Chapter II: Front Matter (2)

A small tree 3 to 6 meters in height, with rather open head of short, round or angular branches, thorny; bark grayish; young shoots purplish, smooth; leaves evergreen, alternate, 50 to 75 millimeters in length, ovate oval, sharp pointed, light green, margin serrate; petioles entirely wingless; flowers solitary, occasionally in pairs, axillary, on distinct peduncles; calyx persistent, segments 4 or 5; corolla large, 38 to 50 millimeters across, white inside, purplish outside; petals oblong, spreading, strongly reflexed; stamens 20 to 26, separate, or more or less united in small groups; ovary considerably elevated on a prominent disk, 7 to 10 loculed; fruit ripening at all seasons, ovoid or oblong, and pointed at both base and apex, about 75 millimeters long, smooth or rough, light yellow in color; rind thin, flesh light colored; pulp acid; juice sacs long and pointed; seeds oval, pointed at the micropylar end, quite smooth. Native of the same regions as the citron.

The true lemon is very rarely cultivated in the Philippines and all lemons used are imported from California, Australia and Spain.

Citrus pseudolimonum. Colo-colo.

(Pl. VIIa.)

A thorny shrub, 3 meters tall, with interlocking branches, and short, sharp spines; leaves 8 to 11 centimeters long, 40 to 45 millimeters broad, elliptical to oblong-ovate, crenulate to serrulate; base rounded; apex obtuse, frequently slightly notched; petioles 18 to 25 millimeters long, with narrow wing margin, rarely exceeding 10 millimeters in width; flowers 1 to 5, in terminal or axillary short cymes, 28 to 35 millimeters in diameter, white, purplish outside; calyx cupped; stamens 30 to 37, nearly always free, unequal; ovary broadly obovoid, 14 to 18 loculed; style distinct; fruit roundish to pyriform, small, usually compressed at base; apex irregular; surface greenish lemon, more or less corrugate; oil cells raised; skin comparatively thick; pulp acid; juice cells small, short and plump; seeds undeveloped and sterile.

The colo-colo is another of these peculiar Philippine species with more or less winged petioles affiliated to the lemon, etc. Flowers were collected in May, and ripe fruit has been examined in January and February. The nearly always free stamens in a plant belonging to the same general group as the lemon is of interest.

Near the colo-colo is the "lombog," considered a distinct fruit, also found in Bohol. This variety is less vigorous than the colo-colo and also differs from the plant in having narrower wing margins and 21 to 28 stamens and 9 to 11 locules. The fruit is said to be about 4.5 centimeters in diameter and similar in shape to that of the colo-colo.

The "kunot" is a third variety considered distinct by the Boholanos that also may be referred to C. pseudolimonum.

To C. pseudolimonum may perhaps also be referred a thorny, arborescent shrub, attaining a height of 4.5 meters, found in Siquijor, a little island south of Negros. Material of this was collected in August, 1912, by the writer, at which time the tree bore partly grown, oblong, rough, small fruits. The plants at Lamao have flowered during the last two months but have not set fruit. The principal difference in this variety from the colo-colo and lombog is in the number of stamens, here 36 to 41.

The fruits of C. pseudolimonum have no economic value.

Colo-colo, B. A. No. 2535, 4825; Lombog, No. 2498, 4827 (Bohol), 1953 (Siquijor).

Citrus limetta Risso. Lime.

A shrub or tree of straggling habit, with small, stiff interlocking or drooping, thorny branches, the thorns small, sharp, numerous; bark grayish brown; young branchlets light green, becoming darker with age; leaves elliptic-oval, glossy green in color, margin slightly indented; petioles margined; flowers small, produced in axillary clusters of 3 to 10; calyx small, four to five pointed; corolla white on both inner and outer surfaces; petals 4 to 5, oblong, fleshy; stamens small, 20 to 25, united in a number of groups; ovary about 10 loculed; fruit rounded or oblong, frequently mammilate, light yellow; rind thin; pulp greenish, acid; juice sacs small, slender, pointed; seeds small, oval, pointed. Native to India and southeastern Asia.

The lime, in Luzon known as "dayap," ranks third in importance among the citrus fruits cultivated in the Philippines, and now and then excellent fruit is found in the market, showing what could be done in growing first-class fruit if pains were taken to do a little selection work and plant budded trees.

Citrus limetta var. aromatica.

A spiny shrub, with rather slender, willowly, drooping branches, and sharp spines; young growth light green, of pleasant and distinct odor when bruised; leaves 7.5 to 10 centimeters long, 3.5 to 5 centimeters broad, ovate oblong to elliptical, serrate to crenate, dull green above; base rounded to broadly acute; apex frequently notched; petiole 6 to 19 millimeters long with a narrow wing margin; flowers solitary or in cymes to 4, terminal or axillary, 28 to 35 millimeters across; calyx rather large, cupped; petals 4 to 5, white with a trace of purple on the outside; stamens unequal, 28 to 32, more or less united; ovary large, oblong, 12 to 13 loculed; style not distinct as in C. aurantium but rather similar to that in C. medica, a trifle more slender than the ovary; fruit 5 centimeters long, 4 to 4.5 centimeters across, roundish to roundish oblong, lemon yellow, smooth; skin thin; pulp pale green, juicy, sharply acid, sometimes almost bitter; juice cells long, slender and pointed; seeds very numerous, small and plump, polyembryonic.

This form seems to be fairly well distributed and material has been propagated at Lamao from such distinct points as Mindoro, Palawan and Benguet. Unquestionably a lime, it is quite distinct from the ordinary lime in habit, and in the aromatic tender foliage and purplish-petaled flowers on the outside, which are larger than those in the lime, the number of stamens also exceeding those of the lime.

B. A. No. 741 (Palawan), 1749 (Mindoro), 2182 (Benguet).

Citrus excelsa. Limon Real.

A thorny, tall shrub of vigorous growth, straggly habit and interlocking branches, with stout, long, sharp thorns; young growth purplish; leaves 9.5 to 16 centimeters long, 4.5 to 7 centimeters wide, elliptical oblong to ovate oblong, crenate to serrate, thick and leathery; base rounded; apex retuse; petiole 19 to 37 millimeters long, quite broadly winged, in large leaves the wings frequently exceeding 2 centimeters in width; flowers 3 to 7, in axillary, rather loose cymes, 36 millimeters in diameter; calyx medium large, cupulate; petals showing trace of purple on the outside; stamens 34 to 35, unequal; filaments occasionally free, usually united into groups of 2 to 6; ovary roundish, 10 to 14 loculed, 4.5 millimeters across; style distinct, 5 millimeters long; stigma large; fruit 5 to 7.3 centimeters long, 5.5 to 7.5 centimeters in equatorial diameter, weight 115 to 225 grams; form subglobose; base rounded; apex flattened; surface smooth, greenish to clear lemon yellow; skin thin; pulp greenish to grayish, in good varieties very juicy, mildly acid, and of excellent flavor; juice cells long, slender and pointed.

Plant material of the limon real has been collected in Tarlac, Bontoc, and Bohol, and the fruit is at rare intervals offered for sale in small quantities in Manila.

The name of the plant, "Royal lemon," indicates the esteem in which the fruit is held by the people, and while it is unfortunately true that most fruits tested have been too dry to be of any value, yet in the best types the fruits in quality and aroma surpass all lemons and limes that the writer has had the opportunity to sample. With its robust, thorny growth, large leaves and broad-winged petioles and considering its affinity to the lime and lemon together with the roundish oblate fruit with 34 to 35 stamens as against the 20 to 26 in those species and with its 10 to 14 locules, this plant is apparently as distinct from the lemon and lime as these species are from each other.

B. A. No. 1727 (Bontoc?).

Citrus excelsa var. davaoensis.

A thorny, arborescent shrub of straggly habit, with interlocking, drooping branches, and of vigorous growth; young growth green with tinge of purple; leaves 8.5 to 13.5 centimeters long, 3.8 to 5 centimeters wide, ovate to oblong ovate, crenulate to serrulate; base rounded; apex sometimes retuse; petiole 16 to 30 millimeters long, with wings ordinarily narrow, in large leaves sometimes 15 millimeters wide; flowers not seen; fruit 6.4 centimeters long, 8 centimeters in equatorial diameter, weighing 317 grams, oblate; base rounded; apex flattened to depressed, wrinkled, with a circular depression around the raised stigmatic area; surface otherwise fairly smooth, lemon yellow; skin thin, central cavity large; pulp contained in about 13 locules, light colored, quite juicy, sharply acid, and of good flavor; juice cells long and slender.

Ripe fruit of this species has been received from Davao, Mindanao, in December and January. The fruit is perhaps too large for retail trade, but might possibly be utilized in the manufacture of lime juice and allied products.

Full-grown plants of C. excelsa or the variety above described have not been seen, but C. e. davaoensis appears to be smaller than C. excelsa in all respects, the fruits excepted. There has been no opportunity for an examination of the flowers but so far as observed the plant appears more closely related to C. excelsa than any other species herein described.

B. A. No. 1009 (Davao, Mindanao).

Economic Value of the New or Little Known Species.

The horticulturist and plantbreeder, ever on the alert for new plant material that may enhance his profits, extend the cultivable area of his crop, or be used in making new cross combinations, will naturally ask himself of what value are these new plants and fruits. Briefly stated, it may be said that the "Tizon" is a dessert or breakfast fruit of high, if not perhaps the highest, order, its main defect being the unsightly basal projection. Then, as stated elsewhere, the best "limon real" is unsurpassed in quality for "ade" making. Perhaps third in importance are the better types of the alsem for the manufacture of citric acid, etc., and it might find a sale in competition with the lemon and lime, depending to a great extent upon its keeping qualities. The juicy, thin-skinned, and few-seeded talamisan may find lovers as a breakfast fruit and is also of the right size for an ade fruit. If cultivation would increase the juiciness of the panuban, this fruit may find favor with many. A good marmalade may be made of the calamondin. The above species or varieties have more or less of a future on account of their pomological merits, and the plant breeder, by crossing them and the cabuyao and canci with old cultivated species, might obtain valuable results.

There is also the prospective value of the new species as stocks. To determine the congeniality of these species and the old cultivated citrus fruits and their value as stocks under various soil conditions would of course require the labor and close observations of many years.

The calamondin is quite drought resistant and would probably dwarf the scion. One year old buds of the pomelo, lime, mandarin and orange at Lamao have made satisfactory growth, the buds taking without difficulty. The cabuyao is a very vigorous tree and is also drought resistant. It has recently been budded with the cultivated citrus fruits, the buds "taking" very well. The orange has been budded on the alsem, resulting in a good growth, being now (December, 1914) nine months old. During the trip to Bohol in May, the limao, growing in a coraline lime-stone formation overlaid with a little humus, the exact counterpart of the Bahama Islands or the "hammock lands" in southeast Florida, impressed the writer as one of the best examples of drought resistance among citrus fruits under such conditions. The talamisan also appeared quite drought resistant, and is furthermore of value as a live fence because of its large spines.

The "limon real" is of great vigor and hence may be a desirable stock for certain varieties and under certain conditions.

BY-PRODUCTS OF SUGAR MANUFACTURE.

By Cleve. W. Hines, M. S., Station Superintendent.

In various lines of manufacturing there are certain by-products which, years ago, constituted a waste and great loss, but which now under modern methods have become in many cases of considerable importance.

This is especially true with the sugar industry. Extreme care and attention is required to keep the balance on the right side of the ledger, and often the proper handling of the by-products forms the deciding factor between success and failure. In order to build up a great sugar industry in these Islands, more attention must be given to the details of the work, and many of the present losses must be turned into profits before great progress can be expected.

Cane Tops and Trash.

First in the series of by-products in the manufacture of sugar, comes cane tops. The amount of this material produced per hectare will depend upon various factors, including the variety of cane, its stage of maturity, etc. The less of these tops, of course, that may be produced for a given amount of cane, the better it will be for the growers, nevertheless they have a good feeding value if properly handled.

Professor Dodson, [3] director of the Louisiana Experiment Station, states that he found cane tops to have the following composition:

Per cent.
Protein 1.53
Fat 0.41
Carbohydrate 15.62
Fiber 8.87
Water 71.50
Ash 2.07

The fiber content would be slightly higher and the water content lower, for tropical cane, since maturity is completely reached before harvest begins. It may be seen from the above analyses that this makes a most excellent feed for work animals. Certainly greater advantage should be taken of this feeding stuff than is usually done, since there is a scarcity of pasturage near the end of the harvest season and the animals become needlessly thin on account of lack of feed. At present very little of this material is utilized, but instead is burned on the field with the rest of the trash. If the tops are removed and used as a stock feed, only the leaves and pieces of stalk remain, and these make a good fertilizer for cane lands.

It is the general custom in these Islands to burn all of this material as soon as the crop is harvested. The object of this burning is to destroy any insects that may be present, as well as to facilitate subsequent cultivation. In the writer's opinion neither of these reasons is sufficiently well based, since in this country large numbers of troublesome cane insects are not found. If they were present in sufficient quantities, the trouble could be handled by placing the trash between the rows and properly treating it before plowing it under. This should be the method of disposing of the trash at all times. In this manner the waste material could be utilized, and the organic matter would be even more valuable than that contained in many of the commercial fertilizers. The nitrogen contained, which amounts to from 0.5 to 2 per cent, would be practically all saved, while with the burning method this is completely lost.

In Louisiana, cotton-seed meal forms one of the principal nitrogenous fertilizers for cane lands. This material costs from P50 to P75 per ton and Dr. Stubbs, [4] in his research, found that the trash burned from each ton of cane caused a loss of nitrogen equal to that contained in 27 pounds of cotton-seed meal. Besides this loss of nitrogen encountered in the burning of the trash, the organic matter which would later form humus is completely destroyed. Soils would retain moisture better during the dry season and be more easily handled if the conservation of organic matter were given greater attention. There is also a great injury done to the remaining stumps and top roots by this burning which is very detrimental when the field is to be used for a ratoon crop. Where cane is badly infested with destructive insects, it is quite another thing. This again brings up the fact that the cane points should be treated with chemicals before planting, in order to complete the work of destroying these insects.

Use of Ashes.

The ash of sugar cane constitutes the mineral matter that has been taken out of the soil. This usually runs about 0.48 per cent of the total weight, according to Payson's classical analyses. Chemically this contains the following: silica, iron, aluminum, lime, magnesia, potash, sodium, phosphorus, sulphur, chlorine, oxygen, water, etc. Of these various elements, the phosphorus and potash are the most valuable to the planter. Lime is also useful for many soils in correcting the acidity, and occasionally in supplying that element, when it happens to be lacking in a particular soil.

The cost of different fertilizers is governed by the percentage of these plant-food elements contained. Phosphoric acid is worth $0.05 per pound (P0.22 per kilo) in crude fertilizers. At this rate the value of this element recovered from a crop of 75 tons of cane per hectare would be from P10 to P12.

Potash is valued at about P0.26 per kilo and that removed with a crop of 75 tons would cost about P25. The lime contained is a cheaper element but will not act as a detriment on any soil, while on many it will be found very helpful.

In spite of the great deficiency in these elements in the cane lands here, and the high cost of commercial fertilizers, this waste material is not only neglected at the majority of the factories but is actually thrown away, yet the same elements that command a high price in commercial fertilizers are contained in these ashes.

Filter-press Refuse.

In the defecation of cane juice, certain chemicals are often used to precipitate the impurities, which are removed from the subsiders after the clear juice has been drawn off, and sent to the filter presses, where it is filtered through heavy cloths. This material contains coarse particles of bagasse together with other impurities including the lime and phosphoric acid which were used in this work. The composition of the material depends upon the original composition of the juice and the amount of the different chemicals that has been used in the clarification. In any event, it makes a most valuable fertilizer because of the organic matter, nitrogenous bodies, phosphoric acid, and lime that it contains. This organic material is an ideal substance to be applied to the worn-out cane lands (which consist almost entirely of mineral substances) since it induces bacterial action, and during its decomposition certain acids are freed, such as carbonic, nitric, and organic acids. These have the power to act upon the mineral constituents and thus liberate other plant-food elements. The filter-press mud can very well be mixed with the bagasse ashes, and scattered about the cane rows as an almost complete fertilizer for sugar cane, the only element lacking being nitrogen, which was lost in the burning of the bagasse.

It will be remembered that in the synthesis of sucrose, which consists of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, there are none of the plant-food elements used which are sought for in commercial fertilizers. These are used only in building the fibrous stalk of the cane and they may all be recovered in the bagasse and cane-juice impurities. The carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen which are used practically all come from the air and water.

It is a custom to-day to cart this ash to piles or depressions some distance from the factory. In some places it is thrown into the river, or cast into the sea--an absolute loss.

Planters must not depend upon commercial fertilizers for their supply of plant-food material, when there is such an abundance of natural fertilizer being wasted. The cost of the artificial fertilizers in many cases is considered prohibitive and often unnecessary. In order to build up a great sugar industry here, the material at hand must be used, while money should be spent for modern apparatus and equipment.

Molasses.

The dark-colored viscous substance remaining after the large crystals of sucrose have been removed is called molasses. This contains small crystals of sucrose, which has passed through the perforations of the centrifugal screens, sucrose in solution, glucose, fructose, and other organic substances, such as pectin bodies, albumenoids, coloring substances, etc., besides the inorganic matter constituting the ash upon incineration of the molasses.

The composition of the molasses varies with the working of each factory, also with the condition of cane, time of harvest, etc. The juice from green cane and that which has reached ultramaturity will contain a higher percentage of invert sugar and organic non-sugars than a properly matured cane. Then factories that have ample boiling-house provision, and crystallizers as well as magma tanks, will be able to send out a molasses with lower purity, thus recovering more of the crystallizable sugar.

In any case there will be some molasses produced, and this constitutes a valuable sugar-house by-product, if properly cared for. It may be disposed of in one of several forms, namely, as a human food, a stock feed, a source of alcohol, factory fuel, and a fertilizer.

Cane molasses as a human food.--For many years low-grade cane molasses has been used as a human food in the United States. It was originally sold under the name of New Orleans molasses, but in recent years a number of companies have employed clarifying and bleaching agents and thus turned out a very fancy article, under various trade names, for baking purposes. With the boiling at low temperatures practiced to-day, there is little or no caramel formed during this work, and consequently it is only necessary to clarify and bleach the organic non-sugars, in order to make a salable molasses. The bleaching is usually accomplished by the use of a hydrosulphite, either in the form of sodium or calcium, but sometimes only the sulphurous acid gas is used.

The bleaching effect of none of these reagents is permanent, especially when the product is exposed to the air and light. Such chemicals must therefore be used with great caution, and as late in the process as possible. Care must be exercised too that an excessive amount is not employed, since an undesirable tint is liable to result as well as an excessive amount of the sulphites to be admitted, which is not permitted by the Pure-Food Law. It is astonishing how much of this low-grade molasses is thus manufactured and used in the United States for cooking purposes, and what a high price this product commands.

Cane molasses as a stock feed.--Perhaps more of the exhausted molasses is used for this purpose in these Islands than for any other.

Ordinary molasses contains from 30 to 35 per cent of sucrose and almost as much glucose. These being purely carbohydrates, it is necessary to combine them with some protein-bearing feed in order to make a perfect ration. Many leguminous plants, such as alfalfa, cowpeas, peanut vines, etc., may be cut fine and used as an absorbent for molasses. This makes a most excellent feed as it contains a sufficient amount of roughage, and at the same time offers a balanced ration if properly composed. In this country there is a great amount of exhausted cake from the coconut-oil factories, which is exported to Europe each year. There is no good reason why this should not be used as an absorbent for the molasses in making a concentrated feed, which could be transported to various parts of the Islands or exported abroad for stock.

To-day the Philippines are dependent upon Australia and other countries for many thousand head of cattle each year. The by-products from sugar factories are thrown into the rivers or flushed away from the factories through drains, and the leaves and tops of the cane are burned on the ground in order to facilitate cultivation. In the attempt to grow our own beef, these feeds should be an important factor.

Cane molasses as a source of alcohol.--Alcohol can be made from a great variety of substances containing the necessary constituents, viz, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

Of the numerous alcohols possible, ethyl alcohol is the one ordinarily sought and the easiest produced. This alcohol is represented by the following chemical formula: C2H5-OH.

While glucose is the substance which may be easily transferred into alcohol by fermentation, sucrose may also be used, providing it is first changed into glucose or invert sugar. Even cellulose and starch may be used after being transferred into reducing sugars.

The process of changing glucose into alcohol and carbon dioxide is called fermentation and is accomplished by a minute organism. Sucrose will not directly ferment, consequently it must first be changed into glucose. This is usually accomplished by an enzyme which is secreted by a ferment.

The following chemical formula will serve to show the steps necessary to pass from sugar to an alcohol:

C12H22O11 (sucrose) + H2O (water) Presence of an
342 M. W.

enzyme --> Invert sugar
------------------------------------------
(C6H12O6 (dextrose) C6H12O6 (levulose))
180 M. W. 180 M. W.

--> C2H5-OH (ethyl alcohol) + 4CO2 (carbon dioxide)
184 (2 M. W.) 176 CM. W.

The theoretical yield then of alcohol from sucrose would be 53 per cent and from invert sugar 51 per cent. In practice, however, this yield would not be experienced on account of the yeast converting some of the sugars into substances other than alcohol and carbon dioxide. These will consist mostly of glycerine and succinic acid and will amount to 4 or 5 per cent.

Since the working conditions determine to a very great extent the yield of alcohol, it is obvious that a thoroughly efficient person should be in charge of this work. In the selecting of cultures for the fermenting, the manufacturer should use only the purest, otherwise acetic acid and other foreign substances will be formed during fermentation, thus decreasing the yield of the alcohol as well as lowering its purity.

Where the percentage of sucrose and glucose of a molasses is known, it is a simple matter to calculate the theoretical amount of alcohol to be recovered and by knowing the efficiency of the factory, a factor may be obtained which multiplied by the theoretical yield will give the true amount of alcohol to be expected. In this manner it is easy to determine the price that may be paid for any molasses.

The separation of the alcohol from the water and dirt (lees) is accomplished in an apparatus termed a "still." In this the liquor is heated by steam which causes the alcohol to evaporate. Since ethyl alcohol boils at a temperature of 78 deg. or a little higher, depending upon the percentage present, it may be separated from the water and impurities during the evaporation, and recovered from the coils of the condenser in a fairly pure state.

There is always, however, more or less water vapor escaping with the alcohol and consequently it is impossible to secure absolute alcohol without after-treatment, although in the modern still a very high grade is often recovered in the first distillation.

In this connection the strength of alcohol is usually determined by referring it to "proof," which is an old English system used before modern methods of testing spirits were available. In its original application, gunpowder was moistened with the spirit and the mixture subjected to the flame of a match. When just enough alcohol was present to set fire to the powder, it was said to be "proof spirit." If not enough alcohol was present to accomplish this, it was said to be "under proof," and when the gunpowder was lighted easily by it, it was said to be "over proof."

By an act of the English Parliament, the term "proof spirit" was fixed as one which contains exactly 12/13 of an equal volume of water (distilled) at 51 deg. F., which represents 57.1 per cent of alcohol by volume, or 49.3 per cent by weight.

The simplest method of determining the percentage of alcohol is by the use of a gravity spindle for liquids lighter than water, and by referring to the accompanying table for this purpose, the percentage of alcohol may be ascertained.

Table for calculating the percentage of alcohol. [5]

===================================================================================================
|Specific gravity| |Specific gravity| |Specific gravity| |Specific gravity
| at-- | | at-- | | at-- | | at--
Volume.|----------------|Volume.|----------------|Volume.|----------------|Volume.|----------------
| 15.56 deg. 25 deg. | | 15.56 deg. 25 deg. | | 15.56 deg. 25 deg. | | 15.56 deg. 25 deg.
| 15.56 15.56 | | 15.56 15.56 | | 15.56 15.56 | | 15.56 15.56
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
| | | | | | |
P. ct.| | P. ct.| | P. ct.| | P. ct.|
1 | 0.9985 0.9970 | 26 | 0.9698 0.9655 | 51 | 0.9323 0.9246 | 76 | 0.8745 0.8665
2 | .9970 .9953 | 27 | .9691 .9646 | 52 | .9303 .9225 | 77 | .8721 .8641
3 | .9956 .9938 | 28 | .9678 .9631 | 53 | .9283 .9205 | 78 | .8696 .8616
4 | .9942 .9922 | 29 | .9665 .9617 | 54 | .9262 .9184 | 79 | .8664 .8583
5 | .9930 .9909 | 30 | .9652 .9603 | 55 | .9242 .9164 | 80 | .8639 .8558
6 | .9914 .9893 | 31 | .9643 .9594 | 56 | .9221 .9143 | 81 | .8611 .8530
7 | .9898 .9876 | 32 | .9631 .9582 | 57 | .9200 .9122 | 82 | .8581 .8500
8 | .9890 .9868 | 33 | .9618 .9567 | 58 | .9178 .9100 | 83 | .8557 .8476
9 | .9878 .9855 | 34 | .9609 .9556 | 59 | .9160 .9081 | 84 | .8526 .8444
10 | .9869 .9846 | 35 | .9593 .9538 | 60 | .9135 .9056 | 85 | .8496 .8414
11 | .9855 .9831 | 36 | .9578 .9521 | 61 | .9113 .9034 | 86 | .8466 .8384
12 | .9841 .9815 | 37 | .9565 .9507 | 62 | .9090 .9011 | 87 | .8434 .8352
13 | .9828 .9801 | 38 | .9550 .9489 | 63 | .9069 .8989 | 88 | .8408 .8326
14 | .9821 .9793 | 39 | .9535 .9473 | 64 | .9047 .8969 | 89 | .8373 .8291
15 | .9815 .9787 | 40 | .9519 .9456 | 65 | .9025 .8947 | 90 | .8340 .8258
16 | .9802 .9773 | 41 | .9503 .9438 | 66 | .9001 .8923 | 91 | .8305 .8223
17 | .9789 .9759 | 42 | .9490 .9424 | 67 | .8973 .8895 | 92 | .8272 .8191
18 | .9778 .9746 | 43 | .9470 .9402 | 68 | .8949 .8870 | 93 | .8237 .8156
19 | .9766 .9733 | 44 | .9452 .9382 | 69 | .8925 .8846 | 94 | .8199 .8118
20 | .9760 .9726 | 45 | .9434 .9363 | 70 | .8900 .8821 | 95 | .8164 .8083
21 | .9753 .9719 | 46 | .9416 .9343 | 71 | .8875 .8796 | 96 | .8125 .8044
22 | .9741 .9706 | 47 | .9396 .9323 | 72 | .8850 .8771 | 97 | .8084 .8003
23 | .9728 .9692 | 48 | .9381 .9307 | 73 | .8825 .8746 | 98 | .8041 .7960
24 | .9716 .9678 | 49 | .9362 .9288 | 74 | .8799 .8719 | 99 | .7995 .7914
25 | .9709 .9668 | 50 | .9343 .9267 | 75 | .8769 .8689 | 100 | .7964 .7865
===================================================================================================

Molasses as a fuel.--Many experiments have been made, using this substance as a sugar-house fuel, and while ordinarily it may be better employed in some other manner, at the same time where no other provision is made for the use of this material, and where there is a scarcity of fuel as well, satisfactory results may be secured in its combustion if it is properly handled.

Waste molasses consists mainly of gums, sucrose, glucose, albuminoids, other organic compounds, water, and a small amount of ash.

Sucrose has the chemical formula of carbon 12 (atoms), hydrogen 22 (atoms), and oxygen 11 (atoms). The burning of carbon consists in uniting oxygen to that element, forming carbon dioxide. When hydrogen burns, the oxygen combines with it, forming water. During this oxidation, two atoms of hydrogen combine with one of oxygen, but in the molecule of sugar, these two elements are already present in this proportion, consequently only the carbon may be oxidized and thus give off heat. This is found to be true also of sucrose, reducing sugars, and many organic compounds.

An instrument called a calorimeter is used to determine the amount of heat a substance will give off upon oxidation. Tests may be made on molasses in order to determine its value as a fuel, and thus a comparison may be obtained of a pound of this material and one of coal having a standard value.

The ash from the molasses contains a great deal of potassium and some magnesium, consequently care must be exercised in the burning of the molasses so that this material does not come in direct contact with the tubes of the boiler, since a heavy coating will be formed that will greatly lower the coefficient of heat transmission.

On account of the high potash content, these ashes make a valuable fertilizer, which should be mixed with the bagasse ashes and mud cake, and applied to the cane lands.

Molasses as a fertilizer.--While molasses is not used to any great extent as a fertilizer, there is no good reason why exhaustive experiments should not be carried out with this by-product on Philippine soils, when it is now being thrown into drains or wasted, until a better use is provided for the molasses.

Experiments have been made in Hawaii, Mauritius, and other places with this form of fertilizer, and very encouraging results were reported. The plant-food elements themselves contained in molasses are small in amount, since they are contained in the low percentage of ash after burning, except, of course, nitrogen, which will be entirely saved. Its main value, however, lies in the power to induce bacterial growth, which is so necessary in worn-out soils.

Among the organisms induced by these organic matters may be included certain azotobacter species, which contrary to other forms of plant life, have the power of using nitrogen from the air. Carbohydrates form especially good mediums for their development, and it has been found that the activities of these organisms are increased by an increased amount of this substance.

While excellent results have been attained by the use of low-grade molasses for fertilizer in other countries yet it remains for the planters here to determine results under Philippine conditions, and the best method of handling their material. In some places where irrigation water is applied, the molasses is mixed with the water and applied in the usual manner.

The plant-food material contained in molasses will vary somewhat with the methods of its production, clarifying agents previously used, etc.

The following table will indicate the composition of ash from different molasses: [6]

================================================================================== | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | Mill | Diffusion | Open |Carbonitation. |sulphitation.|sulphitation.| kettle. | ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | Per cent. | Per cent. |Per cent.| Per cent. Potash | 49.48 | 52.20 | 51.48 | 50.16 Soda | .89 | .80 | 1.11 | .32 Lime | 6.47 | 6.78 | 6.58 | 8.53 Magnesia | 4.29 | 3.09 | 3.99 | 2.66 Iron oxide | .35 | .33 | .15 | .47 Alumina | .30 | .22 | .13 | .30 Silica | 4.12 | 4.59 | 2.83 | 4.10 Phosphoric acid | 3.71 | 3.80 | 2.12 | .91 Sulphuric acid | 10.79 | 6.72 | 10.94 | 11.18 Carbonic acid | 7.49 | 11.19 | 13.06 | 15.78 Chlorine | 14.00 | 11.95 | 9.10 | 4.59 ----------------------------------------------------- | 101.89 | 101.67 | 101.49 | 99.00 Deduct O minus Cl. | 3.16 | 2.70 | 2.05 | 1.04 ----------------------------------------------------- | 98.73 | 98.97 | 99.44 | 97.96 ----------------------------------------------------- Undetermined (carbon, etc.) | 1.27 | 1.03 | 0.56 | 2.04 Alkalinity (cc. tenth normal | | | | per gram ash) cc. | 80 | 93 | 95 | 109 ==================================================================================

In order to make a wise selection of the method of handling the different by-products the manufacturer must take into consideration many factors. Among them will be the quantity of his output, the facilities for handling it in any specified manner, the demand for different finished products to be made therefrom, etc. All of these and many other points must receive due consideration by a manager who expects to attain success in his work.

COFFEE IN THE PHILIPPINES. [7]

By P. J. Wester, Horticulturist in Charge of Lamao Experiment Station.

Preliminary Remarks.

While it cannot be said that the Philippines have ever grown coffee on a scale that made it an important factor in the world's market, yet, before the advent of the coffee blight, coffee growing, from a Philippine point of view, was an industry of considerable magnitude and unquestionably of great promise. However, in the Philippines as in other parts of the eastern Tropics, the blight destroyed the coffee industry, and while in the last few years previous to the appearance of the blight there was an average annual export of about 7,000 tons of coffee, valued at P4,000,000, in 1913 the Philippines produced only 113,031 kilograms of Arabian coffee with an average production of 174 kilograms per hectare, the coffee imports during the same period amounting to 1,138,781 kilograms, valued at P816,744. The leading coffee-producing provinces of the Archipelago were, during 1913, the Mountain, 42,066 kilograms; Moro, 31,040 kilograms; Nueva Vizcaya, 5,792 kilograms; and Batangas, 5,319 kilograms. Varying quantities of coffee, less than 5,000 kilograms in any one, were produced in each of the remaining provinces, excepting Agusan, Bataan, Batanes, Ilocos Sur, Leyte, Pampanga, and Surigao, where coffee is not grown.

From a study of the coffee situation in the Eastern Hemisphere it is evident that Arabian coffee will never again become of importance in this part of the world, including of course the Philippines. However, it seems that a satisfactory substitute has been discovered in the robusta coffee. This variety, while not immune to the blight, is so resistant to the effects thereof that the disease ceases to affect the profits of the crop, or at least very slightly.

This and other reasons, which will be explained later, have resulted in the planting of robusta coffee on a very large scale in Java and adjacent Dutch possessions, and the reports relative to this variety are such as to recommend it to the serious consideration of Philippine planters. The present paper has been prepared with a view of meeting the almost daily requests that reach this Bureau for information on the subject of coffee, and particularly to give some information relative to the robusta coffee, with which practically all planters in the Archipelago are unfamiliar. It might perhaps be well to state that propagation, handling of the plants from the seed bed to the plantation, culture, etc., are the same for both Arabian and robusta coffee, except where so stated.

Arabian Coffee.

The decrease in the cultivation of coffee and the present status thereof in the Philippines show conclusively that Arabian coffee cannot be profitably grown here below an altitude of 800 meters. At and above this elevation the climate is so favorable for the growth of the plant that when kept in good condition it is capable of resisting the attack of the blight sufficiently to yield a profitable crop. Nevertheless, the planting of Arabian coffee on a large scale is not recommended even here, because the disease is everywhere present, waiting for a favorable opportunity to spread, and a drought, typhoon, or in fact anything that would devitalize the plants, would be sure to render them liable to a severe attack that might wipe out an entire plantation or district.

It is true that Arabian coffee grows below an altitude of 800 meters; in fact, coffee bushes are found at sea level, but a prospective investor should always remember that there is a very great difference between being able to merely grow coffee and to produce it in such quantities that its cultivation becomes profitable. This cannot be done at a low elevation. It is perhaps well to state here that exhaustive experiments have so far failed to yield a fungicide or spray by which the coffee blight can be satisfactorily controlled in the field.

Everything considered then, only in certain districts of the Mountain Province and on the table lands of Mindanao may Arabian coffee be successfully and profitably cultivated to any considerable extent.

Robusta Coffee.

Robusta coffee in Java.--When the blight appeared in Java, coffee growing was one of the most important industries in that island, and after the plantations had been destroyed by the disease, the Dutch Government, having failed to control the blight by repressive measures, instituted investigations with a view of discovering a blight-resistant coffee, in the course of which work several species were introduced and tested. Among these were Liberian coffee (Coffea liberica) and robusta coffee, considered by Wildeman to be a variety of Coffea canephora.

Robusta coffee was discovered in the Belgian Congo, and seeds were sent to Brussels, Belgium, and propagated, where plants were first offered for sale in 1901. Some of these plants found their way to Java. Like most new introductions the robusta coffee was at first looked upon rather askance, but as its greater climatological range as compared with that of Arabian coffee, and its productivity, precocity, and resistance to the coffee blight (Hemileia vastatrix) became apparent, it rapidly gained popularity--so rapidly in fact that the Javanese coffee plantations today consist almost entirely of robusta coffee. The fact that in 1909 the total crop of robusta coffee was only 183,000 kilograms, and that in 1911 9,650,000 kilograms were produced, with an estimated yield of 16,000,000 kilograms for 1912, and that during the period from 1907 to 1911, 24,521,000 robusta coffee plants were planted, is ample proof of its popularity in the Dutch East Indies.

Introduction into the Philippines.--Robusta coffee has not been introduced into the Philippines to any extent. Bearing trees are reported from Basilan, near Zamboanga, and a few plants are also growing at the Lamao experiment station in Bataan. The latter are in good condition with no indication of blight.

Soil and climate.--Robusta grows well from sea level to an altitude of 1,000 meters, doing best at an elevation ranging from 450 to 750 meters.

Less particular than Arabian coffee, the robusta thrives well on both light and heavy soils provided they have the necessary fertility. However, good drainage is essential for a good growth and therefore robusta should not be planted on sticky and very heavy, water-holding soils. Poor and sandy soils should also be avoided. This variety is also somewhat sensitive to drought and should be planted only where the rainfall is fairly evenly distributed, and where the dry season is of comparatively short duration. Generally speaking, where the soil conditions are favorable, the cacao, abaca, and coconut growing districts of the Archipelago are perhaps better adapted than other sections to the culture of robusta coffee.

Culture.

Propagation.--The place selected for seedbed and nursery should be well drained, with a loamy soil, the richer in humus the better. A light bamboo frame should be erected above the nursery plot about 2.5 meters high, and covered with grass or split bamboo to provide about half shade. The land should be spaded thoroughly to a depth of 30 centimeters, and all stones, roots, etc., removed. One meter is a convenient width for seed and plant beds.

The seeds should be sown broadcast, not too thick, covered with not more than 1 centimeter of earth, and then watered thoroughly. Hereafter the seedbed should be well watered from time to time whenever the soil appears dry. Frequent light sprinklings that do not allow the water to penetrate more than a few millimeters below the surface are harmful rather than beneficial both in the seedbed and the nursery, in that they encourage a shallow root formation.

As soon as the first leaves are fully expanded the seedlings should be transplanted to the nursery beds, which should be prepared like the seedbed. If the land is poor it is well to spade in a liberal quantity of well-decayed manure or compost. The plants should be taken up carefully, the taproot nipped off with the thumb nail, and then transplanted with the aid of a pointed stick or small dibber spacing them 10 to 15 centimeters apart each way. In doing this care should be taken that the roots are not doubled up in the hole and that the soil is well packed around them. More plants should never be removed at one time from the seedbed than can be conveniently transplanted before they show signs of wilting, and the dug plants should not be left exposed until the roots dry out. The plants should be thoroughly watered before and after transplanting, and the beds kept free from weeds and watered as often as necessary.

Clearing and planting.--Wherever possible, the land to be planted in coffee should be stumped, and plowed once or twice, so that after the plants have been set out animal-drawn cultivators can be used to keep down the weeds. Thus the cost of weeding is lessened during the early years of the plantation while the plants are small. If plowing is not feasible holes 1 meter in diameter and at least 30 centimeters deep should be grubbed where the plants are to be set.

On moderately rich land robusta coffee should be planted 2.1 meters apart each way, 2,265 plants to the hectare; on very fertile land the distance may be increased to 2.5 meters, or 1,600 plants to the hectare.

Arabian coffee should be spaced from 2 to 2.5 meters apart or on poor lands even closer.

When the plants are 4 to 5 months old they should be about 20 centimeters tall and ready for transplanting. About one-half of the foliage should now be cut off; a trench should be dug at the end of the nursery bed about 20 centimeters or more deep; then a thin, sharp spade or bolo (cutlass) should be passed through the soil, underneath and around the plant, neatly severing all straggling roots, and leaving the plant in the center of a ball of earth. The plants should be set out in the field at the same depth at which they grew in the nursery, great care being taken not to break the ball. If the soil is so loose that it falls away from the roots in the removal from the nursery, great care should be exercised in not allowing the roots to dry out and in setting out the plant so that the roots fall in a natural position. In the course of the planting the soil should be firmly packed about the roots.

The sowing of the seed in a given locality should be so timed that the plants are ready for transplanting at the beginning of the rainy season in order to avoid the expense of artificial watering. If transplanted during the dry season the plants necessarily would have to be watered by hand from time to time until they are established.

Plants for shade.--As a temporary shade and cover crop of rapid growth while the coffee trees are small, perhaps no plant can compete with the cadios (Cajanus indicus). The plants may be cut down to serve as mulch whenever they grow too high, and may be expected to grow from the stubble twice before the plants die, provided they are not cut off too close to the ground.

In Java, where robusta coffee is more extensively planted than anywhere else, permanent shade is considered advisable. Malaganit (Leucaena glauca), a leguminous shrub which grows everywhere in the Philippines, seems to be preferred there to other plants for shade. It is planted alternately with the coffee plants and, as is the case with all plants utilized for shade, thinned out later according to need. Madre de cacao (Gliricidia maculata) and dapdap (Erythrina indica and E. subumbrans) are other leguminous trees readily obtainable in most localities and are adapted for shade.

Madre de cacao should be planted at the same distance as the malaganit while the dapdap should be planted one plant to every two coffee trees. All these plants are readily propagated by cutting off limbs or branches 1 to 1.2 meters long and inserting them 20 to 30 centimeters deep in the ground during the rainy season. (This is most conveniently done by the aid of a crowbar.) In a limited way fruit trees, such as the soursop, custardapple, breadfruit, and jak may also be used as shade, and these should be planted from 6 to 12 meters apart according to size. The necessary shading between these trees while they are small may be provided by planting malaganit, etc.

Robusta coffee has also been successfully interplanted with coconuts. In this case the palms and coffee should of course be planted at the same time, the palms perhaps not closer than 9 to 10 meters apart, the coffee to be used as a "filler" between the coconuts. In this connection it is perhaps well to state that in Java robusta coffee is very frequently planted as a "catch crop" in the Hevea rubber plantations. Among the shade plants available to the Philippine planter, malaganit, dapdap, and "guango," or raintree (Pithecolobium saman), have given the best results in Java for the robusta with the following ratio yield of coffee: 4.75, 4.10, and 3.06.

Cultivation.--On level and well-cleared land, close attention should be paid to keeping the coffee plantation free from weeds during the first year or two by means of animal-drawn shallow cultivators, supplemented with hand-hoeing. Where the topography of the land or the presence of stumps renders this impossible the weeding must of course be done by hand. All weeds should be left in the field where they serve both as a mulch in preserving the moisture and to enrich the soil. As soon as the plants begin to shade the land they thereby aid in the weed eradication, and weeding then becomes less expensive.

Pruning.--If the trees are allowed to grow without pruning they become too tall (robusta coffee attains a height of 6 meters or more), and the topmost berries are then difficult to pick. Furthermore unpruned coffee trees (including robusta), have the peculiar habit of bearing their branches near the ground and at the top, leaving the middle bare or nearly so which decreases the producing capacity of the plant. On this account up-to-date planters have generally adopted a system of pruning by which the coffee trees are headed low, giving a maximum yield coupled with easy access to the berries.

The pruning consists of topping the robusta trees when they are from 2 to 2.5 meters tall and of subsequent pruning to keep the trees at this height. This work should preferably be done while the plants are of the proper height and the green shoots easily broken off, and not after the trees have exceeded the height limit by several decimeters. The plant, if allowed to do so, usually sends up a large number of suckers from the base, which constitute a drain on the vitality of the plant. Therefore, all superfluous suckers should be removed and not more than 2 to 3 stems to a plant should be permitted to develop.

Occasionally robusta plants appear that are more than ordinarily subject to blight, and these should be at once pulled up and burned.

Yield.--The yield of robusta coffee is quite variable, much depending upon the fertility of the soil. On the more fertile soils in Java the yield per hectare in the third year was approximately 540 kilograms, and in the fourth and fifth years, 1,400 and 1,830 kilograms, respectively. In old coffee or cacao fields the yields were 325, 540 and 850 kilograms per hectare, respectively, during the third, fourth, and fifth years after planting. It is perhaps well to recall the fact that the average yield of Arabian coffee in the Philippines is 174 kilograms per hectare, which is of course much less than it should be, and it is not believed that the Philippine planter with his present methods of cultivation could equal with robusta coffee the yields quoted from Java.

The immense superiority of the robusta as a cropper over the ordinary Arabian coffee is best illustrated in a table published by the Department of Agriculture, Java. We learn here that in Java, under identical conditions, the yield per plant was of Arabian coffee, 53 to 97 grams; of robusta, 992 grams; and of quilloi (a new very rare coffee) 1,020 grams. The Maragogipe hybrid on its own roots yielded 14 to 18 grams, while grafted on robusta the yield was 156 grams, a larger crop than any Arabian coffee has given in Java. This would tend to show the possibilities of robusta as a stock. Further, comparative studies by Cramer have shown that 4 to 5 kilograms of fresh robusta berries make 1 kilogram of coffee while of the Arabian coffee 5 to 6 kilograms of fruit are required to make 1 kilogram of coffee.