Chapter XCIII: A Liberal Education. HUXLEY 412

XCIV. _Too Late._ MRS. CRAIK 416

XCV. _Amor Mundi._ MISS ROSSETTI 417

XCVI. _Toujours Amour._ STEDMAN 418

XCVII. _England._ ALDRICH 419

XCVIII. _Rococo._ ALDRICH 420

XCIX. _Kings of Men._ JOHN READE 420

C. _Thalatta! Thalatta!_ JOHN READE 421

CI. _The Forsaken Garden._ SWINBURNE 422

CII. _A Ballad To Queen Elizabeth
of the Spanish Armada._ DOBSON 424

CIII. _Circe._ DOBSON 426

CIV. _Scenes from "Tecumseh."_ MAIR 426

CV. _The Return of the Swallows._ GOSSE 437

CVI. _Dawn Angels._ MISS ROBINSON 438

CVII. _Le Roi Est Mort._ MISS ROBINSON 439

CVIII. _To Winter._ ROBERTS 440

CIX. _Abigail Becker._ MISS JONES 442

SHORT EXTRACTS.

FIRST LINES. AUTHOR. PAGE.

He that cannot see well BACON 54

_Stone walls do not a prison make_ LOVELACE 55

When the heart is right BERKELEY 87

_It must be so--Plato, thou reasonest well_ ADDISON 92

_England, with all thy faults, I love thee still_ COWPER 154

_Now stir the fire, and close the shutters fast_ COWPER 158

_Oh, wad some power the giftie gie us_ BURNS 170

_Life! we've been long together_ MRS. BARBAULD 178

_Rough wind, that moanest loud_ SHELLEY 218

_There is a book, who runs may read_ KEBLE 233

_There is no great and no small_ EMERSON 245

_Wellington, Thy great work is but begun_ ROSSETTI 293

_Sacrifice and self-devotion_ LORD HOUGHTON 320

_Flower in the crannied wall_ TENNYSON 366

_It fortifies my soul to know_ CLOUGH 369

_And yet, dear heart! remembering thee_ WHITTIER 372

_There is no land like England_ TENNYSON 377

_The Summum Pulchrum rests in heaven above_ CLOUGH 382

Be of good cheer then, my dear Crito SOCRATES 388

_What know we greater than the soul_ TENNYSON 407

_That is best blood that hath most iron in't_ LOWELL 411

_Such kings of shreds have woo'd and won her_ ALDRICH 419

INDEX OF AUTHORS.

NAME. PAGE.

ADDISON, JOSEPH 88, 92

ALDRICH, THOMAS BAILEY 419, 420

ARNOLD, MATTHEW 401

ARNOLD, THOMAS 227

AYTOUN, WM. EDMONDSTOUNE 315

BACON, LORD (FRANCIS) 53, 54

BARBAULD, ANNA LAETITIA 178

BEACONSFIELD, LORD (BENJAMIN DISRAELI) 321

BERKELEY, BISHOP (GEORGE) 87

BIBLE, THE HOLY 33, 39

BOSWELL, JAMES 133

BROWNING, ELIZABETH BARRETT 270, 271

BROWNING, ROBERT 378

BRYANT, WILLIAM CULLEN 272

BURKE, EDMUND 147

BURNS, ROBERT 170, 171

BYRON, LORD (GEORGE GORDON NOEL) 211

CARLYLE, THOMAS 274

CHATHAM, LORD (WM. PITT) 116

CLARENDON, LORD 76

CLOUGH, ARTHUR HUGH 346, 347, 369, 382

COLERIDGE, SAMUEL TAYLOR 205, 208

COWPER, WILLIAM 154, 155, 158

CRAIK, DINAH MARIA MULOCK 416

DARWIN, CHARLES 342

DE QUINCEY, THOMAS 223

DICKENS, CHARLES 327

DOBSON, AUSTIN 424, 426

DRYDEN, JOHN 81, 82, 83

ELIOT, GEORGE (MARIAN EVANS CROSS) 356

EMERSON, RALPH WALDO 245, 282

FROUDE, JAMES ANTHONY 389

GIBBON, EDWARD 142

GLADSTONE, WILLIAM EWART 367

GOLDSMITH, OLIVER 127

GOSSE, EDMUND WILLIAM 437

GRAY, THOMAS 111

HALIBURTON, THOMAS CHANDLER 239

HAWTHORNE, NATHANIEL 262

HEAVYSEGE, CHARLES 349

HERRICK, ROBERT 55

HOLMES, OLIVER WENDELL 364

HOOD, THOMAS 234, 237

HOUGHTON, LORD (RICHARD MONCKTON MILNES) 320

HUME, DAVID 102

HUNT, LEIGH 217

HUXLEY, THOMAS HENRY 412

JONES, AMANDA T. 412

JOWETT, BENJAMIN 384

KEATS, JOHN 222

KEBLE, JOHN 233

KINGSLEY, CHARLES 354

LEVER, CHARLES JAMES 284

LOCKER, FREDERICK 400

LONGFELLOW, HENRY WADSWORTH 336

LOVELACE, RICHARD 55, 61

LOVER, SAMUEL 246

LOWELL, JAMES RUSSELL 397, 411

LYTTON, LORD (EDWARD BULWER) 294

MACAULAY, LORD (THOMAS BABINGTON) 247

MAIR, CHARLES 426

MILTON, JOHN 67

MOORE, THOMAS 214, 215, 216

NAIRN, BARONESS (CAROLINA OLIPHANT) 177

NEWMAN, CARDINAL (JOHN HENRY) 299

POE, EDGAR ALLAN 258

POPE, ALEXANDER 96

PRAED, WINTHROP MACKWORTH 246

READE, JOHN 420, 421

ROBERTS, CHARLES GEORGE DOUGLAS 440

ROBINSON, A. MARY F. 438, 439

ROSSETTI, CHRISTINA GEORGINA 417

ROSSETTI, DANTE GABRIEL 293, 359

RUSKIN, JOHN 390

SANGSTER, CHARLES 408

SCOTT, SIR WALTER 179

SHAKESPEARE, WILLIAM 40

SHELLEY, PERCY BYSSHE 218, 219

SHERIDAN, RICHARD BRINSLEY 159

SMITH, GOLDWIN 409

SOUTHEY, ROBERT 209

STANLEY, DEAN (ARTHUR PENRHYN) 350

STEDMAN, EDMUND CLARENCE 418

STEELE, SIR RICHARD 83

SWIFT, JONATHAN 93

SWINBURNE, ALGERNON CHARLES 422

TAYLOR, BISHOP (JEREMY) 56

TENNYSON, LORD (ALFRED) 366, 370, 373, 377, 407

THACKERAY, WILLIAM MAKEPEACE 306, 308

THOMSON, JAMES 101

WALTON, IZAAK 62

WHITTIER, JOHN GREENLEAF 361, 372

WILSON, PRESIDENT (DANIEL) 383

WORDSWORTH, WILLIAM 202

INTRODUCTORY.

The ability to read well cannot be attained without much pains and study. For even a moderate proficiency in the art of reading two requirements are essential: (1) A cultivated mind quick to perceive the sequence of thoughts which the words to be read logically express, and equally quick in its power sympathetically to appreciate the sentiment with which the words are informed--the feeling, emotion, passion, which pervades them--but which they suggest rather than actually portray; and (2) a voice so perfected that its utterances fall upon the ear of the listener with pleasing effect, and so flexible that it can be managed skilfully to convey to him the full meaning and force of all the ideas and sentiments formally expressed by the words or latent in them. Of these two requirements the first is undeniably the more important; and that training in the art of reading in which the close, persistent, and liberal study of literature for its own sake has not proceeded _pari passu_ with the requisite exercises for the development of the powers of the voice and with the study of the principles of vocal interpretation, has resulted in a meretricious accomplishment of very illusive value.

Nor will the special study and accurate mastery of a number of individual selections give that readiness of mental apprehension which is indispensable to a good reader. The ability quickly to recognize word-forms and to utter them with ease, to catch the drift of ideas, and to feel ready sympathy with change and flow in sentiment, is not to be had without a long course of wide and varied reading. No one can become a good reader by passing through, no matter how carefully, a set of reading text-books merely. Pupils should be encouraged to read for themselves. They should, of course, be guided in their selection of reading matter, and they should be helped to acquire a taste for that which is purest and most helpful in literature; but unless they form a _habit_ of reading, and of reading thoughtfully and with precision, they can never become good readers.

In oral reading, readiness and accuracy depend largely upon the alertness and flexibility of the vocal organs, and to secure ease and excellence in the working of their delicate mechanism much practice is necessary. The pupil should persistently read aloud. A practice of this sort, watchfully pursued, with a reasonable degree of self-discipline in the correction or avoidance of errors, is helpful not alone in obtaining a mastery of the reading art, and in mental culture,--it is equally beneficial as a physical exercise. It will, however, be much more efficacious of good, both of mind and of body, if pursued in accordance with those principles of voice culture and of vocal interpretation, which experience and special study have established.

But only a small proportion of all the reading that is done, is oral reading. It is _silent_ reading that is universally employed as an instrument of study, of business, of amusement. As a rule, however, very little provision is made for the acquirement of a facility in silent reading; this, it is thought, will result as a by-product of the regular training in oral reading. Almost the reverse of this is true. Ease and flexibility of articulation, quickness in catching the drift of ideas, and readiness in varying the tones of the voice in the utterance of words so as impressively to portray their latent sentiment,--all this is possible with those alone to whom difficult word-forms, complex sentence-structures, and the infinite variety and play of thought and emotion, are more or less familiar through such a wide range of reading as only the silent prosecution of it makes possible.

The art of oral reading, however, though not so generally needful as silent reading, is still of great importance to everyone in respect of its practical utility simply,--though few of those whose duty it is to read aloud in public, do so either with accuracy or grace; as an accomplishment which may be used to give pleasure to others, it is, when perfectly possessed, not excelled by any other; so that as an acquisition which puts one in a position of vantage either for benefitting one's self or for bestowing delight or benefit upon others, it is worth every necessary struggle for its attainment.

One of the most valuable results of oral reading when systematically pursued as a school study, is the effect which it has in improving the tones of the voice for ordinary conversation and discourse, and in securing some measure of orthoepy as a fixed habit of utterance. Conversational speech is notoriously slovenly. The sonority of our vowels is lost, and their distinguishing qualities are obscured; and with unnoticed frequency our consonants are either dropped or amalgamated with one another. Yet, while amendment in these matters is to be striven for, there is nothing that the teacher who wishes to establish habits of orthoepy has to be more watchful in guarding against, than bestowing upon his pupils an affected or mincing utterance, all the more ludicrous and objectionable, it may be, in that a certain set of words are pronounced with over-nicety, while almost all others are left in a state of neglected vulgarity.

Too frequently the study of oral reading is pursued with reference solely to the prospective public use of the art in the declamation of prepared passages; and the elocution-master's science has been brought into some discredit by wide discrepancies between the performances of his pupils in their well-drilled and often hackneyed selections and their ability to read unfamiliar pieces at sight. It is quite true that voice culture is greatly aided by the close study and frequent rendering of selections suitably chosen for the elocutionary difficulties which they present; but it should never be forgotten that good reading, the sort of reading which the schoolmaster should above all else endeavor to make his pupils proficient in, implies the ability so to read a plain account, a story, an oration, a play, or what not, _at sight_, with absolute correctness as to pronunciation, with such clearness of articulation and appropriateness of sentence utterance as will make it perfectly audible and intelligible to one's auditors, and with such suitable and impressive intonations as will put them in full possession of those emotions which may be said to be the essence or spirit of the piece;--and, moreover, to do all this with pleasure to one's hearers and with ease to one's self. Now as comparatively few readers are ever required to read in public, and as in the home-circle everyone ought to read, it is plain that the first duty of the teacher of elocution is to develop in his pupils a mastery of such a style of reading as is appropriate to small audiences; and, _then_, if he have time and opportunity, to extend and amplify the practice of his art so as to fit such as are capable of fuller mastery of it to appear before greater audiences. For though all voices are capable of being much improved through cultivation, few only can be adapted to the requirements of a large auditorium; and the care and attention which should be devoted to the benefit of all should not be spent for the advantage merely of the few.

And moreover, those practices and studies which voice culture and the attainment of a knowledge of the principles of vocal interpretation demand, may be pursued by all in common. That alone which is necessary for the public reader or orator, is a more extended, and, perhaps, a more earnest and thoughtful practice.

Although practices for the improvement of the voice cannot proceed far without attention to the principles of vocal interpretation, and though the study of the latter necessarily includes the former, yet for the sake of clearness the elementary principles of voice culture may be discussed separately from their application in the interpretation of thought and sentiment.

With respect both to articulation and expression _the generic properties of the voice are five_, namely: _Quality_, _Pitch_, _Force_, _Time_, _Abruptness_. Of these properties there are, of course, many modes or degrees, but the voice must, in every tone that it utters, manifest itself in some mode or other of each; and it is the possibility of infinite choice in the ways of combining the modes that gives to vocal expression its infinite possibility of variety. The principles of voice culture will be best understood, however, if these properties be considered separately.

=Quality= has reference to the _kind_ of the voice in respect of its smoothness or roughness, sonority or thinness, musicalness or harshness; also in respect of the completeness of its vocality.

=Pitch= has reference to the degree of elevation or depression in what is called in music the _scale_. It may be used specifically, in reference to single tones or syllables (either as to their opening, or as to their whole utterance), or generally, as descriptive of the prevailing tone or note which the voice assumes in reading a sentence or passage.

=Force= has reference to the power or intensity with which the sounds of the voice are uttered. When force is used in the utterance of single syllables, in whole or in part, it is spoken of as =Stress=.

=Time= is rate of utterance. It is used with reference both to single syllables, and to phrases, sentences, and passages. In regard to single syllables it is sometimes called =Quantity=. In the consideration of time may be included that of _pauses_ and _rhythms_.

=Abruptness= has reference to the relative suddenness with which syllables may be uttered. It may vary from the most delicate opening to a forcible explosion.

Vocality depends upon respiration. All exercises, therefore, which are effective in increasing the vigor, freedom, and elasticity of the breathing apparatus, may be taken as initiatory steps in voice culture; and, in moderation, they should be practised continually. Full, slow inspirations followed by slow, and, as far as possible, complete expirations; full, quick inspirations similarly followed; full inspirations followed by sudden and forcible expirations; full, deep inspirations, followed by slow, slightly but distinctly audible expirations, as in deep sighing; these and similar practices may be pursued. What is to be aimed at is to secure complete control of the breath, especially to the degree that, with perfect deliberateness, it can be equably and smoothly effused.

In all exercises where vocality is required it is best _first_ to use the sound of _ae_, as in _far_, for in this sound the quality of the human voice is heard in most perfection, and in uttering it the vocal organs are most flexible and most easily adapt themselves to change. It may be preceded by the aspirate _h_, or by some consonant, as may be thought necessary.

In effective speaking or reading, _with respect to the abruptness and rapidity of expiration there are three modes of utterance_: the =effusive=, by which the voice is poured forth smoothly and equably, the =expulsive= and the =explosive=. Of these three modes the effusive is by far the most important, but the others, and especially the expulsive, have their uses also. These modes will be illustrated in the following exercise:

EXERCISE.--1. After a full and deliberate inspiration let the
expiration of the element _h_ be gently effected, until the
lungs are exhausted--the aspiration coming from the very depths
of the throat. Let this be repeated with the syllable _haeh_,
audibly whispered. This is _effusive_ utterance.

2. After a full and deliberate inspiration let the expiration of
the element _h_ be suddenly effected, the expiration being
continued until the whispering sound vanishes in the bottom of
the throat. Let this be repeated with the syllable _haeh_,
audibly whispered. This is _expulsive_ utterance.

3. Let the exercise be the same as in (2) except that the
expiration is to be much more forcibly effected, and completed
almost instantaneously. This is _explosive_ utterance.

In the cultivation of the voice either one of two ends is generally kept in view--its improvement for speaking or its improvement for singing; but progress may be made towards both ends by the same study, and those exercises which benefit the singing voice benefit the speaking voice, and _vice versa_. _The distinction between speaking tones and singing tones should be clearly understood._ Musical tones are produced by isochronous (equal-timed) vibrations of the vocal organs continued for some length of time. Hence, a musical tone is a _note_, which may be prolonged at will without varying in pitch, either up or down. A speaking tone, on the contrary, is produced by vibrations which are not isochronous; it is not a _note_, properly so called, and can not be prolonged, without varying in pitch. Musical tones are _discrete_,--the voice passes from pitch to pitch through the intervals silently. In speaking, _every_ tone, however short the time taken in uttering it, passes from one pitch to some other through an interval _concretely_, that is, with continuous vocality; though, with respect to one another, speech syllables, like notes in music, are discrete. This may be exemplified by uttering the words, "_Where are you going?_" In singing these words, they may be uttered on the same note, or on different notes, or, indeed, with different notes for the same word; but the voice _skips_ from note to note through the intervals. In speaking the words, each is uttered with an inflection or intonation in which the voice varies in pitch, but passes through the interval concretely; the separate words, however, and the separate syllables (if there were any) being uttered discretely. Musical utterance might be graphically illustrated by a series of horizontal lines of less or greater length succeeding one another at different distances above or below a fixed horizontal line. In a similar notation for speech utterance the lines would all be curved, to represent the concrete passage through the various intervals. _It is the concrete intonation of every syllable and monosyllabic word which gives to speech its distinctive character from music._ Each syllable and monosyllabic word is called a =concrete=, and _it is with the concrete in all its various possibilities of utterance that voice culture has mainly to do_.

The intervals traversed by the voice in uttering the concrete are very variable. Using the musical scale for reference it may be said that in ordinary speech they are generally of but one, or, at most, two notes. In animated discourse or passionate utterance the intervals may be greater. For illustration, let the pronoun "_I_" be uttered in a tone of interrogative surprise; a concrete with a rising interval will be the result. The more the surprise is emphasized, especially if indignation be conjoined with it, the greater will be the interval that the voice passes through in uttering the concrete. If the word "_lie_" be given immediately after the pronoun with the same intensity of feeling, the voice discretely descends from the high pitch heard at the end of the utterance of the pronoun, and in uttering the next concrete, again ascends through an interval, of less or more extent according to the emphasis which is imparted to it.

Again, in speech of sorrow, murmuring, piteous complaint, and the like, concrete intervals of less extent than those used in ordinary discourse are often heard. Thus, if the sentence "_Pity me, kind lady, I have no mother_," be uttered with a plaintive expression, concretes with small intervals will be distinctly noticeable; but it will be also noticed that with respect to one another the syllables are discretely uttered, just as in the sentence where the concrete intervals were much greater.

Without intending a scientifically accurate and rigid statement, it may be said (again borrowing the terminology of music) that in ordinary speech the concretes are uttered with intervals of a _second_, or at most a _third_; that in very expressive or impassioned utterance intervals of a _fifth_ or an _octave_ are frequently used; and that the mode of progression from syllable to syllable is _diatonic_, that is, not concretely, but discretely from tone to tone; and further, that in plaintive language, the syllables are uttered concretely with intervals of a _semitone_ only, but that the mode of progression from syllable to syllable is still discrete.

Sometimes, but rarely, syllables are uttered _tremulously_, or with a _tremor_; that is, with constituent intervals of less than a semitone, uttered discretely in rapid succession, and passing, in the aggregate, through an interval of more or less width. An exaggerated form of this utterance may be heard in the neighing of a horse.

EXERCISE.--1. Utter the syllable _pae_ as a concrete, with rising
and falling intervals, severally, of a _second_, _third_,
_fifth_, and an _octave_; also with intervals of a _semitone_;
also with a _tremor_. Let the exercise be varied so as to
include many degrees of initial pitch. Use a diagram of a
musical staff for reference.

2. Read with exaggerated impressiveness, "_Am_ =I= _to be your
slave?_ =No!="

In the pronunciation of the letter [=a], as in _pate_, two sounds are heard: the first is that of the name of the letter, which is uttered with some degree of fulness; the second is that of _[=e]_ in _mete_, but, as it were, tapering and vanishing;--in the meantime the voice traverses a rising interval of one tone, that is, of a second. The utterance of these two sounds, although the sounds themselves are distinct, is completely continuous, from the full opening of the one to the vanishing close of the other, and it is impossible to say where the first ends and where the last begins. It is essential, however, to consider them separately. The first is called the =radical movement=, and the second the =vanishing movement=; and these together constitute the entire concrete.

All the vowels do not equally well exemplify in their utterance a _distinction of sound_ in their radical and vanishing movements, because some vowel sounds are less diphthongal than others, and some, again, are pure monophthongs; but _these two movements and the concrete variation of pitch, the result of one impulse of the voice, are the essential structure of every syllable_, and are characteristic of speech-notes as contradistinguished from those of song.

When the radical and vanishing movements are effected smoothly, distinctly, and without intensity or emotion, commencing fully and with some abruptness, and terminating gently and almost inaudibly, the result is the =equable concrete=. This of course may be produced with intervals, either upward or downward, of any degree--tone, semitone, third, fifth, or octave. It must be said, however, that some syllables, and even some vowels, lend themselves more easily than others to that prolonged utterance which is essential to the production of wide intervals and the perfectness of the vanishing movement.

The equable concrete is the natural, simple mode of utterance; but under the influence of interest, excitement, passion, and so on, the utterance of the concrete may be greatly varied from this by means of _stress_, or force applied to some part or to all of its extent. The different variations may be described as follows:

(1) =Radical Stress=, where force is applied to the opening of the concrete. (It should be said that a slight degree of radical stress is given even in the equable concrete, producing its full, clear opening.)

(2) =Loud Concrete=, where force is applied throughout the whole concrete, the proportion of the radical to the vanish remaining unaltered.

(3) =Median Stress=, where force is applied to the middle of the concrete, producing a swell, or impressive fulness.

(4) =Compound Stress=, where force is applied in an unusual degree to each extremity of the concrete.

(5) =Final Stress=, where force is applied to the end of the concrete, the radical stress being somewhat diminished in fulness.

(6) =Thorough Stress=, where force is so applied that the concrete has the same fulness throughout.

EXERCISE.--With the syllable _pae_ exemplify the _equable
concrete_ and the several varieties of _stress_, using different
degrees of initial or radical pitch, and the various intervals
of the tone, semitone, third, fifth, and octave. The exercises
for the radical stress should be first aspirated, then repeated
with full vocality.

Besides the forms of the simple rising and falling intervals in which the concrete is generally uttered, there is another form, called the =wave=, effected by a union of these modes. It is of two varieties: (1) where a rising movement is continued into a falling movement, called the =direct wave=; (2) where a falling movement is continued into a rising movement, called the =inverted wave=. Waves may pass through all varieties of intervals, and may be either (1) _equal_, where the voice in both members passes through the same interval; or (2) _unequal_, where in one flexion the interval traversed by the voice is greater than in the other.

EXERCISE.--With the syllable _p[=a]_ exemplify the different
kinds of _waves_, with the same variations of radical pitch,
interval, and stress, as before.

The elementary sounds of speech are of three natural divisions; the _tonics_, the _subtonics_, and the _atonics_.

The =Tonics= are the simple vowels and diphthongs. They are of perfect vocality; they admit the concrete rise and fall through all the intervals of pitch; they may be uttered with more abruptness than the other elements; and being capable of indefinite prolongation they can receive the most perfect exemplification of the vanishing movement. They may be said to be: _[a:]_, as in _all_; _ae_, as in _arm_; _[.a]_, as in _ask_; _[)a]_, as in _an_; _[=a]_, as in _ate_; _a_, as in _air_; _[=e]_, as in _eve_; _[)e]_, as in _end_; _e_, as in _err_; _[=i]_, as in _ice_; _[)i]_, as in _inn_; _[=o]_, as in _old_; _oe_, as in _or_; _[)o]_, as in _odd_; _[=u]_, as in _use_; _[)u]_, as in _up_; _[=o][=o]_, as in _ooze_; _[)o][)o]_, as in _book_; _oi_, as in _oil_; _ou_, as in _out_. (There are various ways of arranging and classifying these.)

EXERCISE.--Exemplify generally the equable concrete, loud
concrete, radical stress, and median stress, with upward and
downward intervals, with clear, sharp openings, and with
gradually attenuated vanishes, upon each of the _tonic
elements_.

The =Subtonics= possess the properties of vocality and prolongation in some degree, but much less perfectly than the tonics, and their vocality (known as the _vocal murmur_) is the same for all. They are as follows:--_b_, _d_, _g_, _v_, _z_, _y_, _w_ (as in _woe_), _th_ (as in _then_), _zh_ (as _z_ in _azure_), j (as in _judge_, by some considered not elementary), _l_, _m_, _n_, _ng_ (as in _sing_), _r_ (as in _ran_), and _r_ (as in _far_). They can not, without great effort, be given an abrupt opening, and so are not capable of much radical fulness, but from their property of vocality they can receive, to a considerable degree, an exemplification of the vanishing movement.

EXERCISE.--Utter the word _bud_ slowly, and detach from the rest
of the word the obscure murmur heard in pronouncing the first
letter: this is the _subtonic_ represented by _b_. Utter this
sound with different degrees of initial pitch, and with
different intervals, both downward and upward. Produce as full
an opening of the radical movement as possible, but do not
attempt to give it much stress. Obtain in every case a distinct
vanish. Be careful not to convert the subtonic into a tonic.
Proceed in a similar manner with the other subtonics. Then,
distinctly obtaining the subtonics, unite them severally with
the sound of _ae_, first forcibly, then more gently, producing
such syllables as _bae_, _dae_, etc., which may be rendered with
upward and downward intervals, and with different degrees of
initial pitch. Finally, with such syllables as _aeb_, _aed_, _aeg_,
_aev_, etc., exemplify all the varieties of stress.

The =Atonics= correspond with the first eleven of the subtonics as given above, from which they differ almost alone in having _no_ vocality. They are _p_, _t_, _k_, _f_, _s_, _h_, _wh_ (as in _when_), _th_ (as in _thin_), _sh_, and _ch_ (as in _child_, by some considered not elementary).

EXERCISE.--1. Form a list of such words as _pipe_, _tote_,
_kick_, _fife_, _siss_, etc., and severally utter them slowly,
holding the final element for a moment, and then letting the
breath escape suddenly; then, holding the initial letter firmly
for a moment let it come forcibly against the sound of the
remainder of the word, producing an abrupt opening, and radical
stress of the vowel concrete. 2. Aspirate strongly the atonics
as given above.

EXERCISE RECAPITULATORY.--1. Produce the syllable _pae_ in an
articulate whisper in all the different varieties of pitch,
interval, and stress. 2. Repeat with such syllables as _paw_,
_pooh_, _p[=o]h_, etc. 3. Utter these syllables (1) expulsively,
(2) explosively, with varying intervals both upward and
downward, and producing distinct and clearly attenuated
vanishes. 4. Select some passage of poetry involving passionate
thought, and read in articulated whispers, with appropriate
intonations, somewhat exaggerated, it may be. Let the intervals
and stresses be slowly and distinctly given. 5. Repeat the
exercise in a half whisper. 6. Next read the passage over
several times in pure vocality, without exaggeration, increasing
the strength of the utterance until it is as full and ringing as
possible. Care must be taken that the utterance is in reality
full and ringing, not sharp and hard. Let the pitch chosen be
not too high--as low as possible; and let the tones come mainly
from the chest and lower part of the throat.

NOTE.--In all the exercises care should be taken that they be performed easily and naturally, with perfect deliberation and without undue force; else they will be harmful rather than useful.

EXERCISE IN CONCRETE INTERVALS CONTINUED.--1. Read with
appropriate intonations: "_Did you say [a:], as in all?_"--"_No,
I said ae, as in arm_,"--producing in the emphatic syllables
suitable rising or falling intervals of _one tone_. Then repeat,
but with greater emphasis, producing intervals of a third, a
fifth, or an octave. Vary the sentences so as to include all the
tonic elements. 2. With each tonic element, severally, produce
first a rising and then a falling interval, each of a tone; then
intervals of a third, a fifth, and an octave. 3. Extend the
exercise so as to produce with each element, and with all the
various intervals, a series or succession of rising and falling
intervals, thus: _rising, falling, rising, falling_, etc. Use
the blackboard and the musical scale for illustration and
reference.

Syllables vary greatly in their capacity for prolongation, and in this respect are classified into _immutable_, _mutable_, and _indefinite_.

=Immutable Syllables= are almost incapable of prolongation; they are those which end in one of the abrupt atonic elements, _p_, _t_, _k_; as _tip_, _hit_, _kick_; or in one of the abrupt subtonics, _b_, _d_, _g_; as _tub_, _thud_, _pug_. Some syllables that so end, by virtue of tonic or subtonic elements which they may contain, are capable of _some_ prolongation; for example, _warp_, _dart_, _block_, _grab_, _dread_, _grog_. These are called =Mutable Syllables=.

=Indefinite Syllables= are capable of almost indefinite prolongation; they are those which terminate in a tonic, or any subtonic except one of the three abrupt subtonics, _b_, _d_, _g_; for example, _awe_, _fudge_, _hail_, _arm_.

NOTE.--It must be remembered that when for the sake of exercise or effect syllables are extended in time, they must be so uttered that their identity is not impaired,--that is, their enunciation must be free from mouthing.

As has been remarked before our pronunciation of vowels is notoriously careless; but by a little attention anyone can easily free himself from this reproach. Frequent practice in the accurate enunciation of the tonic elements as given above, and a habit of watchfulness established as to the orthoepy of those which are most easily obscured, in all words in which they occur, will soon secure, if not a resonant, sonorous utterance with respect to the tonic elements, at least a correct pronunciation. But the correct and distinct pronunciation of the subtonic, and especially of the atonic, elements, when they occur, as is so frequent in English words, in combination, is not so easily accomplished; and orthoepy, in this respect, as a _habit_, cannot be secured without great care and incessant practice. For example, the word _months_ is habitually pronounced by almost everyone as if it were spelled _munce_. The following list for practice will afford material to begin with; other lists should be prepared by the teacher.

_Plinth, blithe, sphere, shriek, quote, whether, tipt, depth, robed, hoofed, calved, width, hundredth, exhaust, whizzed, hushed, ached, wagged, etched, pledged, asked, dreamt, alms, adapts, depths, lefts, heav'ns, meddl'd, beasts, wasps, hosts, exhausts, gasped, desks, selects, facts, hints, healths, tenths, salts, builds, wilds, milked, mulcts, elms, prob'd'st, think'st, hold'st, attempt'st, want'st, heard'st, mask'st._

EXERCISE.--Utter the words in the above list in distinct
articulate whispers; then with vocality, softly and gently.
Avoid hissing and mouthing.

While, in reading, distinct enunciation is an excellence to be aimed at, yet the words of a sentence should not be uttered as if completely severed from one another. Every sentence falls naturally into _groups_, the several groups being composed of words related in sense; and for impressive reading the words of each group should be _implicated_, or tied together. For example, in the line, _Once upon a midnight dreary, while I ponder'd, weak and weary_, there are naturally three groups; in the line, _The quality of mercy is not strain'd_, there is but one. In these groups the terminal sound of each word is implicated with the initial sound of the succeeding word. If the terminal sound is a tonic, or a flowing subtonic, the implication consists of a gentle murmuring prolongation of the terminal element coalescing with the initial element of the next word; if the terminal element is a flowing atonic the prolongation will not be accompanied by a murmur; but in either case the vocal organs, while prolonging the sound of one word, prepare, as it were, to begin the next. If the terminal element be one of the abrupt subtonics the vocal murmur is difficult to produce, and in this case, and also when the terminal element is an abrupt atonic, there is a suspension of the voice for a time equal to that occupied by the murmuring prolongation in the other cases; but the organs keep the position which they have in finishing the one word until they relax to take position for the utterance, with renewed exertion, of the opening sound of the next.

It must be added that this implication is not confined to the component words of a group; for the sake of impressiveness the groups themselves are often implicated,--but by suspension of the voice and a maintenance of the vocal organs in their previous position, before they suddenly relax to form the opening sound of the first word in their next group, rather than by the murmuring prolongation above described.

EXERCISE.--Read with suitable implication: (1) _O Tiber! father
Tiber! to whom the Romans pray, a Roman's life, a Roman's arms,
take thou in charge this day!_ (2) _But still the patriot, and
the patriot-bard, in bright succession raise, her ornament and
guard._

The nicety with which implication should be effected depends, like exactness of articulation, upon the gravity, complexity, fervor, grace, beauty, or other distinguishing and elevated quality of the thoughts and sentiments contained in the words to be read. Common-place ideas are couched, as a rule, in common-place language, and require no nice discrimination of sounds, or other refinement of utterance, for their full rendering; but in true poetry and impassioned prose implication is no mean instrument of effectual interpretation.

The speaking voice, like the singing voice, is capable of utterance through a considerable range of pitch--in highly cultivated voices, of three octaves; in less highly cultivated voices, of one octave; but for all voices, not perverted by bad habit, there are three or four notes, of moderate height, upon which utterance is most easy and natural, and most capable of great and sustained effort. These notes should be selected as the =normal pitch= of discourse.

In speaking or reading, except in certain infrequent cases, the _whole_ of the breath expired from the lungs should be utilized in producing =pure vocality=. Should any breath be spent in aspiration, or in hissing, or in guttural enunciation, the vocality is said to be =impure=. Impure vocality, it is true, has its own appropriate use, in the representation of certain emotional states of the mind. Pure vocality is heard naturally in the tones of children at play; but in adults, through carelessness or injudicious education, it is often wanting.

The mechanism of the voice is very complicated and not thoroughly understood. It is a matter of common experience, however, that in the utterance of tones of low pitch, whether speech tones or musical, the voice seems to come from the chest rather than from the head; and, in the utterance of tones of high pitch, on the other hand, it seems to come from the head rather than from the chest; so that all tones are said to belong either to the _lower_ or _chest register_, or to the _higher_ or _head register_. As both chest tones and head tones may be obscured by impurities, and their resonance diminished or destroyed by defective enunciation, the pure, clear, ringing utterance of tones of both registers should be constantly striven for. The normal pitch of utterance, referred to above, should always be such that the tones comprised in it can be produced either from the head or from the chest, at will; but for sustained efforts, for the best effects both of reading and of oratory, the chest tones are much to be preferred, since, as compared with head tones, they are capable of being produced with greater resonance and penetrating power, and, for any considerable length of time, with greater ease to the speaker.

All tones of the human voice, whether speaking or musical, whether of the head or of the chest, are spoken of as having =quality=, or =timbre=, and the term is also used more generally in reference to the whole compass of utterance. The quality of the voice is its most distinguishing characteristic, and it is upon its cultivation and improvement that the greatest efforts of the student should be spent. Pure voice is usually spoken of as being manifested in two qualities, the _natural_ and the _orotund_.

=Natural Quality= may be described as a head tone to which some degree of resonance is given by the chest; but the brilliancy of its resonance is produced by its reverberation against the bony arch of the mouth. It may, of course, vary in pitch, but tones of low pitch that are intended to be impressive are most suitably rendered in orotund quality. In its perfect manifestations, the natural quality should be clear, ringing, light, and sparkling,--if it be possible to describe its characteristics by such metaphorical words.

=Orotund Quality= is the result only of cultivation, but no speaker or reader can produce those finer effects which are the appropriate symbols of strong and deep emotion, whose voice cannot assume this mode at will. It differs from the natural mode in obtaining from the chest a greater supply of air, and a deeper and fuller resonance, and the reverberations seem to be against the walls of the pharynx, or posterior regions of the mouth, rather than against the palate, or upper part of the mouth. In fulness, strength, and ringing quality, it is superior to the natural mode, but not distinct from it; in clearness and smoothness it should be equal to it. As it befits a chest tone rather than a head tone, it is natural to utterances in medium and low pitch; but it must not be confounded with low pitch simply, nor must its characteristic fulness be taken for loudness simply. With the orotund, as well as with the natural quality, all the voice modes previously described may be conjoined.

EXERCISE.--1. With the syllable _haeh_, make an expiration in the
voice of whisper, forcing slowly all air out from the chest.
Then give to this expiration vocality, producing the
reverberation far back in the mouth: the resulting utterance is
a _hoarse exemplification of the orotund_. With the mouth in the
position of a yawn, making the cavity of reverberation as large
as possible, repeat the exercise until the utterance can be
produced smoothly and without hoarseness. 2. Form similar
syllables containing other tonic elements, and make similar
exercises, taking care to produce a smooth, effusive utterance.
3. Select a sentence such as "_Roll on thou deep and dark blue
ocean, roll_," abounding in long open vowels and indefinite
syllables, and using suitable intonations read it in low pitch,
with full, resonant chest tones. Then gradually raise the pitch,
still obtaining the tones from the chest and uttering them with
full resonance. 4. With such syllables as _haeh_, _you_, _now_,
_man_, _war_, _hail_, _fool_, practise in orotund voice the
various exercises for pitch, concrete intervals, waves, stress,
etc., previously suggested. 5. Read with feeling and appropriate
intonations selected sentences from compositions of elevated or
impassioned diction, as "Solomons's Prayer" (p. 35), "The Hymn"
(p. 68), "France" (p. 205).

Of the various qualities (as they are called) of impure voice, the =Aspirate=, the =Sibilant=, and the =Guttural= are defined with sufficient clearness, by their names. Though these modes can be appropriately used only occasionally, nevertheless they are of great value to the reader, and the voice should be trained to assume them whenever necessary. Great care must be exercised, however, that impurities shall never be present as characteristics of _normal_ utterance; this, whether from the head or chest, should be distinct, sonorous, and smooth, and should exhaust every particle of air expired.

Another impure quality is the =Pectoral=, which is an aspiration produced, as it were, from the lowest cavities of the chest; and still another is the =Falsetto=, an unnatural voice, that seems to be produced entirely in the upper cavities of the head. The employment of the Falsetto at any time, either in speaking or reading, is of doubtful taste.

EXERCISE.--1. With the syllable _haeh_ exemplify severally the
aspirate, guttural, and pectoral qualities, first with
insufficient vocality, then with sufficient. Exemplify the
sibilant impurity with such syllables as _pish_, _false_,
_traitress_, _miscreant_. In those exercises employ intervals of
varying lengths, different degrees of initial pitch, and the
several varieties of stress; and let the utterances be made
effusively, expulsively, and explosively. 2. Select appropriate
passages in "The Raven" (p. 258) for exercise in natural,
orotund, aspirate, guttural, and pectoral qualities. Read the
passages severally with appropriate intonations,--it may be
somewhat exaggeratingly. Then read the whole poem feelingly,
with appropriate, but not exaggerated intonations.

So far, what has been said has had reference mainly to the cultivation and improvement of the voice, by the analogies and description of the various effective modes in which it can be manifested, and by the suggestion of suitable exercises for increasing its endurance, strength, flexibility, and resonance. It remains now to discuss shortly some of the principles of _vocal interpretation_,--that is, to discuss what modes of voice-action are appropriate to the representation of the various emotions which the wide range of literature presents to the reader.

It must be said in respect of principles that only broad and easily verifiable ones are of use, and even these may be abused by a too rigorous adherence to them. The best rule that can be given, as indeed it is founded on a principle of widest application, is that laid down in the _Fourth Reader_:--_To give a faithful sympathetic attention to the full meaning and sentiment of what is read, and to manage the voice so as effectively to express this meaning and sentiment;_ since this will always ensure a certain measure of appropriateness, if not the full perfection of it. And it cannot be too much emphasized that even the fullest knowledge and most patient study can establish for the reading of any selection, or passage, or sentence, _none but general directions_, since the same words may very frequently be rendered in several ways, with differences of pitch, time, stress, quality, implication, and so on, but with equal effectiveness and equal appropriateness. And, on the other hand, any whole selection, even the simplest, is far too complex in its thought and sentiment to be disposed of in one general analysis, which shall predetermine the pitch, tone, and stress, and the prevailing width of the intervals, and the direction of the inflections; all these will vary from paragraph to paragraph, and from sentence to sentence, even from word to word. To sum up, it may be said that good reading demands as indispensable, quick-witted intelligence, ready sympathy, and a voice so trained as to be flexible and resonant; if the reader have this much endowment his reading will always be effective, and, moreover, appropriate and impressive.

_All diction may be roughly described as exhibiting one of three states of feeling:_ (1) that in which feeling, as it is generally understood, is almost wanting; (2) that in which it is present in some considerable degree; (3) that in which the feeling is present in an extreme degree, dominating the ideas which the several sentences logically express. To the first division, which may be called the =diction of discourse=, belongs all language indicative of a quiet state of mind--formal statement, narrative, description, simple argument or reasoning: it is the language of all ordinary writing. To the second division, which may be called the =diction of sentiment or feeling=, belongs all language which indicates that the mind of the speaker, real or supposed, is in a state of moderate excitement; that he is interested in the relation of himself to others, and, consequently, in the effect of his utterances upon them; or that, subjectively, he is interested in himself: it is the language of admiration, reverence, awe, sincerity, dignity, of pathos, supplication, penitence. To the third division, which may be called the =diction of passion=, belongs all language expressive of deeper excitement and more vehement interest than that described as animating the diction of feeling: it is the language of earnest or anxious interrogation, of passionate ejaculation, of powerful appeal, strong accusation, and fierce denunciation; also, of contempt, derision, scorn, loathing, anger, hate, and so on.

Voice, as we have seen, possesses five generic properties, pitch, force, quality, time, and abruptness; and, in every spoken word, it must assume some mode of _each_ of these properties, manifesting them in co-existence. This conjoint mode, or _vocal sign_, as it is called, should be the appropriate expression of the thought and feeling of which the word, in its place in the sentence, is the _graphical sign_. Hence, as each word in a sentence may be said to have its appropriate vocal sign, so each variety of diction may be said to have its appropriate vocal expression,--a latitude of choice in the constituent modes, and a consequent indeterminateness in the resulting expression, being, of course, always conceded.

The appropriate vocal expression for the diction of discourse may be said to consist of the following modes:--normal pitch, simple intonations, and waves of a second, moderate force, the equable concrete varied by slight radical stress, in quality the natural mode, in abruptness sufficient sharpness of opening to effect clear articulation, and in time a moderate rate with effusive utterance.

As the diction rises above this plain unimpassioned character, and becomes more and more informed with feeling and sentiment, the constituent vocal signs, and hence the whole vocal expression, become more and more expressive. In pitch there is frequent variation: in expressions of joy, astonishment, or for command, the voice assumes naturally a somewhat higher elevation; and with equal naturalness it descends below its normal level to utter the language of grave, solemn, and reverential feeling. Again, inasmuch as the interval of the second is the plainest and simplest within the command of the voice, in such diction as we are now considering, intervals of a third, a fifth, or even an octave, may be heard, both in simple intonations and in waves. Force, too, will not be unvaryingly applied, but will be greater or less according as energy or passion may demand. In stress the equable concrete will give place to the radical or to the final, to express energetic resolve; or, in the language of pathos, exaltation, reverence, supplication, and so on, to the median--the most effective of all modes for the expression of such deep feeling as is compatible with slow utterance. In time the rate of utterance will vary with the syllabic quantities, these being short and crisp in the language of vivacious conversation, but extended, and with distinct, attenuated vanishes, in grave and important monologue. In quality, whenever the diction, departing from its simple character, becomes pervaded by some deep emotion, the natural mode will give place to the orotund. And while effusive utterance is always the prevalent mode, it will give place to the expulsive mode or to the explosive, when energy of thought or force of passion requires it so.

Thus, _as the diction rises_ from plain discourse to the language of feeling, _the appropriate vocal expression gathers intensity and becomes more varied_, assumes, as may be said, brighter colors and displays greater contrasts; and so, in the third class of diction, the diction of passion, it displays its intensest and most vivid modes--its brightest colors, its deepest contrasts.

As it is in a general sense only, that diction can be understood to be referrible to three classes, so also, in a general sense only, can it be understood that any particular sentence or passage has its appropriate vocal expression. All that is intended is simply this: an analysis of the sentence, or passage, or selection, gives to the careful student a certain conception of the quality and intensity of the feeling or passion that pervades it; this is to be interpreted, as well as may be, by the most appropriate vocal signs possible--the whole constituting the vocal expression suitable to the piece. In respect to its pervading emotion, the selection will have what is called a =drift=, or general tendency, towards one of those states described as characteristic of the diction of discourse, the diction of feeling, and the diction of passion, respectively; and it is the business of the reader to watch for this drift, which of course may vary from passage to passage, from sentence to sentence, and sometimes from word to word, and to interpret it as best he may.

To indicate what modes of voice utterance are naturally most appropriate to the expression of these various emotional states and drifts, it will be best to take up, one by one, the different properties of the voice, and the several modes in which they are manifested, and to state briefly, and in general terms, the emotional state or drift of which it is an appropriate expression. (With respect to quality and abruptness this will be sufficiently done indirectly.) The student then must for himself, if he wishes to apply these results to the reading of any selected passage, first by analysis ascertain what are the emotional states which it involves, what are its prevailing drifts, then in respect to each property of the voice choose the suitable mode for the interpretation of these several states or drifts, conjoin the selected modes into appropriate vocal signs, and with these form the vocal expression that suitably interprets the whole passage. _The teacher, or the teacher and student together, should select from the_ READER, _or elsewhere, sentences or passages that fitly exemplify the different modes; these should be written upon a black-board, or in some other way preserved, and be referred to frequently for practice both in voice culture and in vocal interpretation._