Chapter XXI: Conclusions (3)

[174] Cf. especially March, “Evolution and Psychology in Art,” in _Mind_, N.S. v. (1896); Balfour, _The Evolution of Decorative Art_; Haddon, _Evolution in Art_, and the papers of Holmes in _Rep. Bur. Ethn._ iii. iv. vi., and in _The American Anthropologist_, iii.

[175] For a recent defence of this theory see Tarde, _La logique sociale_, pp. 445, 446.

[176] Cf. chap. vi. in the preceding.

[177] Cf. Mallery in _Rep. Bur. Ethn._ i. pp. 283, 284, 347; Sayce, _Introd. to the Science of Language_, i. pp. 92-94, 105-107; ii. pp. 306-308. It is to be remarked that in maintaining the priority of pantomimic language Mr. Mallery always emphasises the “instinctive” character of this means of communication. Cp. _Rep. Bur._ i. pp. 340, 347. Professor Sayce seems to conceive gesture-language as consisting only of dramatically imitating “moves” or sounds, (_l.c._ i. p. 107). Professor Tylor, on the other hand, who takes up a critical position with regard to the theory of gesture-language as an intermediate stage of evolution, speaks of gesture-language as made up by delineations and indications (_Early Hist. of Mankind_, pp. 15, 16). In a theoretical discussion it is evidently necessary to maintain a strict distinction between these different kinds of pantomimic thought-conveyance, which are no doubt accompanied by different degrees of intention. Cp. Romanes, _Mental Evol. in Man_, pp. 86, 103.

[178] Cf. Kussmaul in Ziemssen’s _Cyclopædia_, p. 14, esp. p. 587 (Disturbances of Speech.)

[179] Cf. Romanes, _l.c._ pp. 113, 148, 149, on the influence exercised by the constructions of spoken language on the gesture-language of deaf-mutes.

[180] Cf. Tylor, _l.c._ pp. 74-79, on the improbability of the stories about tribes who cannot make themselves understood by each other without the help of gestures. Dr. Tylor’s criticism of Captain Burton’s statement that the Aropahos “can hardly converse with one another in the dark” has been amply confirmed by the subsequent researches of Mallery. Cf. _Rep. Bur. Ethn._ i. pp. 314, 315. Naturally, therefore, one feels inclined to adopt a sceptical attitude with regard to Miss Kingsley’s assertion that the language of the Bubis “depends so much on gesture that they cannot talk in it to each other in the dark” (_Travels in West Africa_, p. 439). Cf., however, with regard to the element of gesture in West African languages, Kingsley, _West African Studies_, p. 237.

[181] Wood, _Nat. Hist. of Man_, i. p. 266 (Bushmen); Cranz, _Historie von Grönland_, i. p. 279. As to the Australians the statements are somewhat contradictory. Mr. Curr (_The Australian Race_, i. p. 93) says that “some tribes express a few things by signs made with their hands; but, on the whole, the Australian is very little given to gesticulation.” This statement, however, has been expressly encountered by Mr. Stirling, who describes a very extensive system of signs. _Rep. Horn Exped._ iv. Anthropology, pp. 111-125. Cf. also Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes_, p. 500.

[182] Stirling, _l.c._ p. 112.

[183] Roth, W. E., _N.W.C. Queensland Aborigines_, pp. 71 _sq._

[184] Fraser, _Aborigines of New South Wales_, p. 25.

[185] Roth, W. E., _N.W.C. Queensland_, p. 71. Cf. a remark in the same direction by Mallery, _Rep. Bur. Ethn._ i. p. 312.

[186] See Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, i. p. 187; Mallery, _l.c._ pp. 295, 307; Sayce, _Introd. Science of Lang._ i. p. 93. Compare also the classic instance of Sicily, meeting-ground of so many peoples.

[187] Fraser, _Aborigines of New South Wales_, p. 25; Roth, _l.c._ p. 71.

[188] Steinen, _Unter den Naturvölkern Central-Brasiliens_, p. 72; Mallery, _l.c._ p. 307.

[189] Mallery, _l.c._ pp. 311, 312. That the gesture-language of the North American Indians is to be explained as a result of peculiar geographical conditions was remarked already by Dugald Stewart, _Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind_, iii. pp. 19-22.

[190] Cf. the interesting descriptions of Maori political meetings in Earle, _New Zealand_, p. 91; Shortland, _Traditions of the New Zealanders_, p. 171.

[191] Home, _Elements of Criticism_, i. p. 435.

[192] For an appreciation of pantomimic action as means of conveying religious feelings see Mr. Tylor’s description of the service in the deaf-dumb institution of Berlin, _Early History of Mankind_, p. 33.

[193] Mallery in _Rep. Bur. Ethnol._ i. p. 370.

[194] Von den Steinen, _Unter den Naturvölkern Central-Brasiliens_, p. 244.

[195] Mallery in _Rep. Bur. Ethnol._ i. p. 370. Cf. also Mallery, _l.c._ x. (1888-89), (Picture-writing of the N.A. Indians). That the pictographic elements to a large extent have been influenced by the manual signs was remarked already in 1836 by Rafinesque. Cf. Brinton, _The Lenape_, p. 152, where the merits and the priority of this peculiar author are vindicated.

[196] Groos, _Die Spiele der Menschen_, p. 406.

[197] For examples of pictorial art subservient to such purely practical purposes see Mallery, _l.c._ x. pp. 329-375.

[198] Im Thurn, _Primitive Games_, pp. 273, 275.

[199] Roth, _N.W.C. Queensland Aborigines_, pp. 117, 118. Oldfield (“The Aborigines of Australia,” in _Trans. Ethnol. Soc._ N.S. iii. p. 257) describes a Watchandie pantomime, imitating the proceedings of the white man in hunting whales, and composed by an old native who had some time before visited the coast.

[200] Wilson and Felkin, _Uganda_, ii. p. 45. For imitations of the white man in dramatic dances see also Lander, _Clapperton’s Last Expedition_, i. pp. 120, 121; Cook, _Voyage Towards the South Pole_ (2 Voy.), i. p. 368.

[201] Cook, _Voyage Towards the South Pole_ (2 Voy.), i. p. 356 (Huaheine).

[202] Levertin, _Fars och farsörer_, p. 78, especially the quotation from Chappuy’s “L’avare cornu” (1580).

[203] For songs describing the incidents in a travel see Batchelor, _The Ainu_, pp. 123, 124; Chamisso, in Kotzebue’s _Reisen_, iii. p. 67 (Radack); Woods, _Native Tribes_, pp. 38, 39 (Taplin, “The Narrinyeri”); Grey, _Journals_, ii. p. 253; Polack, _New Zealanders_, ii. pp. 167, 168. On current events as subjects of primitive poetry cf. Bonwick, _Tasmanians_, p. 29; Kingsley, _Travels_, p. 66, (Bubis); Curr, _Australian Race_, iii. p. 169 (Mathew, _Mary River Natives_); Metz, _Neilgherry Hills_, p. 30 (Todas); Ahlqvist, _Acta Soc. Scient. Fenn._ xiv. (“Wogulen und Ostjaken”); Day, _Proceedings of the As. Soc._ 1870, p. 157 (Observ. on the Andamanese); Ehrenreich in _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xix. p. 32 (Botokudos); Erman, _Travels in Siberia_, ii. pp. 42, 43 (Ostyak songs and pantomimes).

[204] Cf. Bonwick, _Daily Life and Origin of the Tasmanians_, p. 29; Lenz, _Skizzen aus West Afrika_, pp. 110, 111 (Abongos); Schneider, _Die Naturvölker_, ii. p. 235, 236 (Interior Africa).

[205] Cf. Eyre, _Expeditions into Central Australia_, ii. p. 240; Cruickshank, _Eighteen Years on the Gold Coast_, ii. p. 266.

[206] St. John, _Far East_, i. p. 114 (Kayans of Baram); Petherick, _Egypt_, p. 130 (Hassanyeh Arabs); Mollien, _Travels_, p. 74 (Joloffs).

[207] Woods, _l.c._ pp. 38, 39 (Taplin, “The Narrinyeri”). Cf. the solos in the Atiu canoe-song, describing the guns of Captain Cook. Gill, _From Darkness to Light_, p. 263. On the song of the Marshall Islanders describing the ships of the Russian expedition, the dresses of the sailors, etc., see Rienzi, _Océanie_, ii. p. 196.

[208] Varigny, _Quatorze ans aux Iles Sandwich_, pp. 18-23, particularly p. 19. A short reference to the same song can be found in Fornander, _The Polynesian Race_, ii. p. 171.

[209] Steinen, _Unter den Naturvölkern_, pp. 244 _sq._, 248, 249.

[210] Hyades, in _Mission scientifique du Cap Horn_, vii. p. 253.

[211] Martial, _ibid._ i. p. 214.

[212] Mr. Bridges’ unpublished work, quoted by Hyades, _l.c._ vii. p. 377.

[213] Cranz, _Historie von Grönland_, i. p. 292.

[214] Cranz, _l.c._ p. 229.

[215] Codrington, _The Melanesians_, pp. 47, 48; cf. Romilly, _My Verandah in New Guinea_, p. 87.

[216] Kleinschmidt, in _Journal des Museum Godeffroy_, xiv. 1879, p. 268. (“Reisen auf den Viti Inseln. Insel Vatu Lele”). Williams, _Fiji_, pp. 99, 142; Spencer, _Descriptive Sociology_, Division I. Nr. iii. p. 60.

[217] Letherman, in _Smithsonian Report_, 1855, pp. 295, 296 (The Navajo tribe).

[218] Cf. Matthews, _Navaho Legends_, pp. 22-26, where the assertions of Dr. Letherman are quoted and opposed.

[219] Cook. (1st) _Voyage_, p. 388; Lubbock, _Prehistoric Times_, p. 426; Spencer, _Principles of Sociology_, iii. p. 78.

[220] Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes_, ii. p. xii.

[221] Schoolcraft, _l.c._ i. p. 18.

[222] Lubbock, _l.c._ p. 426.

[223] Kane, _Wanderings_, p. 179.

[224] See _infra_, p. 175.

[225] With regard to the traditional art of the Australian natives compare Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes_, pp. 220 _sq._ 473, 485; Lloyd, _Tasmania and Victoria_, p. 466.

[226] Cf. _e.g._ Steinen, _Durch Central Brasilien_, pp. 266, 267, on a Yuruna dance.

[227] Cf. Bourke, _Scatologic Rites_, p. 25.

[228] Bourke, “The Medicine-men of the Apache,” in _Rep. Bur. Ethnol._ ix. 1887-88.

[229] Cf. Bourke, _Scatologic Rites_, pp. 6, 7, 64, and the author’s _Förstudier till en konstfilosofi_, pp. 114, 119.

[230] Bourke, _The Snake-Dance of the Moquis_, pp. 178, 179.

[231] Cf. the author’s _Skildringar ur Pueblo folkens konstlif_ (The Art-life of the Pueblo-Indians), _passim_.

[232] Cf. Spencer, _Principles of Sociology_, i. p. 797.

[233] Cf. especially Fewkes, “The Snake Ceremonials at Walpi,” in _Journ. American Ethnology and Archæology_, vol. iv., especially pp. 119, 124.

[234] A detailed account of these prayers has been given in _Pueblo folkens konstlif_, passim.

[235] Cf. Tylor, _Prim. Culture_, i. pp. 392 _sq._

[236] Mooney, in _The American Anthropologist_, iii. pp. 108, 109 (“The Cherokee Ball-Play”).

[237] Groos, _Die Spiele der Menschen_, pp. 246, 247.

[238] Réclus, _Les Primitifs_, p. 356. For some unmistakable examples of myths secondary to the corresponding rites see Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 443.

[239] Cf. Abercromby, _Pre-and Proto-historic Finns_, i. pp. 358, 359, ii. p. 41.

[240] Erman, _Travels_, ii. pp. 50, 51.

[241] Lubbock, _Origin of Civilisation_, pp. 356 _sq._

[242] Cf. Kingsley, _Travels_, p. 473. On the difficulty of deciding whether a given piece of sculpture is to be interpreted as an idol or as a merely memorial portrait, see Brinton, _Report upon the Collections_, etc., p. 33.

[243] Schweinfurth, _Artes Africanæ_, pl. viii. f. 5; Cruickshank, _Eighteen Years on the Gold Coast_, ii. pp. 270, 271; Schmeltz, _Ethnol. Abtheil. des Mus. Godeffroy_, p. 241.

[244] Codrington, _The Melanesians_, pp. 173, 174. The same views have been expressed by Finsch, _Ethnologische Erfahrungen_, pp. 255-257; _Samoafahrten_, pp. 47-49, 75, 175.

[245] Polack, _New Zealand_, i. pp. 115, 116, 236, 237; Robley, _Moko_, pp. 88 _sq._ Cf. about “Moko”-tattooing as a means of recognising individuals, living or dead, Robley, _l.c._ pp. 131, 146, 147, 159.

[246] Andree, _Ethnographische Parallelen_, i. pp. 258-261. The remarks of Herr Andree have been emphatically supported by von den Steinen, _Unter den Naturvölkern Central Brasiliens_, p. 244; cf. also Hoffman, _Ethnographic Observations_, in U.S. Geol. and Geogr. Survey, 1876, especially p. 475.

[247] Im Thurn, _Indians of Guiana_, pp. 403-410. On similar grounds the application of Herr Andree’s theory to the North American Petroglyphs has been opposed by Mallery, in _Rep. Bur. Ethnol._ x. pp. 28, 29 (“Picture-writing of the American Indians”).

[248] Svoboda, in _Archiv für Ethnographie_, v. pp. 162, 163. Cf. also Meyer, _Bilderschriften des Ostindischen Archipels_, p. 1.

[249] Cf. Grey, _Journals_, ii. p. 310.

[250] As typical illustrations of this class of legends we may instance the Polynesian poems quoted by Fornander, _The Polynesian Race_, ii. 12-19, 284-286.

[251] Cf. pp. 160, 161, in the preceding, and Gill, _From Darkness to Light_, pp. 248-264.

[252] See Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, i. p. 286; iv. pp. 79, 101, 105; Pritchard, _Polynesian Reminiscences_, p. 125; Polack, _New Zealanders_, ii. p. 167; and, above all, the collection of traditional war-poetry from the Hervey Group, published by Gill in _From Darkness to Light_.

[253] Cf. above, p. 165.

[254] Oviedo, _Histoire des Indes_, pp. 69, 70; Markham, in the Introduction to his translation of _Ollanta_, pp. 1, 2; Spencer, _Descr. Soc._ ii. pp. 13, 68, 70, 71; Forbes, _Dahomey_, ii. p. 13. On historical songs among the military tribes of Africa cf. also Shooter, _The Kafirs_, p. 268; Burton, _Lake Regions_, i. p. 263 (Wagogos). As regards the influence of war on early Arab poetry see Posnett, _Comparative Literature_, p. 133.

[255] Cf. _e.g._ the humble traditions of the Kubus, as quoted by Forbes, _Wanderings_, p. 243.

[256] Laing, _Travels_, p. 186 (Village Kamia); Dobrizhoffer, _The Abipones_, ii. pp. 430, 431.

[257] Parker, _Aborigines of Australia_, pp. 25, 26; Howitt in _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ xiii. pp. 453, 454 (Australian ceremonies of initiation), and Cameron in the same journal, xiv. p. 358 (Tribes of N.S. Wales); the last two instances quoted in Frazer, _Totemism_, p. 47. See also Fison, “The Nanga,” in _J. A. I._ xiv., esp. p. 22, on an initiation ceremony in Fiji, representing the ancestors lying dead and coming to life again, which curiously resembles Collins’s description and pictures of an Australian initiation (Collins, _N.S. Wales_, i. p. 575). For a somewhat analogous drama in East Africa see Dale, _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ xxv. p. 189 (Bondi country). For interpretation of all these rites see Frazer, _Totemism_, p. 47; and _The Golden Bough_, ii. pp. 343-359.

[258] Carver, _Travels_, pp. 175-180; Schoolcraft, _Information_, v. pp. 428 _sq._ Both quoted by Frazer. To be compared with the initiation into the Secret Society of Nkimba—Ward in _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ xxiv. pp. 288, 289 (Congo tribes).

[259] Crane, _Bases of Design_, p. 189.

[260] Cf. Haddon, _Evolution in Art_, pp. 220, 221.

[261] Brown, _Hist. of the Origin and Rise of Poetry_, pp. 49, 50.

[262] Darwin, _The Descent of Man_, ii. pp. 103, 124, 125; cf. also ii. pp. 436, 437, and _The Origin of Species_, i. p. 109.

[263] Ribot, _Psychologie de l’attention_, pp. 44, 45.

[264] Espinas, _Des sociétés animales_, p. 284.

[265] Brehm, _Thierleben_, v. pp. 601, 602; cf. also Wallace, _Tropical Nature_, p. 199.

[266] Nilsson, _Foglarna_, ii. p. 56; Lloyd, _Game Birds and Wild Fowl_, p. 81.

[267] Geddes and Thomson, _The Evolution of Sex_, p. 28.

[268] Darwin, _The Descent of Man_, ii. pp. 107-109, 252.

[269] Cf. Wallace, _Tropical Nature_, pp. 196-198, _Darwinism_, p. 284; Westermarck, _Human Marriage_, pp. 244, 250.

[270] Wallace, _Tropical Nature_, pp. 193, 209, 210, 213; _Darwinism_, pp. 284, 287, 292, 294.

[271] Darwin, _The Descent of Man_, ii. p. 103.

[272] Cf. Wallace, _Darwinism_, p. 293; _Tropical Nature_, p. 199.

[273] Cf. Schneider, _Der Thierische Wille_, p. 367.

[274] Cf. about the relation between sexual ripening and the development of the vocal organs, Buffon, _Hist. nat. des oiseaux_, i. pp. 21, 22.

[275] For some suggestive remarks in this direction see Espinas, _Des sociétés animales_, p. 313; and the anonymous paper on “The Descent of Man” in _The Quarterly Review_, 1871, vol. cxiii. p. 62.

[276] Westermarck, _Human Marriage_, pp. 245, 249.

[277] Lindsay, _Mind in the Lower Animals_, i. p. 252, 253; ii. pp. 126, 219, 220; Grant Allen, _The Colour Sense_, pp. 119, 157, 167; Romanes, _Animal Intelligence_, p. 247.

[278] Darwin, _The Descent of Man_, ii. pp. 123-125; Nilsson, _Foglarna_, i. pp. 202, 206; Lindsay, _Mind in the Lower Animals_, ii. p. 152; Cornish, _Life at the Zoo_, pp. 101-103, 105, 106.

[279] Romanes, _Darwin_, i. p. 381; Büchner, _Liebe und Liebes-Leben_, p. 52.

[280] Beccari, “Le capanne dell’ Amblyornis inornata,” in _Annali del museo civico di storia naturale di Genova_, ix. pp. 382-391.

[281] Darwin, _The Descent of Man_, ii. p. 77.

[282] Cf. especially the dresses of _Homophania insectivora_, _Petasophora cyanotis_, and _Steganura underwoodi_, as depicted in Mulsant, _Hist. nat. des oiseaux-mouches_, Pl. 62, 91a, 110.

[283] Binet, _Le fétichisme dans l’amour_, etc., pp. 257 _sq._ (_L’intensité des images mentales_).

[284] Groos, _The Play of Animals_, pp. 243, 283; cf. also Hellwald, _Die menschliche Familie_, pp. 14-16; Van Ende, _Hist. nat. de la croyance_, I. _L’animal_, p. 238.

[285] Darwin, _The Descent of Man_, ii. pp. 106, 107.

[286] Wallace, _Darwinism_, pp. 284, 287, 292, 294.

[287] Spencer, _Essays_, ii. pp. 427, 430, 431. Some of the arguments of Spencer had been adduced by Barrington in his polemic against Buffon. Cf. _Philosophical Transactions_, 1773, pp. 262, 263 (Experiments on the singing of birds).

[288] Hudson, _The Naturalist in La Plata_, pp. 280 _sq._

[289] A more detailed account of this question has been given in the author’s _Förstudier till en konstfilosofi_, pp. 29, 30.

[290] Espinas, _Des sociétés animales_, p. 328.

[291] For experiments proving the invigorating effects of colour-impression upon the animal organism, particularly upon insects, see Féré, _Pathology of Emotions_, p. 23.

[292] Brehm, _Thierleben_, iv. p. 20; cf. also Schneider, _Der thierische Wille_, p. 172; Espinas, _l.c._ p. 286; Groos, _The Play of Animals_, pp. 242-244.

[293] Groos, _l.c._ p. 242.

[294] Groos, _The Play of Animals_, pp. 244, 245; _Die Spiele der Menschen_, pp. 329-340.

[295] Darwin, _The Descent of Man_, ii. pp. 18, 94, 110, 137.

[296] _Ibid._ ii. p. 251. When advocating the Darwinian theory of sexual selection, Professor Poulton seems to use the notion “æsthetic appreciation” in this wide sense. Cf. _Colours of Animals_, p. 286.

[297] Cf. Darwin, _The Descent of Man_, ii. pp. 67, 74.

[298] _Ibid._ ii. p. 67.

[299] Nilsson, _Foglarna_, ii. p. 185.

[300] _Ibid._ ii. p. 8; i. p. 509.

[301] Westermarck, _Human Marriage_, pp. 200, 201, 212.

[302] _Ibid._ pp. 196, 198.

[303] Schurtz, _Grundzüge einer Philosophie der Tracht_, pp. 21, 57, 77, 80.

[304] As regards these various means of “embellishment” see the collection of instances in Magitot, “Les mutilations ethniques,” in _Congrès d’anthropologie_, 1880.

[305] Cf. Westermarck, _Human Marriage_, pp. 265, 266; Lippert, _Kulturgeschichte_, i. pp. 368, 369.

[306] Cf. Brinton, _Races and Peoples_, p. 43.

[307] Ahlqvist, _Muistelmia_, p. 11.

[308] Humboldt, _Travels_, iii. p. 236; cf. Joest, _Tätowiren_, pp. 14, 15; Brinton, _Races and Peoples_, p. 42.

[309] Westermarck, _Human Marriage_, p. 263; Lippert, _Kulturgeschichte_, i. pp. 402-405.

[310] Cf. Westermarck, _Human Marriage_, pp. 195, 200, 201.

[311] Westermarck, _l.c._ pp. 196-198; cf. also Finsch, _Ethnologische Erfahrungen_, p. 44 (New Zealand).

[312] Fritsch, _Die Eingeborenen Süd-Afrikas_, pp. 58, 59; Steinen, _Under den Naturvölkern_, pp. 191, 192; Lisiansky, _Voyage_, p. 86; Moseley in _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ vi. p. 398; Finsch, _l.c._ pp. 64, 85, 225; Roth, W. E., _N.W.C. Queensland Aborigines_, p. 113; Wilken, _Nederlandsch-Indië_, pp. 37, 38; _Führer durch das Museum für Völkerkunde_, p. 87.

[313] Roth, _l.c._ p. 114.

[314] Wilken, _l.c._ p. 38; cf. also Steinen, _l.c._ pp. 195, 196.

[315] Westermarck, _Human Marriage_, p. 209.

[316] For some curious superstitions of this kind see Schneider, _Die Naturvölker_, i. p. 269.

[317] Somerville, in _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ xxiii. p. 368 (Notes on the New Hebrides).

[318] Elworthy, _The Evil Eye_, pp. 16, 148-154; Schurtz, in _Archiv für Anthropologie_, xxii. p. 60 (Amulette und Zaubermittel); Svoboda, _Geschichte der Ideale_, i. pp. 294-296, on obscene amulets in classical art. It may be remarked that ithyphallic talismans are especially numerous in and about New Guinea. Cf. Schmeltz in De Clercq, _Nederlandsch Nieuw-Guinea_, p. 244.

[319] Kleinpaul, _Sprache ohne Worte_, p. 275. Cf. also the obscene and indecent character of the devil dances on Ceylon—Sirr, _Ceylon_, ii. p. 52. To the same superstitious motives we may perhaps also ascribe the occurrence of improper dances and pantomimes at funerals, _i.e._ at an occasion when there is especial reason to fear the influence of malignant spirits. For instances of such funeral ceremonies see Laing, _Travels_, p. 368 (Soolimas); Metz, _Neilgherry Hills_, pp. 77, 78 (Badagas); Waitz, _Anthropologie der Naturvölker_, vi. p. 407 (Polynesia). The interpretation of these peculiar rites must, however, necessarily be only hypothetical. For other explanations of them see Réclus, _Les Primitifs_, p. 242, and Svoboda, _l.c._ i. p. 557.

[320] On exposure as an offence cf. the instructive instances quoted in Ellis, _Man and Woman_, p. 61.

[321] Ratzel, _Völkerkunde_, i. p. 64. On superstitious motives for covering the organs of generation cf. also Crawley in _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ xxiv., especially pp. 441, 442 (Sexual Taboo). The Bible text (Genesis ix. 21-25), which has been interpreted by Schurtz (_Philosophie der Tracht_, p. 56) as a case of modesty, is undoubtedly to be explained by reference to phallic superstitions.

[322] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes_, p. 125. On somewhat similar notions entertained by the North American Indians, cf. the instances quoted in Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ii. p. 24.

[323] Hartland, _Legend of Perseus_, i. pp. 179, 180; cf. also Marsden, _Sumatra_, p. 297 (Lampongs).

[324] Hartland, _l.c._ i. p. 170.

[325] _Ibid._ i. p. 170; Frazer, _The Golden Bough_, ii. p. 237.

[326] Cf. Westermarck, _Human Marriage_, pp. 173 sq.; Joest, _Tätowiren_, p. 56.

[327] Cf. Tetens and Kubary in _Journal des Museum Godeffroy_, ii. p. 16 (Yap); Kubary, _l.c._ viii. p. 133 (Pelew Islands: Gems and bracelets as badges and class distinctions); Angas, _Polynesia_, pp. 293, 297 (Tahiti: different ranks among the Areoi distinguished by different tattooings); Schmeltz, _Ethnol. Abtheilung des Museum Godeffroy_, pp. 182 _sq._, 259-261, 478 _sq._ (Fiji; Marquesas Islands; Samoa: tattooings as connected with distinctions of rank). These facts are, as Schmeltz remarks, in direct opposition to the statements of Finsch in _Verhandlungen d. Berlin Anthropol. Gesellschaft_, 1879, p. 414.—Lütke does not himself think that the richness of tattoo patterns on the Caroline Islands stands in any relation to the rank of the tattooed individual; but he admits that some members of his expedition had got such an impression, _Voyage_, i. pp. 359, 360. The belief of the Fijians, to which so curious an analogy has been found among the Eskimos (Lubbock, _Prehist. Times_, p. 565; Hall, _Arctic Researches_, p. 570), that only tattooed people are entitled to happiness after death may perhaps be connected with notions of an Elysium reserved for individuals of a certain rank. Cf. also _Ymer_, iv. p. 317, on the views of the Pelew islanders as to nose ornaments as a condition for entering the realm of spirits, and Finsch, _Ethnol. Erfahrungen_, p. 316, quoting, with reservation, Kirby on a Gilbert’s Island paradise, open only to the spirits of tattooed people. With regard to the African tribes we are unable to adduce any unambiguous instances of scars as denoting rank and status. See, however, Ellis, _Eẃe-speaking Peoples_, p. 146.

[328] Wundt, _Ethik._ p. 152.

[329] Kubary, _Journal des Museum Godeffroy_, viii. p. 133 (Pelew and Ponape Islanders).

[330] Spencer, _Principles of Sociology_, ii. pp. 75, 174 _sq._, 184 _sq._; Steinen, _Unter den Naturvölkern_, p. 179.

[331] With regard to the later developments of such triumphal signs compare _e.g._ Wuttke, _Geschichte d. Schrift_, i. pp. 108 _sq._; Wilken, _Nederlandsch-Indië_, pp. 36, 37; Joest, _Welt-Fahrten_, ii. p. 301 (Formosa); Burchell, _Travels_, ii. p. 535 (Bachapins).

[332] Schneider, _Die Naturvölker_, i. pp. 109, 110; Robley, _Moko_, p. 46; Godden in _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ xxvi. p. 185 (Nagas); Man, _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ xii. p. 35, thinks that the Andamanese tattooing is executed “primarily as ornamental, and secondarily as proving the courage of the individual and his (or her) power of enduring pain.”

[333] Schneider, _l.c._ i. p. 107.

[334] On tattooing as a pictography compare Wuttke, _Geschichte der Schrift_, i. pp. 97-99, 102.

[335] Stolpe, _Tätowirung der Oster-Insulaner_, p. 8.

[336] Cf. Sarasin, _Forschungen auf Ceylon_, iii. p. 511 (Magical cords worn by the Veddas: the custom considered to be of Singhalese origin); Man, _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ xii. p. 86 (Bone necklaces worn by the Andamanese as a cure for sickness); _Ibid._ p. 170 (Superstitious notions of the Andamanese with regard to tattooing); Stevens, “Wilde Stämme Malâkas,” in _Veröff. d. Mus. Völkerkunde_, ii. p. 145 (Amulet collars); Marshall, _Todas_, p. 49 (Rings and bracelets as charms); Elliot, _Memoirs on the Races of the N. W. Provinces of India_, i. p. 240 (Black “mouches” worn on the face for averting evil eye); Bock, _Temples and Elephants_, p. 170 (Superstitious tattooings among Burmese and Ngious); Smyth, _Victoria_, i. p. 112; and Taplin, “The Narrinyeri,” in Woods, _Native Tribes_, p. 21 (Hair of deceased worn around the head in order to make “the eyes large and the sight keen”); Roth, _Tasmania_, p. 76 (Bones of deceased worn as amulets); Kingsley, _Travels_, p. 448 (Charm-gems in W. Africa); Ellis, _W. African Sketches_, p. 9 (Bodily painting as medical cure among Fantis), pp. 191, 192 (Tattooing supposed to strengthen a child). For further interesting instances see Wuttke, _Geschichte der Schrift_, i. p. 77; cf. also the facts about laceration as medical cure collected on p. 67 in the preceding.

[337] Steinen, _Unter den Naturvölkern_, p. 184.

[338] _Ibid._ _l.c._ pp. 173, 186; cf. the assertions of Burton, _Lake Regions_, ii. p. 63 (Wajiji Tribe: Tattooing explained as a protection against the humid atmosphere); Roth, _Tasmania_, pp. 139-141.

[339] Lippert, _Kulturgeschichte_, i. pp. 18, 365, 366.

[340] Cf. Haddon, _Evolution in Art_, p. 203; Grosse, _Anfänge der Kunst_, pp. 130-133.

[341] Robley, _Moko_, pp. 10-16. Cf., however, Shortland (_New Zealand_, pp. 16, 17), who explains Moko as being only a “fashionable mode of adornment,” and Dieffenbach (_New Zealand_, ii. p. 34), who thinks that the use of Moko for signatures is a modern invention. Tattooings which serve as individual marks of recognition are mentioned by Heriot, _Travels through the Canadas_, p. 293; Fraser, _Aborigines of New South Wales_, p. 45; Herr Koeler (_Monatsberichte der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde_, iii. p. 51) thinks that the scars of the Australians—“these genealogical indices”—may to some extent make up for the want of proper names.

[342] With regard to marks of tribal distinction compare the facts collected by Spencer, _Principles of Sociology_, ii. pp. 72-75; Frazer, _Totemism_, pp. 26-30. Even those who do not believe in Mr. Frazer’s assertion that the paintings, coiffures, tattooings, etc., aim at an imitation of the totem animal, will be compelled to admit that they often serve as means of distinguishing members of the same totem group. Buckland, _Anthropological Studies_, pp. 224, 225, 231 (On tattooing); Starcke, _The Primitive Family_, pp. 42, 62; Wuttke, _Geschichte der Schrift_, i. pp. 80 _sq._

Further instances, unmentioned by these authors, are to be found in Godden, _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ xxvi. pp. 184, 185 (Nagas and other Frontier Tribes of North-East India); Fytche, _Burma_, i. pp. 351, 352 (Khyengs said to tattoo their women in order to prevent their being carried off by neighbouring tribes); Im Thurn, _Indians of Guiana_, pp. 196, 305; Dobrizhoffer, _The Abipones_, ii. p. 19; Steinen, _Unter den Naturvölkern Central Brasiliens_, pp. 179, 180, 190; Kingsley, _Travels in West Africa_, pp. 530, 531; Ellis, _West African Sketches_, p. 191; _Eẃe-speaking Peoples_, p. 146; Lander, _Journal_, iii. p. 61 (Kacundas); Johnston, _British Central Africa_, pp. 422-424; Ward in _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ xxiv. p. 294 (Congo Tribes); Wissman, _Im Inneren Afrikas_, p. 246 (Bacubas). In his account of the Niger tribes M. Binger has succeeded in minutely classifying the tattoo patterns according to tribes and families (Binger, _Du Niger_, etc., ii. pp. 408-411). It is evidently impossible to decide to how great a degree the uniformity in the decorative systems of the several tribes has its origin in an intentional endeavour to develop a distinct tribal appearance. It may in many cases be merely a result of limited powers of invention.

As to the scarification of the Australian natives the evidence seems to be contradictory. If we are to believe Mr. Taplin’s informer, incisions on the body would have been used by the Noocoonas in order to distinguish tribes “before whites came” (Taplin, _Folklore of S. Australia_, p. 65). These assertions have, however, been called in question by the informers of Curr (_Australian Race_, ii. pp. 468, 475), by Spencer and Gillen (_Native Tribes_, pp. 42-44), and by Stirling (_Rep. Horn Exp. IV. Anthropology_, p. 24); cf. also Roth, _N. W. C. Queensland_, pp. 110, 115.

[343] For some further instances illustrating the use of “decoration” for purely practical purposes see Mallery, in _Rep. Bur. Ethnol._ x. p. 418; Westermarck, _Human Marriage_, p. 176.

[344] Finsch, _Ethnologische Erfahrungen_, pp. 283, 284 (Mikronesia); in _Verhandlungen d. Berlin Anthropol. Gesellschaft_, 1879, p. 414 (Markesas Islands); and in _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xii. p. 308 (Ponape); Stirling in _Rep. Horn Exp._ iv. p. 31 (Central Australia); Stokes, _Discoveries_, i. pp. 58, 59 (South-Western Australia); Bock, _Temples and Elephants_, pp. 170-172 (Laos).

[345] Spencer, _Essays_, ii. pp. 433-435 (The Origin of Music).

[346] On the stimulating influence which women may exercise on warriors, and on the sensitiveness of warriors to female appreciation or criticism, see for example Spencer, _Descr. Soc._ Div. I. Nr. iii. p. 60 (Tasmanians); Nr. v. p. 3 (Bedouins); Mantegazza, _Physiologie des Hasses_, pp. 143-145.

[347] Gurney, _Power of Sound_, p. 159, quoted by Wallaschek, _Primitive Music_, p. 211.

[348] Wallaschek, _l.c._ pp. 210-213.

[349] Hudson, _The Naturalist in La Plata_, p. 279.

[350] Groos, _The Play of Animals_, pp. 244, 245.

[351] Darwin, _The Descent of Man_, ii. pp. 387-409.

[352] Berchon, “Le tatouage,” in _Actes de l’Académie de Bordeaux_, 1885, pp. 806, 807. Cf. also Joest, _Tätowiren_, pp. 29, 53-55, 60-65. Although Berchon himself remarks (p. 811) that in Polynesia the reverence for tattooing is dying out, he has not happened to think that this circumstance may have been the cause of the laxity in tattoo composition.

[353] Cf. Cook, (1st) _Voyage_, pp. 206-208; cf. p. 265 (Tahiti). For other Polynesian erotic dances see Marques in _Boletim da Sociedade de Geographia de Lisboa_, viii. p. 60 (Samoa); Turner, _Samoa_, p. 125; Gill, _South. Pacific_, p. 20 (Hervey Islands); Rienzi, _Océanie_, iii. p. 160 (Maori Slave Girls). On Polynesian dance parties, arranged in order to bring into notice the daughters of the chiefs and nobles, cf. Gill, _From Darkness to Light_, pp. 29, 253 (Mangaia); Ellis, _Pol. Res._ i. pp. 215-217 (Tahiti); Vancouver, _Voyage_, i. p. 119. (Tahiti). Examples of similar dances and pantomimes, often in plain connection with sexual orgies, can be found among Australians and Melanesians. Cf. especially Eyre, _Expeditions into Central Australia_, ii. p. 235; Mathew in Curr, _Australian Race_, iii. pp. 168, 169 (Mary River Natives). Koeler in his list of Australian words describes “Korrobbora” as an obscene dance-pantomime performed by men before the women; _Monatsber. d. Ges. für Erdkunde zu Berlin_, iii. p. 53; Mathews in _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ xxv. pp. 226-228 (Kamilaroi); Woods, _Native Tribes_, p. 38 (Taplin, “The Narrinyeri”), p. 243 (Schürmann, “Port Lincoln Tribe,” men and women dancing some rounds together); Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes_, p. 381. Few of these facts, however, entitle us to assume a simple purpose of _pleasing_ the opposite sex.

[354] Burton, _Zanzibar_, i. pp. 430, 431; Ellis, _West African Sketches_, p. 226 (Country Dance in Mankessin); Laing, _Travels_, pp. 104, 105 (Timannees); Nachtigal, _Sahărâ und Sûdân_, i. pp. 101, 102 (Murzuk, Fezzân); Sparrman, _Resa_, i. p. 421 (Hottentots). For general descriptions of this kind of dancing see Fr. Müller, _Allgemeine Ethnographie_, p. 172.

[355] Marsden, _Sumatra_, p. 298 (Lampong Country); Brenner, _Besuch bei den Kannibalen_, p. 331 (Sumatra); Joest, _Weltfahrten_, ii. pp. 159, 160 (Seram); Blumentritt, _Filippinen_, p. 17 (Tagals), p. 41 (Catalangaus).

[356] Dalton, _Ethnology of Bengal_, pp. 196-198 (Hos and Mundaris); Lewin, _Wild Races_, pp. 123-125 (Khyoungtha Love Songs), p. 188 (Chukma Songs); Müller, _l.c._ p. 471 (Kolh Dances).

[357] Dalton, _l.c._ pp. 142-144 (Bhuiyas).

[358] _Ibid._ pp. 135, 149, 300.

[359] _Ibid._ p. 196.

[360] Lewin, _Wild Races_, pp. 123-125.

[361] _Ibid._ p. 188.

[362] Selenka, _Sonnige Welten_, pp. 349-352; Brenner, _Besuch bei den Kannibalen_, pp. 328 _sq._ (Bataks); Forbes, _Wanderings_, p. 149; Marsden, _Sumatra_, pp. 197, 198, 267; Rienzi, _Océanie_, i. pp. 134, 135, all on poetry from Sumatra; Blumentritt, _Filippinen_, p. 17; Jagor, _Filippinen_, p. 236 (Bisayas); Martin, _Mollukken_, pp. 292, 293; Hickson, _Celebes_, pp. 272-274, 301-304.

[363] Curr, _Australian Race_, iii. pp. 168, 169.

[364] Cf. on the erotic poetry in Tahiti, Cook, (3rd) _Voyage_, ii. p. 149; on Maori erotic poetry, Dieffenbach, _New Zealand_, ii. p. 57.

[365] Morgan, _Iroquois_, pp. 260, 284-287; Baker, _Musik der Nordamerikanischen Wilden_, p. 56.

[366] Cf. Brinton, _Essays_, pp. 293-297; Markham, _Ollanta_, pp. 1, 2.

[367] Hyades, _Mission Scientifique_, vii. p. 377; cf. p. 239.

[368] Bailey, _Trans. Ethnol. Soc._ N. S. ii. p. 301; Davy, _Ceylon_, p. 118; Deschamps, _Au pays des Veddas_, pp. 386-389; Emerson Tennent, _Ceylon_, ii. p. 450; Hoffmeister, _Travels_, p. 164; Sarasin, _Ergebnisse_, iii. pp. 512-518, 546; Schmidt, _Ceylon_, pp. 73, 74; De Zoysa, _Journ. Ceylon Br. R. A. S._ 1881, p. 114,—all on Vedda dancing.

Sarasin, _l.c._ pp. 510, 519-523; Bailey, _l.c._ p. 289; Deschamps, _l.c._ pp. 386 _sq._; Nevill in _The Taprobanian_, ii. pp. 121-127; De Zoysa, _l.c._ pp. 98-115,—all on Vedda poetry.

[369] See Fritsch, _Eingeborenen Süd-Afrikas_, pp. 425, 426; Holub, _Süd-Afrika_, ii. pp. 465, 469, 470; and the interesting communication in _The Academy_, 1878, p. 463.

[370] Roth, W. E., _N. W. C. Queensland Aborigines_, pp. 119, 120, 131; Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes_, passim (On the elaborate decorations and paraphernalia used in the dramatic rites of initiation); Hill and Thornton, _Aborigines of New South Wales_, pp. 7, 8; Lang, _Australia_, pp. 28, 29.

[371] Cf. Darwin, _The Descent of Man_, ii. pp. 400, 401, 418.

[372] Scott, “Sex and Art,” in _American Journal of Psychology_, vii., especially p. 183.

[373] Cf. Büchner, _Liebe und Liebes-Leben_, p. 53.

[374] Savage, _New Zealand_, pp. 84, 85; Ellis, _Polynesian Res._ i. p. 217 (Tahiti); Gill, _The South. Pacific_, p. 20; Romilly, _My Verandah in New Guinea_, p. 88.

[375] Sarasin, _Ergebnisse_, iii. p. 518.

[376] Cf. _e.g._ Johnston, _British Central Africa_, p. 408; Crawley, “Sexual Taboo,” _passim_, in _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ xxiv.

[377] Cf. _e.g._ Lütke, _Voyage_, ii. pp. 276, 277, on Tschuktschi dance; Cook, (3rd) _Voyage_, i. p. 251, on the dance of the Hapaee women, some of the motions in which would, by a European, be thought rather indecent, though perhaps they meant only to display the astonishing variety of their movements.

[378] Reeves, _Brown Men and Women_, p. 160.

[379] Curr, _Austr. Race_, iii. p. 169 (Mathew, Mary River), on songs describing the charms of a sweetheart. “Such songs are only known to a few individuals, and are sung in private.”

[380] Cook. (3rd) _Voyage_, ii. p. 149.

[381] Spencer, _Descr. Soc._ Division I. Nr. v. p. 30.

[382] Cf. Johnston, _British Central Africa_, p. 408.

[383] Schurtz, _Das Augenornament_, pp. 49, 54.

[384] Cf. p. 217 in the preceding.

[385] Mathews in _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ xxiv. p. 424.

[386] Fritsch, _Die Eingeborenen Süd-Afrikas_, p. 140.

[387] Johnston, _British Central Africa_, p. 408.

[388] Kidd, _Social Evolution_, p. 279; cf. Spencer, _Principles of Sociology_, i. pp. 88, 89.

[389] Johnstone, _Maoria_, p. 43.

[390] Cf. Burton, _Mission to Gelele_, i. pp. 46, 51, 210, 267, 382; ii. p. 10; Forbes, _Dahomey_, i. p. 24.

[391] Woods, _Native Tribes_, p. 37 (Taplin, “The Narrinyeri”).

[392] Burton, _Mission to Gelele_, i. pp. 149, 150; Acosta, _History of the Indies_, ii. p. 444. For European trade dances see, _e.g._, Böhme, _Tanz in Deutschland_, i. pp. 63 _sq._, 209.

[393] Féré, _Sensation et mouvement_, p. 4.

[394] Cf. Spencer, _Principles of Sociology_, i. p. 48.

[395] Rengger, _Saeugethiere von Paraguay_, p. 12.

[396] Cf. the facts adduced by Rengger, _l.c._ p. 11.

[397] Salvado, _Voyage en Australie_, pp. 182, 183.

[398] As regards the general psychology of musical and poetical exhortation to work cf. Chardin, _Voyages_, i. p. 160, quoted in Bücher’s _Arbeit und Rhythmus_, pp. 48, 367. For typical instances see Reade, _The African Sketch Book_, ii. p. 313 (Krumen); Wissman, _Unter deutschen Flagge_, p. 43 (West African Carriers); Burton, _Lake Regions_, ii. p. 291 (East Africa); Grove, _Dancing_, p. 16 (Egypt); Turner, _Nineteen Years in Polynesia_, pp. 317, 345; Lewin, _Wild Races_, p. 271 (Lhoosai); Thomson, _New Zealand_, i. p. 167; Dieffenbach, _New Zealand_, ii. p. 57.

[399] Cf. The satirical and erotic boat songs of the Gold Coast Negroes—Winterbottom, _Africans of Sierra Leone_, i. p. 112, and the historical and erotic ploughing songs of the ancient Peruvians—Markham, _Ollanta_, pp. 1, 2.

[400] A collection of such working songs from among various civilised nations has been brought together by Professor Bücher in his _Arbeit und Rhythmus_.

[401] Cf. _e.g._ the interesting chapter on mill songs in Bücher’s above-mentioned work. As an addendum to this collection we may adduce the corn-grinding song of the Mapuché women—Smith, _The Araucanians_, p. 306.

[402] Noiré, _Der Ursprung der Sprache_, pp. 331 _sq._

[403] Cf. _e.g._ Lenz, _Skizzen aus Westafrica_, pp. 198, 199, on the exciting effects exercised by tam-tam music on the Okandes.

[404] See the boat-building songs of the Hervey Islanders (Gill, _South Pacific_, p. 22), which form so striking an analogy to the magical “Runos” of the old Finns. Cf. also Mason, _Origins of Invention_, p. 150 (Maoris).

[405] Lagrange, _Physiologie des exercises du corps_, pp. 32-35; Souriau, _L’esthétique du movement_, pp. 58, 59.

[406] Féré, _Sensation et mouvement_, p. 12.

[407] Cf. the dynamogenic experiments of Féré, _Sensation et mouvement_, pp. 13, 14, and the remarks of Schmidkunz, _Psychologie der Suggestion_, p. 222.

[408] Bücher, _Arbeit und Rhythmus_, p. 261; Polack, _New Zealanders_, i. p. 222; ii. pp. 31-32 (on the chiefs who, standing up in the canoes, direct the rowing with help of their spear-truncheons); Kollman, _The Victoria Nyanza_, p. 164 (Ussukuma).

[409] Cf. pp. 87-91 in the preceding.

[410] Spencer, _Principles of Sociology_, ii. pp. 271, 272.

[411] Laing, _Travels_, pp. 252, 253; Brenner, _Kannibalen Sumatras_, p. 258; Shortland, _Traditions and Superstitions of the New Zealanders_, pp. 140, 144, 145, 150.

[412] Vodskov, _Sjæledyrkelse og Naturdyrkelse_, pp. lxxix.-lxxxi.; Ratzel, _Völkerkunde, I. Einleitung_, p. 89.

[413] On songs and dances connected with boating see Muller, _Industrie des Cafres_, p. 47; Burton, _Gorilla Land_, i. pp. 166, 167; Spencer, _Descr. Soc._ Div. i. Nr. 3, p. 62 (Javanese); Angas, _Savage Life_, i. p. 102 (Australia, canoe dance of the Rufus); Smyth, _Victoria_, i. pp. 174, 175 (Australian canoe dance); Rienzi, _Océanie_, iii. p. 159 (New Zealand), and the facts collected by Bücher, _Arbeit und Rhythmus_, pp. 180-191.

[414] Bücher, _l.c._ pp. 200-202.

[415] Spencer, _Principles of Sociology_, i. pp. 553-555, 567-574.

[416] Mitchell, _The Past in the Present_, p. 192; Groos, _Die Spiele der Menschen_, pp. 435, 437.

[417] Cf. Wallaschek in _International Congress of Psychology_, 2nd Session, p. 75.

[418] Cf. _e.g._ Lafitau, _Mœurs des sauvages_, i. p. 522 (“Les Iroquois, et les autres sauvages leurs voisins”); Powers, _Tribes of California_, p. 29 (Karok).

[419] Cf. Forbes, _Dahomey_, ii. p. 61. Mr. Forbes’s admiration for the discipline and order displayed in the mass movements will be well understood by all who witnessed the Dahomeyan dances performed at the Crystal Palace in the summer season 1893.

[420] Thomson, _New Zealand_, i. pp. 126, 127; Earle, _New Zealand_, p. 70; Mundy, _Our Antipodes_, pp. 129, 183; Shortland, _Trad. and Superst. of the New Zealanders_, pp. 150-152.

[421] Cruise, _New Zealand_, pp. 30, 31.

[422] Bidwill, _Rambles in New Zealand_, pp. 81, 82.

[423] On ensemble and exact time in dancing cf. Cook, (1st) _Voyage_, pp. 206-208 (Tahiti); (3rd) _Voyage_, i. p. 188 (Wateoo), pp. 247, 248, 255 (Hapaee); Ellis, _Pol. Res._ i. p. 215; Marques in _Boletim_, etc., viii. p. 59 (Samoa); Reeves, _Brown Men and Women_, p. 158 (Samoa); Williams, _Fiji_, p. 142; Kleinschmidt in _Journ. d. Mus. Godeffroy_, xiv. p. 268 (Fiji); Lütke, _Voyage_, i. p. 383 (Ualan. Caroline Islands); Tetens and Kubary in _Journ. d. Mus. Godeffroy_, ii. p. 23 (Yap, Caroline Islands); Hernsheim, _Sudsee-Erinnerungen_, p. 34 (Yap).

The same virtues have also been admired in Australian dancing. See _e.g._ Fraser, _Aborigines of N.S. Wales_, p. 66; Smyth, _Victoria_, i. p. 168; ii. p. 294; Woods, _Native Tribes_, pp. xxxii., xxxiii., 272. Cf. also Dalton, _Ethnology of Bengal_, pp. 254, 255 (Oráons); Lewin, _Wild Races_, p. 227 (Kumis); p. 313 (Shendoos).

[424] Fritsch, _Eingeborenen Süd-Afrikas_, p. 91 (Ama Xosa); Casalis, _The Basutos_, p. 147 (Kaffir and Basuto dance).

[425] Fritsch, _l.c._ p. 328. The authority of Herr Fritsch gives sufficient credit to this assertion, although it is in direct opposition to the statement of Kolbe, _Reise_, pp. 530, 531. Herr Fritsch’s account of Hottentot dancing is, moreover, in substantial agreement with Sparrman’s description, _Resa_, i. pp. 375, 376.

[426] Cf. with regard to the employment of horns, drums, pipes, etc., as military signals, Wallaschek, _Primitive Music_, pp. 88, 99, 100, 104, 111-113.

[427] See, for instance, the descriptions of Khond warfare in Spencer, _Descriptive Sociology_, Division I. Nr. 5, p. 17 (quoting Campbell, _Khondistan_, p. 42), and the reflections of Mr. Bidwill on Maori courage as dependent upon musical and saltatory stimulation, _Rambles in New Zealand_, pp. 82, 83. As these instances refer to tribes which have been noted for the personal bravery which they develop when excited, the need of artificial excitement must be far stronger among timid tribes.

[428] Cf. the acute reflections of Cook, (1st) _Voyage_, p. 344.

[429] Beecham, _Ashanti_, p. 211; Schoolcraft, _Information_, i. pp. 79, 80 (Dacotas); Wood, _Nat. Hist. of Man_, i. p. 116 (Kaffir war medicine).

[430] Kubary on Micronesian war tattooings in Joest, _Tätowiren_, p. 80.

[431] Mann in _Trans. Ethn. Soc._ N. S. v. p. 295 (Kaffirs); Livingstone, _Miss. Travels_, pp. 198, 199 (Makololo dance demonstration as a preparation to an intended fight); Schoolcraft, _Information_, iv. p. 62 (Dacotas dance when they come in the neighbourhood of the enemy’s country); Schomburgk, _Guiana_, ii. (Macusis); Cook, (1st) _Voyage_, pp. 467, 468, and Angas, _Savage Life_, i. pp. 328, 329 (Maoris); Cahusac, _La danse_, i. p. 108, on the ancient Ethiopians, quoting Lukianos.

Ethnological literature affords numberless descriptions of dances performed as an exercise to battle. As in the present connection we have only to deal with means of stimulation, which immediately precede the real action, all these instances are not to the point.

[432] Carver, _Travels_, pp. 174, 175; Schoolcraft, _Information_, iii. p. 187, quoting Colden (of 1747) on the Iroquois; Acosta, _History of the Indies_, ii. p. 444 (Peru); cf. also Lang, _Australia_, p. 29; Blumentritt, _Filippinen_, p. 16 (Tagal excitement during the performance of war-pantomimes).

[433] Heckewelder, _Hist. of the Indian Nations_, p. 209; Schoolcraft, _Information_ ii. p. 59 (N.A. Indians in general); v. pp. 526, 684 (Chippewas and Comanches); Morgan, _Iroquois_, pp. 268, 339; Burton, _City of the Saints_, p. 177 (Prairie Indians); Casalis, _The Basutos_, pp. 334, 335; Czervinski, _Geschichte des Tanzes_, pp. 251, 252 (Hungary).

[434] Joest, _Weltfahrten_, ii. pp. 160, 161. On a similar institution among the Negroes see Mantegazza, _Physiologie des Hasses_, p. 318.

[435] Grey, _Journals_, ii. p. 303; cf. also Calvert, _Western Australia_, p. 32; Salvado, _Voyage_, p. 182.

[436] Sproat, _Scenes and Studies_, p. 190.

[437] Cf. especially the quotations from Dupuis in Spencer, _Descr. Soc._ Division I. Nr. 4, p. 47 (Ashantis); Ellis, _Pol. Res._ i. p. 287 (Tahiti); Cook, (1st) _Voyage_, p. 344 (New Zealand).

[438] Dobrizhoffer, _The Abipones_, ii. pp. 366, 367, 422-424, 427; Thomson, _New Zealand_, i. pp. 126, 169.

[439] Dobrizhoffer, _l.c._ pages adduced above; Steinen, _Durch Central-Brazilien_, p. 175, cf. also p. 165.

[440] Cf. Dobrizhoffer, _l.c._ ii. pp. 376, 385 _sq._

[441] Cf. Ellis, _Pol. Res._ i. p. 286 (Tahiti); Spencer, _Descr. Soc._ Division I. Nr. 3, p. 15 (Fiji); Thomson, _New Zealand_, i. p. 128; Pritchard, _Pol. Rem._ p. 56; Wood, _Nat. Hist. of Man_, ii. pp. 58, 59, 280, 356 (Australia, Fiji, Samoa).

How great a part of the boastful expressions of contempt for the enemy plays in the warfare of the American tribes can be seen from Heriot, _Travels_, p. 449 (Iroquois). Cf. also Eyre, _Expeditions into Central Australia_, ii. p. 224; Schweinfurth, _Im Herzen von Afrika_, ii. p. 25 (Niam Niam); Shooter, _The Kafirs_, pp. 197-199; Wood, _Nat. Hist. of Man_, i. p. 581 (Cammas).

[442] Wood, _Nat. Hist. of Man_, i. p. 581. A typical and instructive example of undangerous warfare on the Marshall Islands is described by Finsch in _Ethnologische Erfahrungen_, p. 392.

[443] Bidwill, _Rambles in New Zealand_, p. 81; cf. Cook, (3rd) _Voyage_, pp. 161, 162.

[444] (Maning), _Old New Zealand_, p. 49; Polack, _New Zealanders_, i. p. 88; ii. pp, 166, 167.

[445] Polack, _l.c._ i. p. 28.

[446] Richardson, _Arctic Expedition_, i. p. 356; Bancroft, _Native Races_, i. p. 68.

[447] Angas, _Savage Life_, ii. pp. 149, 150; Wood, _Nat. Hist. of Man_, ii. pp. 161, 162.

[448] Macpherson, _Memorials of Service in India_, p. 79.

[449] Cf. Grosse, _Anfänge der Kunst_, pp. 58-60.

[450] Wuttke, _Geschichte der Schrift_, p. 74, quoting Silius Italicus, Aelianus, and Valerius Maximus. Further quotations adduced in Farrer, _Military Manners and Customs_, pp. 222-224. Cf. also Letourneau, _La guerre_, p. 153.

[451] Cf. the remarks of Wood in _Nat. Hist. of Man_, ii. p. 599.

[452] Clavigero, _The History of Mexico_, i. p. 371.

[453] As to magical paintings on banners, standards, and shields, see Hein, _Die bildenden Künste bei den Dayaks auf Borneo_, pp. 71, 72. Cf. also the old Slavonic traditions related by Nagele in _Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie_, xvii. p. 278 (Der Schlangen-Cultus).

[454] Joest, _Tätowiren_, p. 20; Polack, _New Zealanders_, i. p. 28 (Tahiti deformations of the skull).

[455] Bancroft, _Native Races_, i. pp. 101, 105 (Thlinkeets).

[456] Romilly, _My Verandah_, p. 42; Finsch, _Samoafahrten_, p. 91, Atlas, Tafel xxii.; _Ethnologische Erfahrungen_, p. 99 (Motu, New Guinea), p. 243 (Kaiser Wilhelms Land, New Guinea), p. 630 (Bismarck-Archipel). Some fine specimens to be seen in the British Museum.

[457] In later times, however, the Dyaks have begun to avail themselves for this purpose of the hair of their deceased. Cf. Hein, _Die Bildenden Künste bei den Dayaks_, p. 74.

[458] Hein, _Die Bildenden Künste bei den Dayaks auf Borneo_, p. 85.

[459] Marryat, _Borneo_, pp. 14, 15, 74-76; Selenka, _Sonnige Welten_, pp. 80, 81.

[460] Hein, _l.c._ p. 19.

[461] For detailed arguments on this point see the author’s _Förstudier till en konstfilosofi_, chap, iv., “On Gracefulness.”

[462] Cf. the illustrations in Hamilton’s _The Art Workmanship of the Maori Race_.

[463] Earle, _New Zealand_, pp. 160, 161; cf. also Johnstone, _Maoria_, p. 50.

[464] Cf. especially the specimens translated in Schoolcraft, _Information_, ii. pp. 59 _sq._

[465] See the specimens of leather, bone, and textile works preserved in ethnological collections, especially in Musée de Trocadéro, Paris.

[466] Cf. Posnett, _Comparative Literature_, p. 133.

[467] Spencer, _Principles of Sociology_, vol. i. p. 102; Lang, _Myth, Ritual, and Religion_, i. pp. 94-100; Frazer, _The Golden Bough_, i. pp. 9-12, 193-206. For further instructive instances see Ellis, _Eẃe Peoples_, pp. 98, 99; _Tshi Peoples_, pp. 108, 109; Curr, _Australian Race_, i. pp. 45-48; Woods, _Native Tribes_, pp. 23-26 (Facts referring to Polynesia and Australia); Kotzebue, _Entdeckungsreise_, ii. p. 20 (Hawaji); Dieffenbach, _New Zealand_, ii. p. 59; Musters, _Patagonia_, p. 12 (Tehuelches).

[468] See literature on the Couvade, and on the precautions to be observed by men who expect to become fathers. We cannot here dwell on the interesting theories, according to which totemistic doctrines and regulations ought to be interpreted as based upon the conception of a quite material substratum, connecting for eternity with each other all individuals and generations of the same family. However fantastic they may have appeared, the probability of these views has undeniably been increased by the publication of those hitherto unknown details of Australian ceremonialism that have been brought to light by Messrs. Spencer and Gillen. But in questions like these it seems almost impossible to discriminate between symbolical ideas and actions on the one hand, and magical practices based on a real belief on the other.

[469] Cf. Andree, _Ethnographische Parallelen_, Neue Folge, p. 46; Hartland, _The Legend of Perseus_, ii. p. 267.

[470] Cf. Rochas, _L’extériorisation de la sensibilité_, pp. 117-139.

[471] _Ibid._ p. 72.

[472] For the most illustrious and at the same time most lucid statement of this analogy see the remarks of Milton in the preface to _Samson Agonistes_.

[473] Cf. the curious instances and interpretations in Brière, _Essai sur le symbolisme_, pp. 38-41.

[474] For dramatic elements in the ceremonies of rain-making, see Frazer, _The Golden Bough_, i. pp. 13-18, 20; Bérenger-Féraud, _Superstitions et survivances_, i. chap. viii.; iii. pp. 177-207; Grimm, _Teutonic Mythology_, pp. 593-595 (vol. ii.); Lang, _Myth, Ritual, and Religion_, i. pp. 97, 98; ii. p. 78. Further instances in Roth, _N. W. C. Queensland_, pp. 167, 168; Woods, _Native Tribes_, pp. 276-278 (Gason, “Dieyerie Tribe”); Williams, _Fiji_, p. 194; Dalton, _Ethnology of Bengal_, p. 261 (Oraons); Skeat, _Malay Magic_, p. 108; Weston in _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ xxvi. p. 30 (Highlands of Central Japan); Stevenson in _Rep. Bur. Ethn._ 1889-90, pp. 80, 94, 110, 111, 115, 116 (The Sia); Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_, pp. 227, 228; Bonghi, _Römische Feste_, p. 181. Equally interesting is the curious kind of negative magic that is practised by the Javanese “rain preventers.” See _Glimpses of the Eastern Archipelago_, pp. 68-70 (J. Kreemer, “Rain Preventers”).

[475] Frazer, _The Golden Bough_, i. pp. 22, 23; Grove, _Dancing_, p. 85; Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_, pp. 186-188, 243 _sq._

[476] Grimm, _Teutonic Mythology_, pp. 764-772 (vol. ii.); Ralston, _l.c._ pp. 210, 244-246; Zacher, “Kampf des Sommers und Winters,” in _Globus_, xxxi. pp. 266-269, 284-286.

[477] Bérenger-Féraud, _l.c._ v. pp. 177-266; Hartland, _The Legend of Perseus_, i. pp. 173, 174; Soldi, _La langue sacrée_, p. 317 (France); Powers, _Tribes of California_, p. 169 (The Senel).

[478] Selenka, _Sonnige Welten_, pp. 429-431 (Sinhalese); Fraser, _Aborigines of New South Wales_, p. 65.

[479] That the priests who in dance and drama impersonate a god are considered—and perhaps also consider themselves—as embodiments of this god is a view the probability of which is borne out by many details of religious ritualism. If definite proofs are wanted we need only refer to the express statements of the Zuñi Indians as related by Mrs. Stevenson, _Rep. Bur. Ethn._ 1889-90, p. 116 (Stevenson, “The Sia”); 1883-84, p. 549 (Stevenson, “Religious Life of the Zuñi Child”).

[480] Fairer, _Primitive Manners and Customs_, pp. 65, 66. This view may of course also be applied to the interpretation of “pictorial prayers,” such as _e.g._ the wonderful sand-mosaics of the Pueblo Indians.

[481] Collins, _The English Colony of N.S. Wales_, i. p. 367.

[482] As regards this almost universal practice see the collection of instances in Tylor, _Early History_, pp. 277-279; and _Primitive Culture_, ii. p. 146; Peschel, _Völkerkunde_, p. 274; Stoll, _Suggestion und Hypnotismus_, pp. 166, 167. Further instructive instances in Brinton, _Nagualism_, p. 11 (Modern Mexico); Castréu, _Nordiska Resor._ i. p. 137 (Russian Lapps); Casalis, _The Basutos_, p. 280; Lumholtz, _Among Cannibals_, p. 281 (Australia). Winterbottom, _Native Africans of Sierra Leone_, i. pp. 252, 253, adduces some ethnological examples, and refers for comparison to Paracelsus.

[483] Bérenger-Féraud, _Superst. et surviv._ i. pp. 523-540; cf. also Gaidoz, _Un vieux rite medical_, pp. 73-84.

[484] Nyrop, “Kludetraedet” in _Dania_, i., particularly pp. 21-23; cf. also _Dania_, i. p. 310; iii. pp. 139-141.

[485] Lenormant, _Magie und Wahrsagekunst der Chaldäer_, p. 73; Rochas, _L’extériorisation de la sensibilité_, pp. 74-113 (rich collection of instances referring to savage tribes, to mediæval Europe, and to modern folklore); further instances in Skeat, _Malay Magic_, pp. 569-574; Romilly, _Western Pacific_, p. 35 (New Britain); Selenka, _Sonnige Welten_, p. 215 (Japan). That this crude superstition has been at the bottom of many ceremonies which, from our point of view, appear purely symbolical is shown by the curious death-sentences on absent criminals—to be executed in effigy, “jusqu’à mort s’en suive”—which M. Tarde has unearthed from among the old law-proceeds of Périgord. Tarde, _Études pénales et sociales_, p. 241.

[486] Cf. as to dolls representing the corn spirits, Frazer, _The Golden Bough_, i. pp. 332-346.

[487] Haddon in _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ xix. p. 427 (Tribe of Torres Strait; Models of Dugong used as charms to attract the fishes); Woldt in _Arch, für Ethnographie_, i. p. 106 (Kultusgegenstände der Golden und Giljaken; sculptures of fishes used for the same purpose by the Golds); Spencer, quoting Motolinia, _Descr. Soc._ Div. ii. Nr. 2, p. 39 (similar customs among the old Azteks).

[488] Cf. especially the Sinhalese masks representing the symptoms of various diseases as exhibited in the Museum für Völkerkunde in Berlin.

[489] On images of children worn by barren women in order to remove sterility see Binger, _Du Niger_, ii. p. 230 (Agnis, Wolofs); Casalis, _The Basutos_, p. 251; Taylor, _Te Ika a Maui_, p. 213; Powers, _Tribes of California_, p. 318 (Nishinam). In this connection we may also refer to the bird-shaped amulets of the North American Indians, which by some authors have been explained as emblematic of maternity. Cf. Abbott, _Primitive Industry_, p. 370. Whether they also have been thought of as possessing a magical efficacy is, however, impossible to decide.

[490] Guaita, _Sciences maudites_, ii., i. p. 185.

[491] Raffles, _History of Java_, i. pp. 375, 376. For a similar reasoning cf. Skeat, _Malay Magic_, pp. 23, 24.

[492] Bock, _Temples and Elephants_, p. 245.

[493] Rochas, _L’extériorisation de la sensibilité_, p, 101.

[494] Cf. _e.g._ Gooneratne in _Journ. Ceylon Branch R. Asiatic Soc._ 1865, 1866, p. 71 (Demonology in Ceylon); Skeat, _Malay Magic_, pp. 45, 571. The same combination of the two classes of magic, as applied to a medical cure, is instanced by Walhouse in _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ iv. p. 372 (Account of a leaf-wearing tribe).

[495] Cf. Ellis, _Yoruba Peoples_, pp. 99, 278; _Tshi Peoples_, pp. 98, 101, 176, 195.

[496] Schurtz in _Abhandlungen d. Sächs. Ges. d. Wissensch._ Ph. Cl. xv. p. 52, quoting De Clercq en Schmeltz, _Nieuw Guinea_, p. 185. For an interesting analogy see De Landa, _Relation des causes de Yucatan_, p. 199.

[497] Schurtz, _l.c._ p. 47. Cf. with regard to other means of animating idols by contact, Brenner, _Kannibalen Sumatras_, pp. 225, 226; Pleyte Wzn in _Globus_, lx. p. 289 (Religiöse Anschaungen der Bataks).

[498] Matthews, The Mountain Chant, in _Rep. Bur. Ethn._ 1883, 1884, especially pp. 426, 427.

[499] Cf. the Kalmuck tales quoted in Stoll, _Suggestion und Hypnotismus_, p. 31.

[500] Cf. Lucretius, _De rerum natura_, iv. vv. 1-1035.

[501] Cf. the facts collected by Réclus in his pamphlet, _L’âme comme souffle, ombre et reflet_, and by Frazer in _The Golden Bough_, i. pp. 143-149.

[502] Rochas, _L’extériorisation de la sensibilité_, p. 103.

[503] Andree, _Ethnographische Parallelen_, Neue Folge, p. 19.

[504] Cf. Ellis, _Eẃe-speaking Peoples_, p. 98.