Chapter IX: Sooloo (6)

I will mention here certain peculiar apprehensions and some of the superstitions of this race.

Whenever they offer any food or drink to guests, they first taste it in order to remove all suspicion of deceit or poison from their guests. Among the Monteses it is a lack of education and good breeding to mention their names in conversation. If any of them is asked "What is your name?" the one interrogated does not answer, but some other person of the group will say "His name is Colas." In regard to the rest which man ought to take they say that it is better for him to imitate the birds, which go to bed at the setting of the sun and wake up at the reddening of the dawn. They say that the rainbow is the red girdle of two famous men, Banlac and Aguio, who mounted up to heaven by a great leap from the hill called Balabag, without any more being known of them. These heathens reckon by nights and not by days, so that their method of expression is as follows: "That voyage will last about six nights;" "After four nights we shall begin to build the house." I mind me that the ancient Germans did the same thing, and I believe that some peoples of Oceanica had the same custom in remote times. When they are outside of their houses and away from their village or rancheria, when they see that the moon has a halo, they are persuaded that somebody is being judged in their village, and for fear that it may be one of their partisans they immediately return home, to see whether they can save the defendant. They are convinced that if it rains and the rays of the sun illumine, at the same time, such or such a distant wood, it is because the Buquidnons are at war in the said point, and the sun does not wish to hide its light so that they may fight with greater valor. If they hear the song of the bird limocon under certain circumstances, they do not leave their houses, for as they say some danger or ambush awaits them on the way. If the song surprises them on the road itself, in this or that position which they ascertain, they immediately return to their houses and refuse to continue for certain reasons. When they find the worm called labud in the middle of the road they go back, for they assert that some sickness or misfortune would overtake them, if they did not do so. If they enter any house to visit those who live there, and during the conversation any cock or hen flies and passes in front of the stranger, the owners of the house immediately kill the bold bird, and it is eaten in friendly intercourse with the guest, in order to remove his fright and bring his soul back, which they believe has been separated from the body through fright and returns again to the same body joyfully. I could mention other interesting things of the same kind, but I leave them in order not to tire your Reverence.

When speaking of the dwellings of these heathens, one must distinguish between those who live in settlements and those who live in the woods. The former build their houses well spread out and comfortably, it being indispensable for them to have a projecting wing joined to the house itself in the manner of a gallery, open to the air on all sides except that by which it communicates with the interior. To this gallery is fitted the stairway, generally of wood, very simple in form and generally without balustrades. The materials employed are not always bamboo and nipa. I have seen the houses of Buquidnons which have board walls excellently constructed, very strong, but needing no nails, hammers, or saws. How is that? I will tell something about it. Here is the crucial point, as one generally says; for some boards are simply sewn to others. And I must tell another marvel so that with one surprise we are relieved of another. All the boards have six holes along their length three on one side and three on the other, and joining the boards by the edges they pass a bit of very fine and tough rattan through the said holes, and they are so tightly bound together that nails are not missed at all. Those who live scattered in the interior of the woods build their houses low, but raised very far above the ground through their fear of the spears of their enemies.

Very great is the respect that all these heathens show for their deceased. Accordingly, they generally bury them in their fields and with them the spear, bolo, and other precious things which they especially used during their lifetime. Along the place that the corpse occupies they heap up the earth, and form a small mound, and at short intervals in the ground they fasten certain tree trunks in the form of an X, on top of which they place the bark of a tree, which serves as a roof for the earth mound, which they consider as sacred. Never do they forget to suspend from the upper end of a large pole, a small sack of rice, on which the deceased supports himself until his soul takes according to them the long road to Mount Bolotucan. Bolotucan is the highest peak which dominates all the region comprehended between Jasaan and Lagonlong. When the deceased reaches the summit of the same he gets into heaven by jumping up, reaching a higher or lesser point according to the probity of his life, and there he will remain forever. All the relatives of the deceased, both men and women, make great demonstrations of grief when death occurs. They let their hair hang loose as a sign of mourning, and do not bind it up again until after a greater or less period, according to the love which they professed for the deceased.

I have recounted all these things so minutely in order that the obscurity and darkness in which all those of this race were before they were visited by the father ministers, may be understood. Reverend Father, the consolation which I have had, on seeing the zeal and activity with which these fathers procure the spiritual and material welfare of so many poor creatures, is unspeakable. In honor of truth I must tell your Reverence that their hopes and labors have not been in vain, for in less than four years, more than 6,600 heathens who dwelt in the region of the shadow of death, have been illumined by the torch of the faith, have denied their false beliefs and ridiculous superstitions, and have been regenerated in the waters of baptism. Fortunate missionaries who are occupied in such ministries, and happy converts who have passed from so great vileness to so great dignity by the labors of those missionaries!

The objects described in the present letter which are not in my possession, I have sketched from the natural. When I shall return there I shall be glad to hand them to your Reverence.

I beg that you will not forget me in your holy sacrifices and prayers.

Your servant in Christ Jesus,

Jose Maria Clotet, S. J.

PRESENT BELIEFS AND SUPERSTITIONS IN LUZON

[The following we translate from the supplement to the Manila newspaper El Renacimiento, of the date of December 9, 1905, which was called to our attention by James A. LeRoy. It is deserving of a place in this series, as showing what is actually believed at the present time among some of the ignorant Filipinos.]

THE MANGKUKULAM

Here, as in Europe, and in almost all parts, the people believe in witches.

The mangkukulam [160] is the male or female witch of Filipinas. To that one is attributed a certain power of witchcraft by the common people which makes him full of terror to many. He has the custom of not looking straight at his interlocutors, I do not know whether it is because he fears the open or searching glance of them or not. He always keeps his eyes lowered, and whenever it is necessary to direct his gaze toward the person with whom he is talking, he does it on all occasions by glancing up sideways, and he has never dared to meet directly the gaze of the others.

It is a general belief that the mangkukulam is almost omnipotent in matters pertaining to doing evil to his neighbor. By the mere wish alone, he can produce sickness in any person who has secured his ill-will. In general, the sicknesses that he usually deals out are most intense headaches, or aches in other parts of the body, boils or internal tumors, swellings on the head or in any other place, such ailments being all inexplicable to the immense majority of the crowd, of the ignorant masses, who do not give credit, understand, or have faith in the power, capacity, or secrets of science.

He who gains the ill-will or enmity of these witches of Filipinas, can rest assured that if he goes out for a walk in the street, when he is about to re-enter his house he will perceive himself to be stricken with some sort of ailment, through the means and influence of the angered mangkukulam, who has already taken it upon himself to make him a present of the illness which suits him best--pains in the stomach, swellings in any part of the body, swellings on the head, deformity in the genital parts, etc., etc.

It happens as a rule that when any person is attacked by any of the above ailments, he begins to talk of certain deeds as if he had done them in company with some person there present, at the very moment when he feels himself stricken by the ailment. At the same time he cites names that are unknown, and localities more or less distant. That is an assurance that during such moments, the patient is completely bewitched by the mangkukulam, who has penetrated into his body, and that the latter is the one who causes the patient to talk. It cannot be said that the patient is delirious during those moments, for rarely is he accustomed to have a fever, and in general has none. Besides, every day, and whenever the ailment attacks him, he repeats the words, deeds, and citations that he mentioned the first time--all of this preceded by the exclamation "Oh! oh! now you are here again!" This exclamation forces the members of the family of the one attacked to believe more and more strongly that the sick man has been effectively bewitched by the mangkukulam, that the latter had entered the body of the one attacked at that time, and that physicians and medicines are powerless to cure those evils which are produced by those witches of Filipinas, for the simple reason that the physicians do not believe in the existence of the mangkukulam or in their witchcraft.

In these cases, the herbalists themselves, who are frequently called in to aid all kinds of sickness are useless.

Nothing remains except to mention here certain details which complete the picture of the mangkukulam or give an exact idea of what they are, according to the popular belief.

Every mangkukulam has his abubut. [161] The abubut consists of a small tampipi which does not contain more than a small rag doll similar to those that, are sold in front of the doors of our churches in order to amuse our children with them, and a small cushion stuck full of innumerable pins.

In the abubut lies, according to popular belief, all the power of the mangkukulam. Without it, the mangkukulam is powerless, and even inoffensive, if one wishes.

When the mangkukulam plans to do any harm to any person whomever, he goes to the quarter of his house where he always keeps his abubut, and takes out the doll and a pin. Then he sticks the latter in whatever part of the body of the doll that he wishes. By that means, accompanied by the desire of producing or causing evil to the person at whom he has been angered, that person will be found to be stricken with some sort of sickness in the part of the body where the doll has been pricked. And since in general, no success is had in applying the appropriate remedy for the sickness suffered by those who are made ill by the means and influence of the mangkukulam, the family decide to call a physician.

But the physician in those cases, is not the real physician who has been for a long time singeing his eyebrows and devouring countless text books in the universities, and who has not few years of experience in the hospitals. Neither is he the mediquillo, [162] who is, in many cases, a simple practitioner with some notions of medical science in his head. Neither is he the poor herbalist, who knows and is acquainted with the curative virtues of some plants, aided by the famous book of Father Santa Maria. [163] No, not one of these serves for the case. The physician whose services are needed, is he who expressly devotes himself to the cure of those bewitched by the mangkukulam.

These physicians of the kulam, after looking at the patient attentively, who equally with the mangkukulam cannot resist the glance of any other person in the moments when he is attacked by the sickness; and after hearing what things the sick one says, approaches any member of the family to tell him that the sick one is really possessed by the mangkukulam; and at the same time to ask whether the family cares to have him cured.

If the reply is in the affirmative, preparations are made and the sick man is submitted to the following practices.

All the toes of his feet, and the fingers of his hands are tied up in anona bark. If the sick one continues to cry out and to utter all the things that he has been accustomed to say, adding thereto the petition for pardon with the promise of not doing it again, it is a sign that the mangkukulam has not had time to escape or leave the body of the patient. Then the physician takes a well-dried ray's tail, such as is often used as a cane, and prescribes for the sick person a good stiff caning [paliza de padre y senor mio] from his head to his feet. This operation is repeated for three or four consecutive days, longer, if contrary to what the mangkukulam promises by word of mouth, he again takes up his lodging in the body of the sick person. Lastly, it is decided whether or not to go on with the operation completely to the end. That consists in bathing the sick person in boiling water, and in the result thereof the patient finds a true remedy for his ills, for when the bath is finished, he ceases to suffer forever.

These practices obey their long-established conviction that it is not the sick person who suffers from the great acts of nonsense committed on him. Many affirm that they have found the mangkukulam who had bewitched the sick person dead on different occasions after such practices had been finished.

Since I have been in the province of Nueva Ecija, I have had the opportunity to prove one thing; namely, that the mangkukulam fears or flees from anonas. The fact by which I have been able to prove it is as follows.

A poor woman was found some weeks ago suffering from severe pains in the stomach, accompanied by nausea and vomiting. The family which was composed of several brothers, was thoroughly convinced that their sister had been bewitched by a mangkukulam. As they did not know any physicians for the kulam, they summoned me to please visit and treat the sick woman. I held off as much as possible, by saying that inasmuch as I did not believe in any of those superstitions, it was impossible to cure her; aside from the fact that I was not even a physician. My excuses availed nothing. They begged and entreated me so hard that there was no other remedy than to comply with their wishes. When I reached the house of the sick person, she was, as the saying is, throwing up her guts, so great was the violence of the vomiting. As soon as she had fallen sick she had lost her sight so completely that she could see absolutely nothing, as long as she was attacked by the sickness, and very little (indeed, very little), when the attack left her. Consequently, she was told nothing of my arrival until she heard me speak. She asked her brothers who was there, and they told her, adding that they had summoned me to cure her.

As soon as it was understood that I was there for that purpose, the vomiting ceased for a moment, and the woman was quite calm. After a quarter of an hour, and feeling vexed because of the false light in which they were trying to make me appear, I took my leave, saying that since the ailment of the sick woman had passed, I had nothing to do there. But scarcely had I crossed the threshold of the street door when the vomiting was repeated and one of the brothers called me again in a low voice, asking me to please have the kindness to return since the sick woman was once more attacked by the mangkukulam. I armed myself with patience, and went back until I again found myself face to face with the sick woman. At a certain moment in which the patient was making great efforts to expel what she had in her stomach, I asked one of those present in a loud voice to please get me some anonas branches. The vomiting of the sick woman ceased suddenly as soon as she heard such a request, and did not return to rack her all that day and until the following day. At that time the same scenes were reproduced as on the preceding day. For three days they continued to call me to the said house, and I perceived that the attack disappeared as soon as I spoke of, or mentioned, the anonas. For the rest, I declare that in spite of these observations, I have not come to believe in, or to be convinced of, the existence of witches in Filipinas. However, such beliefs continue to exist in the popular mind.

There are two kinds of physicians of the kulam. Those belonging to the first class are the ones of whom I have just spoken. Those of the second class are inoffensive and very worthy, therefore, of being mentioned.

Several persons have informed me of the following fact of which they were eyewitnesses. On a certain occasion a physician of the kulam was summoned to treat a swelling. That physician after having examined the sick person carefully, and proved that there really was a swelling, asked for a bit of wax, of which he made a small figure of human shape. While he was moulding the small figure, he ordered hot water prepared in a carahay, and when it began to boil, he put the figure upright on it. When all the people expected to see it dissolved in the boiling water (tremble, my readers!) they saw the figure begin to jump about on the water without being submerged or being melted. Ten or fifteen minutes after the small figure had been hopping about on the surface of the water, a person came to the door of the house, calling out with vehemence. He was beating his feet quite openly with a handkerchief which he carried in his hand. He could not remain quiet or keep any position for five seconds, so restless was he. He was making so many contortions and grimaces with his face that one could not at all doubt that he was suffering terribly. He appeared to be walking on thorns. When that man reached the inside of the house, he began to beg pardon over and over again, promising never again to do "what he had done. The physician of the kulam took the small wax figure from the water and approached the new arrival, whom he ordered to undo the charm with which he had troubled the patient. The new arrival replied immediately that it was undone. Thereupon the physician told him never again to repeat what he had just done, and threatened him that it be relapsed, he would have to cut off his ears, so that all people might recognize him as such magkukulam. The magkukulam, who was the same man who had just arrived, promised never again to do what he had done, for fear of being exposed to the wrath of the populace.

When this was finished, the physician sent him away, and from that moment, the sick person was completely well.

Besides these, it is said that there is another kind of magkukulam who are known under the name of kusim or palipad hagin. But I believe that it is the same dog with a different collar; for I consider that the kusim or the palipad hagin is nothing else than a variety of the power of witchcraft possessed by these beings.

In the mind of the masses, it is held that the ailment or sickness which these latter beings bring about are sent through the air, whence they have taken their name. Those ailments are, moreover, incurable, for they say (walang pasauli) that they do not return to the place whence they have come.

Both these and the first, that is the simple magkukulam dash themselves face downward every Friday in their respective quarters, well wrapped up and uttering doleful exclamations. When this occurs, it is said that they suffer terribly the consequences of their power. That condition of depression is called nagbabata by the masses. On the following day these beings are found all sound and well, and hurrying to the witches' sabbath, or unlawful assembly which is held at a determined spot, where on midnight of Saturday meet the asuang, mananangal, and mangkukulam, in order that they may all together enjoy the delicious feast of human flesh.

Jose Nunez

Manila, December 6, 1905.

NOTES

[1] The translation of the title-page of the above book is as follows: "History of the province of Santissimo Rosario de Philipinas [i. e., most holy rosary of the Philipinas], China, and Tunking, of the holy order of the Preachers. Third part. In which are treated the events of said province from 1669 to 1700. Composed by the Reverend Father Fray Vicente de Salazar, rector of the college of Santo Thomas of the city of Manila, and chancellor of its university. Dedicated to the sovereign queen of the angels, the most holy Mary, in her miraculous image of the rosary, which is venerated with the universal devotion of the people in the church of Santo Domingo of the said city of Manila. Printed by the press of the said college and university of Santo Tomas of the said city, in the year 1742." The first two parts of this history (those by Aduarte and Santa Cruz) have been given in translation and synopsis in preceding volumes in this series.

Fray Vicente Salazar was born in Ocana and professed at Valladolid. He became a professor in Spain. Arriving in Manila in 1727, he became a professor in the college of Santo Tomas and in 1742 was its rector. Later he became prior of the Manila convent. The last years of his life were spent in the Ituy missions, his death occurring between the years of 1755-1759. See Retana's edition of Zuniga's Estadismo, ii, p. 615.

[2] For sketches of the members of this mission, see Resena biografica, ii, pp. 101-194.

[3] See Resena biografica, ii, pp. 194-230, for sketches of these missionaries.

[4] See the Recollect account of these transactions in VOL. XLI.

[5] Fray Alarcon was a native of Archidona, and professed in the convent at Madrid June 30, 1661. On arriving at the islands (1666), he was assigned to the province of Pangasinan. In 1669 he was appointed master of novitiates in Manila, but resigned the post that same year. In 1673 he went to Formosa intending to enter the Chinese missions, but finding that impossible he returned to Manila in 1674. From 1675-1678 he labored in the missions of the province of Bataan, being sent the latter year to the Chinese missions; but finding it necessary to return to Manila shortly after, his subsequent efforts to return again to China were unavailing. He died in Manila September 15, 1685, after a lingering illness. See Resena biografica, ii, pp. 59-61.

[6] The Zambals were not Negritos, although they may have been a mixture of Negrito blood. They were probably somewhat the same as the Igorots, and hence a race of Malay extraction.

[7] i.e., in Aduarte's Historia; see VOL. XXXII, p. 55.

[8] Fray Jeronimo de Ulloa was a Galician, who professed at Coruna March 13, 1665, at the age of twenty-one. He was a zealous missionary in various Cagayan missions and in the Babuyanes. His death occurred in 1700 or 1701. See Resena biografica, ii, pp. 175-179.

[9] Fray Pedro Jimenez took the Dominican habit in 1658, and arrived in the Philippines in 1666. He labored principally in the province of Cagayan where he was at different times assigned to different missions. He died December 20 without being able to receive the last sacraments. See Resena biografica, ii, pp. 61-77.

[10] W. A. Reed says (Negritos of Zambales, pp. 40, 41): "He is repulsively dirty in his home, person, and everything he does. Nothing is ever washed except his hands and face, and those only rarely. He never takes a bath, because he thinks that if he bathes often he is more susceptible to cold, that a covering of dirt serves as clothing, although he frequently gets wet either in the rain or when fishing or crossing streams. This is probably one reason why skin diseases are so common."

[11] See sketches of these missionaries in Resena biografica, ii, pp. 230-256.

[12] This is an error, as the Mandayas are a Mindanao tribe. Probably the Apayaos, who live in the district of Ayangan in the comandancia of Quiangan are meant. In Bontoc and other northern provinces of Luzon the word I-fu-gao means "the people;" it is the name which the Bontoc Igorots apply to themselves. The name Apayao, in northern Luzon, is another form of the same word. See Census of Philippines, i, p. 469; Blumentritt's List of Tribes in Philippines (Mason's translation); and Jenks's Bontoc Igorot, p. 33.

[13] Fray Juan Iniguez was a native of Antequera, and made his profession at Sevilla, September 21, 1671. Reaching the Philippines (1671) at the age of twenty-four, he was immediately assigned to the province of Cagayan where he labored until 1720, the year of his death. See Resena biografica, ii, pp. 211-215.

[14] These are not a separate tribe as one would be led to suppose by Blumentritt, but a branch of the Igorot people. See Census of Philippines, i, pp. 456-459.

[15] The natives of Malaoeg and Tuao revolted at the end of 1718 under their leaders Magtangaga and Tomas Sinaguingan. They were put down by Captain Don Juan Pablo de Orduna, and the rebels were punished. See Montero y Vidal, i, p. 414.

[16] Fray Mateo Gonzalez made his profession September 5, 1667, and arrived at the Philippines in 1671 at the age of twenty-seven. He was assigned to Cagayan, where he labored extensively. He also worked in the Babuyanes and introduced the mission work into the Batanes, his death occurring in the latter islands July 25, 1688. See Resena biografica, ii, pp. 155-157.

[17] A correspondent, William Edmonds, principal of schools in the Batanes Islands, says in a letter of April 9, 1906: "I have an idea that either the formation of the land [of the Batanes] is entirely changed (two islands then being one now) or that there is some serious error in Dampier's topography [see VOL. XXXIX, pp. 96-115]. The names of many of the islands now are not those given by Dampier." Of the later history of the Batanes Islands Mr. Edmonds says: "In 1791, Governor-general Don Jose Basco sent an expedition with an alcalde, two Dominican missionaries, mechanics, and artificers to establish civil government. In a short time the people were instructed in material arts, constructing tribunals, churches, convents, schools, and houses, all of stone walls, one vara thick, to resist typhoons. Five municipalities were established, the islands forming a district of the province of Cagayan. In September, 1897, these pacific islands fell an easy prey to the Revolutionary expedition which sacked the churches and convents, and carried away the priests as prisoners to Cagayan. The Katipunan government ruled until December, 1899, when the American government took possession. In October, 1903, the various towns were united into one municipality of the province of Cagayan." As references concerning these islands, Mr. Edmonds gives El Correo Sino Anamita (Manila, 1866-1892), xxix, p. 483; and Marin's Ensayo (Manila, 1901), ii, pp. 690, 801: both publications of the Dominicans.

[18] Fray Diego Pinero was assigned upon his arrival at the islands in 1684 to the convent of Malaueg in Cagayan. His stay in the Babuyanes was short as is related in the text. His remaining missionary labors were in the province of Cagayan. His death occurred at Lallo-c at the beginning of 1712 or a trifle before. See Resena biografica, ii, pp. 236, 237.

[19] The island of Calayan was taken formal possession of for the United States by the government ship "Princeton," January 10, 1900. It is one of the islands of the Babuyanes group, and is lofty and uneven. See Gazetteer of Philippine Islands, p. 418.

[20] Fray Jose Galfarroso (or Halfarroso de la Trinidad, as his name is given in Resena biografica) made his profession September 10, 1664. Upon his arrival at the Philippines in 1671, he was assigned to the Cagayan field, where he held various posts, and where most if not all of his missionary labors were passed. He died, probably in Cagayan, early in 1700. See ut supra, ii, pp. 160, 161.

[21] Fray Juan de Santo Domingo was born in 1640 near Calatayud, and professed in the convent of Ocana October 22, 1661. He went to the Philippines in 1666, his first two years being occupied in duties in Manila. Assigned to the province of Pangasinan, he labored there for eighteen years, and exercised various duties. In 1682 he was chosen definitor, and in 1686 he was transferred to the Manila convent. He was the real founder of the Beaterio of Santa Catalina de Sena, and ordained its rules July 26, 1696, while provincial. During his term as provincial he also organized the tertiary branch of his order. After his term as provincial he was appointed vicar of the beatas and president of the college of San Juan de Letran. In 1702 he was again elected prior of Manila convent, and because of the death of the provincial exercised the duties of that office, to which he was regularly elected again in 1706. At the end of his second term he again took up his duties as head of the beaterio and college. Besides the above posts and offices he was also commissary of the Holy Office and definitor in the chapters of 1682 and 1716. His death occurred at Manila, January 15, 1726. See Resena biografica, ii, pp. 26-34.

[22] See sketches of these missionaries in Resena biografica, ii, pp. 363-457.

[23] Sketches of these missionaries will be found in Resena biografica, ii, pp. 457-497.

[24] Fray Francisco de la Vega was assigned to Cagayan in 1686, where he labored in various missions there and in the Babuyanes. He died at Fotol in the beginning of 1710. See Resena biografica, ii, pp. 249, 250.

[25] Fray Vicente del Riesgo was a native of San Felix de Valdesoto. On arriving at the Philippines at the age of twenty-six, he was assigned to the Cagayan field where he spent the rest of his life (with the exception of a brief period spent in Manila as prior of that convent, and master of novitiates), and where he occupied various posts. He died in Cabagan, June 24, 1724. See Resena biografica, ii, pp. 440-446.

[26] Fray Tomas Ortiz took the Augustinian habit at the age of nineteen, at the Valladolid convent in 1687. Within a short time after his arrival in Manila he became lecturer there (1695), and acted as secretary of the province. Soon however he went to China to engage in the mission work of that empire, and upon the expulsion of the missionaries in 1713, he was appointed prior of Manila, and in 1716 provincial. He filled other important posts in the mission work of the islands, and died at Manila in 1742. He composed numerous works in Spanish, Tagalog, and Chinese. See Perez's Catalogo, pp. 167-173. A fuller account of his life is also given in vol. xxix of Revista Agustiniana.

[27] The calumpang tree (Sterculia foetida--Linn.) grows to a great size; its roots branch out half way up the trunk, and are so large that a roof could be laid over them so that they could be used as a dwelling. The fruit of this tree resembles a pomegranate, which divides when ripe into four quarters having certain kernels, from which an oil is extracted which is used for medicine, and which the natives use to anoint the hair. The wood is easy to work but is not very durable. See Delgado's Historia, p. 457; Blanco's Flora, p. 524; and Official Handbook of the Philippines, p. 346.

[28] Many instances of ancestor worship by the peoples of the Philippines are recorded in this series. There is no evidence that suggests that the custom was borrowed from the Chinese. It had become the general rule almost in the Philippines to refer many things, the origin of which was unknown, to the Chinese.

[29] This is the anting-anting. See Retana's Aniterias, which gives examples of formulas, most of which are a meaningless conglomeration of words.

[30] A Tagalog word for a sort of earthen vessel. See Noceda and Sanlucar's Vocabulario de la lengua tagala.

[31] The translation of the title-page of the Historia is as follows: "History of the Philipinas Islands, composed by the reverend father lector, Fray Joaquin Martinez de Zuniga of the Order of St. Augustine, ex-definitor of his province, calificador of the Holy Office, and regular parish priest of the village of Paranaque. With the necessary licenses. Printed in Sampaloc, by Fray Pedro Argueelles de la Concepcion, Franciscan religious, in the year 1803."

Joaquin Martinez de Zuniga was one of the most illustrious men of the Augustinian order who ever labored in the Philippines. He was born in Aguilar in Navarra, February 19, 1760, and deciding to embrace the religious life professed in the Augustinian college at Valladolid January 26, 1779. Setting out for the Philippines in 1785, he remained one year in Mexico, before going to them, arriving in Manila, August 3, 1786. In the islands he learned the Tagalog language, and acted as minister-associate in Batangas and Tambobon for four years. In 1790 he was appointed lector [i. e., reader or lecturer], but was soon appointed parish priest of Hagonoy (1791). In 1792 he acted as secretary of the province, and in 1794 and 1797 administered the villages of Calumpit and Pasig respectively. Being invited by General Alava to accompany him on his tour of inspection among the islands, he did so, and the Estadismo (published in Madrid in 1893 by W. E. Retana) is the fruit of that journey. After returning to Manila, he took charge of the parish of Paranaque (1801-1806). In 1806 he was elected provincial of the order. He had also filled the office of definitor in 1794, and was a calificador of the Holy Office. After his provincialate he resumed charge of the ministry of Paranaque which he held until his death (March 7, 1818). The Historia has been translated into English by John Maver and printed in two editions. He is said also to have translated, annotated, and printed the work of Le Gentil, but which Retana (Estadismo, i, pp. xviii, xxix) says cannot now be found. Apropos of this, Dr. T. H. Pardo de Tavera sends a copy of the title-page of a MS. of this Spanish work which is as follows: "Voyage of M. Le Gentil, to the Philipinas Islands, translated from the French into the Spanish, by the very reverend father lector, Fray Joaquin Martinez de Zuniga.... The translator adds some notes in which he reveals and refutes many errors of the author." Pardo de Tavera says that this MS. is unpublished and that its existence is unsuspected and not known even by the Augustinians. See Perez's Cataloga, pp. 346-348, and Pardo de Tavera's Biblioteca Filipina (Washington, 1903), p. 252.

[32] Louis Lapicque, chief of the laboratory of the faculty of Medicine in Paris, was commissioned by the Minister of Public Instruction in 1892 to study the question of the distribution of the Negrito and to collect data concerning that race. He spent the months of March-December 1893 in this study, working in the Andaman Islands, the Mergui Islands in the Bay of Bengal, and the Malay Peninsula, and considering also in his report the inhabitants of other places, especially the Philippines. He brings out the interesting conclusion that the inhabitants of the Andaman Islands are perhaps the purest race in existence, and that they are closely allied to the Negritos of the Philippines. Both being brachycephalic, they are thus differentiated from the African negro, who is dolichocephalic. See Annales de Geographie, v, pp. 407-424. Wm. A. Reed (Negritos of Zambales, p. 34) gives the average of the cephalic index of the nineteen individuals whom he was able to measure as 82 for the males and 86 for the females.

[33] Angola, formerly called Dongo or Ambonde, is located on the west coast of Africa. Its coast was discovered in 1486 by the Spaniards who still own it.

[34] Of the Bontoc Igorot, Albert Ernest Jenks, chief of the Ethnological Survey of the Philippines, says (The Bontoc Igorot, Manila, 1905, p. 14): "He belongs to that extensive stock of primitive people of which the Malay is the most commonly named. I do not believe he has received any of his characteristics, as a group, from either the Chinese or Japanese, though this theory has frequently been presented."

[35] That the theory of the origin of the Filipino peoples here expressed is false needs no demonstration. The peoples of the Philippines show two stocks--the Malayan and the Negrito. The inhabitants of the Polynesian Islands (using the term in its restricted sense) probably migrated from the East Indies and hence are allied to the modern Malayan peoples, and the same is true of the Huvas of Madagascar, having migrated from the parent stock from which the latter peoples originated. Sec Cust's Modern Languages of East India (London, 1878); and New International Encyclopaedia; Lesson's Les Polynesiens (Paris, 1880-84); and Ratzel's History of Mankind (English translation, London, 1898).

[36] The San Duisk Islands are the Sandwich or Hawaiian Islands; and the Otayti Islands are the Society Islands, so called from their largest island O-Taiti, Taiti, or Tahiti. The group of the Society Islands, of which Tahiti is chief, is called Windward Islands.

[37] Easter Island, so called because discovered by Roggeveen on Easter of 1772; called also Waihu, Teapi, and by the natives Rapanui. The inhabitants of this island are the last outpost of the Malayo-Polynesian race. It has belonged to Chile since 1888.

[38] The Tagalog word for "house" is bahay, not balay.

[39] A reference to La Araucana, a Spanish epic poem written by Alonso de Ercilla y Zuniga, the first part of which (15 cantos) was published at Madrid, 1569. This is the first work of literary merit known to have been composed upon either American continent. Ercilla y Zuniga accompanied Felipe II to England on the occasion of his marriage to Mary Tudor. Thence he went to Chile with the army to fight the rebellious Araucanians. He was accused of having plotted an insurrection, and was condemned to death but the sentence was commuted to exile to Callao. He returned to Spain in 1562 and being coldly received wandered through various European countries until 1580 when he died in Madrid poor and forgotten. The continuations of his poem consisting of 37 cantos in all, were published in 1578 and 1590. The complete poem is published in vol. 17 of Autores espanoles (Madrid, 1851). See New International Encyclopaedia, and Grande Encyclopedie.

[40] In May, 1874, three canoes containing sixteen savages were driven by gales from the Pelew Islands, and after drifting on the ocean sixty days reached Formosa, distant 1,600 miles; and all but one survived these hardships--a striking example of endurance in both themselves and their craft (Davidson, Formosa, p. 215).

[41] Charles Wilkes was born in New York City, in 1798. He entered the U. S. navy as midshipman in 1818, and sailed in the Mediterranean and Pacific. He became lieutenant in 1826, and was placed in charge of the department of charts and instruments in 1830. In 1838, he was placed in charge of the expedition authorized by Congress in 1836 for the purpose of exploring and surveying the southern ocean. This was the first scientific expedition fitted out by the United States government, and much valuable information resulted from it. Of the record of the expedition (which lasted during the years 1838-1842) consisting of nineteen volumes, Wilkes wrote the six containing the narrative and the volumes on meteorology and hydrography. In 1843 he was made a commander, and a captain in 1855. He served through most of the Civil war on the northern side and was the one who removed the Confederate commissioners Slidell and Mason from the English mail boat "Trent," November 8, 1861. He was made a commodore in July 1862, retired in June 1864, and created a rear admiral on the retired list, in 1866. His death occurred in 1877. The names of the vessels in his fleet were the sloops of war "Vincennes" and "Peacock," the brig "Porpoise," the store-ship "Relief," and the two tenders, "Sea-Gull," and "Flying-Fish." See Introduction to Vol. i. of Wilkes's narrative, and New International Encyclopaedia.

[42] i.e., The island of Busuanga, the largest of the Calamianes group, which has an area of 390 square miles. See Census of Philippines, i, p. 274.

[43] i.e., The island of Ambolon, south of Mindoro, of four square miles. See ut supra, i, p. 267.

[44] The island of Simara, near Romblon.

[45] "Although Spain had jurisdiction over these islands for more than three centuries, little topographic information had been acquired regarding them, except such as was of a very general character. The coasts were badly mapped, and in many places are now known to have been miles out of position. The coast charts, made from Spanish surveys, are so inaccurate as to be, on the whole, worse than useless to mariners, while of the interior of the larger islands, little was known except what could be seen from the sea." Census of the Philippines, i, p. 51.

[46] The population is given by the Census for 1903 (ii, p. 30) as 743,646.

[47] On my arrival at Singapore, this circumstance was investigated by a court of inquiry. The result showed that Mr. Knox had no knowledge of the Vincennes having been seen; for the officer of the watch had not reported to him the fact.--Wilkes.

[48] The full name of this village is San Jose de Buenavista. It is the capital of Antique.

[49] The crest of the mountains in Panay is a few miles inland from the west coast. Among the peaks of that range, are the following: Usigan, 4,300 ft.; Agotay, 3,764 ft.; Madiaas, 7,466 ft.; Nangtud, 6,834 ft.; Maymagui, 5,667 ft.; Llorente, 4,466 ft.; Tiguran, 4,900 ft.; and Igbanig, 4,343 ft. See Census of Philippines, i, p. 69.

[50] Wilkes accompanies (p. 349) this description of Caldera fort with a sketch.

[51] There are two islands called Sangboy, one called the north island and the other the south island. They both belong to the Pilas group of the Sulu Archipelago, and are less than one square mile in area. See Census of Philippines, i, p. 283.

[52] Wilkes presents figures of both the whole canoe and a cross section, on p. 353.

[53] For the methods of fishing in the Philippines, see Official Handbook, p. 151. Wilkes also mentions (v, pp. 321, 322) various methods, namely, by weirs, hooks, and seine. The former are made of bamboo stakes in the shallow waters of the lake of Bay where it empties into the Pasig. The nets used in the bay are suspended by the four corners from hoops attached to a crane by which they are lowered into the water. The fishing-boats are little better than rafts and are called saraboas.

[54] Evidently at the village of Jolo.

[55] On p. 354, Wilkes presents a sketch of houses at Soung--the typical Moro house.

[56] A full-page engraving of the "Mosque in the town of Sooloo" faces page 354 of Wilkes's narrative.

[57] Chewing the betel-nut and pepper-leaf also produce this effect, and is carried on to a great extent among these islanders.--Wilkes.

[58] Cf. the description of the betel caskets given by Morga, VOL. XVI, p. 99.

[59] The Sultan, on the visit of one of our merchant-vessels, had informed the supercargo that he wished to encourage our trade, and to see the vessels of the United States coming to his port.--Wilkes.

[60] An engraving made from this sketch is given by Wilkes facing p. 358.

[61] Opium is known by its Arabic name "afyun" throughout the Eastern Archipelago. Crawfurd asserts that its moderate use produces no worse results than does the moderate use of wine, spirits, and perhaps smoking. Shortly after American occupation of the Philippines, the necessity for taking some action in regard to the traffic was seen. The Philippine Commission were convinced that the smoking of opium was increasing among the Filipinos. Accordingly a committee was appointed to study the conditions, and restrictions of other Oriental countries in regard to opium. There were then practically no restrictions in regard to the smoking of the drug. On August 1, 1903, there were 190 opium dens in Manila, and no license was required, as they had no authority in law. The vice was mainly restricted to the Chinese. In 1904 a considerable amount of opium was smuggled into the district of Lanao in Mindanao. "Nothing has had a more demoralizing effect upon the Moros and savage peoples than opium, and it will absolutely destroy them if its importation and use is authorized.... It is believed that a license to smoke opium, sufficiently low to escape fraud, should be issued for those hopelessly addicted to the habit, and that exceedingly severe penalties should attach to those who furnish opium to youth or those who are nonsmokers.... It is a poor policy in developing a people to count on the income of legalized vice for a large portion of the revenue, as is done in most eastern colonies." The importation of opium has shown considerable increase during American occupation. See Crawfurd's Dictionary, pp. 312-314; and the following reports of the Philippine Commission--for 1903, pt. i, p. 63, pt. 2, p. 96; for 1904, pt. 2, pp. 590, 591, pt. 3, p. 545.

[62] Since our return, inquiries have been made by him, which resulted in proving that such was in truth their origin, and that the vessel in which they were shipped was for a long time missing. The identical stones which he saw were a part of a monument that was on its way to Canton.--Wilkes.

[63] Marongas belongs to the Jolo group of the Sulu Archipelago, and has an area of .4 square miles. See Census of Philippines, i, p. 284.

[64] The Sulug or Sulus were the dominant people of Jolo before their conversion to Mahometanism, and still maintain that position. The bulk of the Moro Sulus is on the island of Jolo and the islands immediately south as far as Siassi and Pandami. See Census of Philippines, i, pp. 463, 464.

[65] Orang is the Malay term for man or human being. As used here it would mean "the men," i. e., "nobles."

[66] The tripang or sea-slug (Holothuria edulis), which is esteemed as a great delicacy by the Chinese.

[67] Evidently the people called Guimbajanos by the historians of the eighteenth century. From Wilkes's description, they would appear to be at least partially Negrito.

[68] Banjarmasin is a principality and river on the southern side of Borneo, the word meaning in Javanese "salt or saline garden." The sovereignty of Banjarmasin is said in olden times to have extended over all of southeastern Borneo. See Crawfurd's Dictionary (pp. 36, 37), where an historical sketch of the principality is given.

[69] The Chinese emperor at this time was Choo Yuen Chang, the founder of the Ming dynasty, who defeated Chunti, the last of the Mongol dynasty, in 1367, and ruled from then until the year 1398. He adopted as emperor the name of Hongwon. The statements in the text may be only common report. See Boulger's Short History of China, pp. 79-87.

[70] See Montero y Vidal's account of Joloan affairs during this period, in his Historia, i, pp. 475-548, 561-581, ii, pp. 6-77, 575, 576.

[71] Manila was captured by the English October 6 (or, October 5, according to Spanish reckoning), 1762 (not 1763). See A plain Narrative (London, 1565?), p. 4.

[72] This name is derived from the large bay that makes in on the south side of the island of Mindanao, and on which a set of free-booters reside.--Wilkes.

This is the bay of Illana. Illano or Illanum means "people of the lake." At present they inhabit the south coast of Mindanao from Punta [de] Flechas to Polloc. They are but few in number, but in the past have been bold pirates. They are probably closely connected with the Malanao or Moros dwelling in the valley of Lake Lanao. See Census of Philippines, i, pp. 466, 472.

[73] Pulo Toolyan is Tulaian of the Jolo group of the Sulu Archipelago, with an area of .5 sq. mi.; Tonho may be Tango or Tangu of the Tawi Tawi group; Pilas is the chief island of its group, with an area of 8.2 sq. mi.; Tawi Tawi is the chief island of its group, with an area of 232 sq. mi.; Sumlout is perhaps Simaluc, of the Tawi Tawi group, with an area of 1.3 sq. mi.; Pantutaran is perhaps Pantocunan, of the Jolo group, with an area of .6 sq. mi.; Parodasan is perhaps Parangaan of the Tawi Tawi group, or Parangan of the Tapul group; Basilan is the chief island of its group, with an area of 478 sq. mi. See Census of Philippines, i.

[74] In 1861 a number of light steam gunboats with steel hulls and of twenty or thirty horsepower were constructed in England for the Spaniards for use against the Moro pirates; and they were very effective in reducing piracy, both in the Lake Lanao district and that of Mindanao and the adjacent islands. See Montero y Vidal's Historia, iii, pp. 327, 328, and elsewhere; and Historia de la pirateria, ii.

[75] The sea-gypsies. See VOL. XXXVI, p. 199, note 38.

[76] This treaty is as follows:

[Preceding the text of the treaty are some Arabic characters.]

I, Mohamed, Sultan of Sooloo, for the purpose of encouraging trade with the people of the United States of America, do promise hereby and bind myself that I will afford full protection to all vessels of the United States, and their commanders and crews visiting any of the islands of my dominions, and they shall be allowed to trade on the terms of the most favoured nation, and receive such provisions and necessaries as they may be in want of.

2dly. In case of shipwreck or accident to any vessel, I will afford them all the assistance in my power, and protect the persons and property of those wrecked, and afford them all the assistance in my power for its preservation and safe-keeping, and for the return of the officers and crews of said vessels to the Spanish settlements, or wherever they may wish to proceed.

3dly. That any one of my subjects who shall do any injury or harm to the commanders or crews belonging to American vessels, shall receive such punishment as his crime merits.

In witness whereof I have hereunto set my hand and seal, in presence of the datus and chiefs at Soung, island of Sooloo.

February 5th, 1842.

[Here follows a signature in Arabic characters.]

Witnesses:

Charles Wilkes, Commanding Exploring Expedition.

William L. Hudson, Late Commanding U. S. Ship Peacock.

R. R. Waldron, Purser, U. S. Exploring Expedition.

[77] Pangutarang is the largest island of the numerous group of the same name belonging to the Sulu Archipelago, and has an area of 42 square miles. See Census of Philippines, i, p. 284.