our horses throughout the whole route, which offered comparatively few difficulties. Although two of the party were heavy men, we crossed the island in thirteen or fourteen days, riding the same horses at the rate of more than thirty miles per day. These ponies can carry a load of 200 lbs. or upwards, and pieces of wood ten or fifteen feet long can be carried by them over the highest and steepest ground on the route. The best line for the telegraph lies to the south of that we travelled over, and is marked on the chart by a dotted line. Along this route there is abundance of water, and grass also, except at one station, to supply which a depôt of hay could be made. This portion of the way (about the centre of Iceland), called the Sprengisandr road, is almost a flat table land. Again, some of the larger rivers that flow northward appear to be navigable for boats similar to those used in Hudson’s Bay, which carry from three to four tons weight. By this means materials could be deposited at several stations near to the proposed line. I do not profess to be a surveyor, but having travelled a good deal both in the United States and Canada, I have seen telegraphs carried over more difficult and rougher country than we encountered in crossing Iceland. But should objections be offered to carrying the telegraph completely across the island, I am of opinion, from information obtained, that Portland, in the south of Iceland, although no safe harbour for ships, would form a good landing place for a cable. From Portland to Reikiavik the distance is not over ninety miles, and the road offers no obstacles. The object of our journey was not to make a minute or detailed survey, but to determine if it were practicable to carry a telegraph over the island. (Applause.)

APPENDIX.

OPINIONS OF GREENLANDERS, ON THE PRACTICABILITY OF LAYING THE
TELEGRAPHIC CABLES UPON THE COAST OF SOUTH GREENLAND.

The following extracts are taken from letters written in Greenland by residents there, who have had much experience upon the coast. They prove that the floe-ice is seen off the coast of Julianshaab in January or February, and that sometimes during the summer months there is none off the coast, and that every year, from and after the month of August until January, “the coast is free from ice.” During the months that are free from ice a steamer can enter or depart with the cable, and lay it without the slightest interruption. The floe-ice runs north, along and within sight of the coast, unless driven to sea by extraordinary gales, which circumstance is always known. When it is driven to sea it clusters together in small patches of a few hundred yards in length.

The year 1860 was a remarkable era; there was a greater quantity of ice, and it remained longer upon the coast, than ever before within the memory of man or traditional accounts. Even during this year the cables could have been safely landed in Julianshaab and other fiords. Severe seasons occasionally occur in all climates, and so it has been in England the present winter (1861). The first fourteen days were colder than has been experienced since 1839, and it has been the third occurrence of severe cold within this century.

_Extracts from a Letter dated Godthaab, Greenland, September 4th,
1860, from Dr. Rink, Inspector (Governor) of South Greenland._

“I need not tell you how interesting your letter from Julianshaab, of October, last year, was to me, and how much I regretted the impossibility of meeting you.

“I have thought much on your grand enterprise, and though I doubt very much that the telegraph line can be carried across Greenland from the east side, I am convinced that it can be landed in some of the inlets (or fiords) in the vicinity of Cape Farewell, without fear of interruption from ice.

“The drift ice has been very bad this summer, and has deprived me of an opportunity to meet you.”

* * * * *

_Extracts from a Letter dated Julianshaab, November 2nd, 1860, from
Mr. Möller, Governor of the Julianshaab District, a resident of
Greenland since 1825._

“As a general rule the first drift ice appears in the months of January or February, but it is seldom of such extent as to reach further north than this district. When it does so, it is in the spring months.

“The Spitzbergen ice this year (1860) has beset the coast of this district from the month of January, but at some times not so much as to prevent vessels coming into this port.

“The worst months were June and July and a part of August. The reason that Col. Shaffner’s vessel was able to run into this port so successfully in the autumn of last year (October 2nd, 1859), was that the ice had long before entirely left the coast; in fact the ice had gone away in August.

“The Colonel’s ship, without the slightest hindrance, navigated the coast in the month of September, and put to sea from near this harbour in October 1859. But this year the ice has remained upon the coast longer than ever before within my memory. The coast is usually free from ice during the autumn months.”

* * * * *

_Extracts from a Letter dated Frederickshaab, October 11th, 1860,
from Mr. Twede, Governor of the Frederickshaab District, a resident
of Greenland since 1850._

“The ice off this coast has continued later this year than it has ever before during my residence in Greenland. During the past ten years, and before this season, the ice on the coast of this and the Julianshaab Districts, with but one exception, has never prevented the Julianshaab vessels from sailing direct to this place, and they have generally arrived by the middle of August, and in 1855 on the 5th of July. Last year the vessels proceeded direct from sea to Julianshaab, the ice having disappeared off the coast early in the summer.

“In September 1855, I sailed along the coast of Julianshaab District beyond Cape Farewell to Itiblik, without having encountered any floe ice whatever. In September 1859, Col. Shaffner’s ship was seen steering along the coast, and subsequently anchored at Kaksimiut, in the Julianshaab District, without any interruption from ice. The coast during the autumn months is nearly always free from ice.”

* * * * *

_Extract from a Letter dated Frederickshaab, October 11th, 1860, from
the Rev. F. P. Barfoed, a resident of Greenland since 1852._

“During my residence in Greenland, I have never seen so much ice as during the present year. Dr. Rink, the Inspector (Governor) of South Greenland, and all other Danes and Greenlanders with whom I have consulted on the subject, are unanimous in declaring that never before within the memory of man has there been a year of so much ice as that of 1860.

“It is my opinion that both the east and the west coasts are every year, at times, free from ice, but possibly not on both coasts at the same time; and it is my decided opinion that a steamer will almost always find an opportunity to proceed unobstructed, direct from and to Julianshaab District, either from or to Labrador and Iceland, after, and many times during, the month of August. In the month of September 1859, I saw Col. Shaffner’s vessel coasting southward, and in a few days afterwards we heard that he had anchored at Kaksimiut in the Julianshaab District. There was but little ice last year, and in an especial manner was the Julianshaab District free from ice.”

* * * * *

_Statement of Mr. Motzfeldt, Superintendent at Kaksimiut, one of the
oldest residents in Greenland, November 1860._

“The year 1860 has been one of the worst ice years that we have ever had. Last year (October 2nd, 1859), Colonel Shaffner’s ship entered Kaksimiut without difficulty. In the months of September, October, and November, generally, this coast is free from ice, and a steam vessel can enter from the sea and depart from the coast almost any day, and not be interrupted during the autumn months. I am now over fifty years of age, and do not remember ever having seen an ice year as bad as this (1860). Even this year the coast of the Julianshaab District has been free from ice during the past and present months.”

* * * * *

_Extract from a Letter dated Julianshaab, November 3rd, 1860, from
J. Anderson, Captain in the Royal Greenland Commercial Service since
1848._

“During eight years, I was boatswain to a merchant vessel trading to this district, and during the last twelve years commander of the district schooner ‘Activ,’ of 22 tons burthen. During those periods, I have as an old sailor (for I have been forty years at sea) made many careful observations as to the nature of the ice along this coast. I have also kept a correct log (book which is now in the possession of the Board of Management of the Royal Danish Commercial Institution of Greenland), ever since the year 1849.

“Having gone through that log book, and compared it with my own views, I now express the opinion that, as a general rule, the ice mostly lies on the coast during the months of April and May, and that, on the other hand, the months which are free from ice are September, October, and November. It may be taken as a general rule, that during the months of September and October, even in what are called ‘bad ice years,’ this coast is free from ice.

“My own experience enables me to state positively--and my log book will bear me out in the statement--that steam-vessels can run straight into the settlement from the sea, with certainty, during the months before mentioned; and, as a proof of the correctness of this opinion, reference may be made to this very year, which, in regard to ice, to my own knowledge, has been the worst and the longest in duration of any ‘bad ice year’ since my arrival here in the year 1841. The large vessel, ‘Bulldog,’ came straight to this place from sea; and since the date of its arrival, up to the present time, any ship, be it what it may, might have been equally able to make this port, from the sea, and to leave it again without interruption from ice.

“Last year (1859) an American barque came straight into Kaksimint, which is a little to the north of this settlement; but that is not to be wondered at, as last year was what we call here an ‘ice-free year;’ and if the captain of that vessel had been acquainted with the coast navigation, he might have easily come in and gone out more than twenty times, and from as many places.”

* * * * *

_Extract from a Letter dated Julianshaab, October 23rd, 1860,
from Mr. Dorph, retired assistant from Nennortalik; I. Holm,
superintendent at Sardlok; M. Schonheyder, superintendent at East
Proven; and S. G. Lund, superintendent at South Proven._

“In compliance with the request made to us, we hereby declare that the present year has been what is called, in Greenland, a ‘bad ice year.’

“The large ice remained an unusually long time at the shore. Neither of us, nor any of the old Greenlanders with whom we have conversed on the subject, remember ever having seen, in the course of our lives, the ice remaining for so long a period along the coasts.

“The ice lay so thick for so long a time that the hunters were prevented thereby from performing their usual work, even in their Kayaks. In the present year the ice set in from the first month, and remained until September, when it disappeared. This coast is usually free from ice during the autumn months, and vessels can enter and depart without interruption from ice.

“One of the undersigned, Mr. Dorph, who has resided in this district during forty-one years, remembers well the year 1825, which was a remarkable ‘bad ice year,’ but it was not such a ‘bad’ one as the year 1860.”

* * * * *

_Extract from a Letter dated Frederickshaab, October 12th, 1860, from
T. Ordrorpe and C. Fotel, Captains of vessels from Denmark._