Chapter XII: Section 1: of the said foundation spiritualized the properties and (2)

[79] Bowring (Visit to the Philippines, p. 194) says of the condition of Santo Tomás: "In the university of St. Thomas there are about a thousand students. The professorships are of theology, the canon and civil law, metaphysics and grammar; but no attention is given to the natural sciences, to the modern languages, nor have any of the educational reforms which have penetrated most of the colleges of Europe and America found their way to the Philippines."

[80] Of the college of Santo Tomás, the report of the Dominican friars in 1883 to the colonial exposition of Amsterdam says: "The building occupied by the university of Santo Tomás has contained since 1611 the college of the same name, which is under the direction of the Dominican friars, who gratuitously educate therein from 30 to 40 youths, the children of poor families, generally providing all the expenses for their career, and preparing them so that in the future they can fill an unembarrassed and suitable place in society. Many of these youths have become distinguished in scientific circles, and for their honesty in the legal profession, while others have been honored with the miter of a bishop, and have occupied venerable positions in ecclesiastical chapters. The youths educated in this college were not only Spaniards, but included also natives and mestizos, some of whom entered as servants, which was an honor solicited by many; and on some occasions four large dormitories of this college have been completely filled. There was a period when some entered and paid a moderate amount, according to the archives in the college, but this period was a very short one, because the documents on file in the archives show that at the beginning and at the middle of the seventeenth century, and during a greater part of the eighteenth century, no free pupils were admitted, and the few who were admitted paid a moderate tuition fee in proportion to the means of the family. In the beginning the only branches of secondary instruction taught in the college were the so-called philological or grammatical studies, and after proficiency therein any of the careers established in the university was followed." See Census of Philippines, iii, pp. 596, 597.

[81] Of the Moret decree, Tomás G. del Rosario, writing on education in the Philippines, in Census of Philippines, iii, p. 637, says: "This decree, countersigned by the eminent colonial minister, Don Segismundo Moret, introducing modern advances in Philippine legislation, secularizing instruction and giving it all kinds of guarantees and liberties, this long-awaited provision, caused a great outburst of enthusiasm throughout the archipelago, as it signified the manumission of the popular conscience from a slavery bound with the chains of fanaticism and inimical irreconcilability. In many provinces and in the city of Manila, this never-to-be-forgotten resolution of the Spanish government was received with signs of evident joy. Later, under various pretexts, all those who had expressed joy were cruelly persecuted, and put in jail, or deported as insurgents, masons, filibusters, etc., these measures extending even to those who were merely suspected. This is the history of all theocratic or despotic governments. It is true that some residents and parents of families protested against this provision, together with the corporations, the bishops, and the clergy, but these residents and fathers of families did so either through fear or because they were debtors to or members of the families of the friars. Some did so for fear of being discovered, but most of them to carry out ambitions; no one made a protest with sincerity and in good faith. Everything was hypocrisy, as is the case, and must be the case, among all nations oppressed by absolutism." R. L. Packard's article, "Education in Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippines" included in the Report of the Commissioner of Education 1897-98, i, pp. 909-983, gives (pp. 976, 977), the plan of studies of the Moret decree of November 6, which is as follows: Spanish and Latin grammar; elements of rhetoric and poetry; elements of physical geography; elements of descriptive geography in general and the Philippines in particular; universal history--history of Spain and the Philippine Islands; arithmetic and algebra; geometry and plane trigonometry; elements of physics and chemistry and of natural history; psychology, logic, and moral philosophy; general outline of anatomy, physiology, and hygiene. The studies for the industrial profession included: mercantile arithmetic; bookkeeping and accounts; political economy and mercantile and industrial legislation; geography and commercial statistics; French, English, Tagálog, and Visayan; surveying; spherical trigonometry; cosmography, pilotage, and maneuvers; theoretical and applied mechanics; physics and chemistry applied to the arts; topographical drawing and hydrography; lineal and ornamental drawing--landscape, figures, and painting. The university of Santo Tomás, which changed its title to that of the university of the Philippines by this decree was organized as to its faculties of law and medicine, and the latter contained the following studies: descriptive and general anatomy, two courses; exercises in osteology and dissection, two courses; physiology, one course; public and private hygiene, one course; general pathology, with clinics and pathological anatomy, one course; therapeutics, materia medica, and writing prescriptions, one course; surgical pathology, with operations, bandaging, etc., one course; medical pathology, one course; obstetrics and special pathology of women and children, with clinics, one course; medical and surgical clinics, two courses; legal and toxicological medicine, one course. The pharmaceutical course was also reorganized by this decree. The same minister had proposed October 2, 1870, "that instruction should be given at the university of Madrid in Tagálog and other studies which would give information about the Philippines and the English and Dutch East India possessions and their methods of government, especially for the benefit of those who intended to enter the colonial service." December 5, 1870, in an exposition of the history, conditions, and needs of public instruction in the Philippines, he recites the early activity of the Augustinians, Dominicans, and Jesuits, in education. He points out that by the process of absorption by the religious orders, education became concentrated in their hands, and while they had done much good in early times, their narrowness and conservatism rendered secularization of instruction necessary.

[82] October 29, 1875, a royal order was issued regulating the courses in the university, and prescribing courses of study. Packard, ut supra, p. 977.

[83] Of the studies of secondary instruction given in Santo Tomás, San Juan de Letran, and San José, as well as the private schools, the Census of Philippines, iii, pp. 601, 602, says: "They had the defects inherent in the plan of instruction which the friars developed in the Philippines. It suited their plans that scientific and literary knowledge should not become general nor be very extensive, for which reason they took but little interest in the study of those subjects or in the quality of the instruction. Their educational establishments were places of luxury for the children of wealthy and well-to-do families, rather than establishments in which to perfect and develop the minds of Filipino youth. It is true that they were careful to give them a religious education, tending to make them respect the omnipotent power of the monastic corporations, at least three certificates being required every year, proving that the pupil had gone to confession, in order to permit him to stand the examination at the end of the term."

[84] See the courses of study for the schools of jurisprudence, theology, and canons, medicine, pharmacy, and the notarial profession, in accordance with the royal decree of October 29, 1875, and the studies given in the school for practitioners in medicine and practitioners in pharmacy, approved by the general government of the Philippines on March 4, and December 29, 1879, and afterward confirmed by the supreme government, in Census of Philippines, iii, pp. 627-629. A course was also given under the same authority for midwives. According to a Dominican report submitted at the Exposition of Madrid, in 1887, the university of Santo Tomás conferred degrees upon 957 bachelors, 132 licentiates, and 97 doctors in philosophy, theology, canonical law, and civil law from 1645 to 1820. The graduations from 1820 to 1850 were as follows: theology, 457; canons, 325; institute, 748; civil law, 203; philosophy, 2,173. From 1850 to 1870, the graduations were: theology, 822; Roman and canonical law, 1,540; civil law, 658; philosophy, 3,405. The graduations from 1871 to 1886 were as follows: preparatory course in theology and jurisprudence, 745; preparatory course in pharmacy and medicine, 660; dogmatic theology, 406; moral theology, 104; canonical law, 36; jurisprudence, 1,904; pharmacy, 356; medicine, 1,029. The report of 1887 contains the following in regard to the university: "The university of Manila has the titles of royal and pontifical, which reveal its glorious destiny of propagating in this archipelago religion and love for Spain. It is under the most special patronage of the angelical doctor [i.e., St. Thomas Aquinas], presenting in its name of royal and pontifical university of Santo Tomás the ideals which have prompted its foundation and directed its development for a period of almost three centuries. Its organization is simple without being rudimentary. Having for a basis religious education, at the same time that it avoids the danger of professors expounding more or less advanced theories, which in practice sooner or later, are reduced to moral ruins, both public and private, it contains the pupil within the circle of a severe discipline, in which, if some apparently see oppression and a suppression of spirit, this apparent oppression is softened by the paternal affection which the priests in charge of the instruction know how to bestow upon the natives of this archipelago. A constant encouragement to the young, directed by prudent and affectionate discipline; that is the standard observed by the university of Manila as to its pupils." It was impossible for the friars to extend this purely religious education to university studies, as the persons devoting themselves to such studies were already adult persons. Graduates from the university, although officially recognized by the Spanish government, rarely received official aid. The few Filipinos who were appointed to the notarial and law positions, received such appointment only temporarily. The same is true also regarding physicians. This condition was one factor in the development of the last revolution against Spain. The Dominican report of 1887 also says: "Both secondary and higher instruction cost nothing to the treasury in the Philippines. The colleges of Santo Tomás and of San Juan de Letran are supported from the funds of the corporation to which they belong. The expenses of the university are defrayed with regard to the studies of medicine and pharmacy by the revenues of the college of San José, devoted to that purpose by several royal orders, the balance in the treasury of the college last year [i.e., 1886], after the deduction of all expenses, having been only $173.94. The other expenses of the university are defrayed by the Order of St. Dominic, which has assigned for this purpose, a large personnel serving without charge. Furthermore, the building of the college of Santo Tomás, its library, museum, cabinet, and other equipment, are devoted to educational purposes, with all the personnel and supplies necessary for its preservation and improvement. The only university receipts are those from the payment of matriculations, examination fees, and diplomas. The average receipts, deducting therefrom what corresponds, according to law, to professors, the secretary, etc., amount to $14,000, and the expenditures to $30,000. The latter figure does not include the cost of repairs, the support of the building, cabinet, museum, and library, and other dependencies of Santo Tomás, religions feasts, and other expenses which are not defrayed from the treasury of the university." See ut supra, pp. 626-635.

See also J. Valinau's La universidad de Manila, in La politica de España en Filipinas, a periodical published for eight years, under the directorship of José Feced, and the editorship of Pablo Feced and W. E. Retana, for the year 1891, pp. 26-29, 38-41, 50-52, 62-64, 74-76, 88-90, 98-100, 110-112, 122-124, 134-136. On pp. 122, 123, is given the number of professors in the various faculties in 1887, as follows: theology and canons, 8, all religious, except one in charge of the class of Roman law, which is taught by an advocate; jurisprudence, 14 professors, 7 of whom were religious and 7 jurisconsults of Manila; medicine, 15 professors, the 3 in charge of the preparatory course being religious, and the other 12 physicians; pharmacy, 8 professors, 3 (the same as those in the preceding) being religious, and the remainder, pharmacists of Manila; 11 professors in charge of commerce, agriculture, and industry, all religious except one--in all a total of 56 professors, of whom 27 were religious. The library of the university contained about 12,000 volumes, and the physics cabinet about 300 instruments. Valinau, a former student of the university, and in civil life, defends the rule of the friars against detractors.

[85] The original is asi bonetes como capillas. Bonetes refers to the secular priest who wears a bonnet, in contradistinction to the regular, who wears a hood or cowl, capilla. See Appleton's New Velázquez Dictionary.

[86] Concepción says (vi, pp. 190, 191) that a house was bought for the new college next to the college of San José; and January 20, 1641, the first becas were given. Some of the Jesuits did not approve the new college, and sighted the fatal results from afar, "from taking so great a sum from the royal treasury, without sufficient authorization." "But the fathers in power trampled everything under foot, for they were quite confident in its introduction, and thought that if those powers had no effect, no harm would come from its results, while the present gain was very great and constant."

[87] "The Society alleged that the decree was obtained on false representation and contained falsehoods in its narration; that its execution should be suspended, until truer reports were given to the sovereign; that, even laying aside this vice, the Society, against whom the execution was to be made, was not a party; that the royal decree did not order it, nor did law declare it, because neither the Society nor the college of San Joseph was interested in such sum, which at best ought to be collected from the collegiates, for whose use it had been spent, or from the governor, at whose order the money had been paid out; and that the embargo was an excess on laymen, since it was in ecclesiastical incomes." On this account the royal officials decreed in favor of the Society. See Concepción's Historia, vi, pp. 191, 192.

[88] "The Society continued its demands at court, and gained their plea, and the governor was ordered, in case that sum had been collected, to restore it to the Society. If that sum had not been paid, no further effort was to be made to collect it. Seemingly this order had no effect, for the king gave them as recompense an encomienda, in which the Society were to make good their losses." Concepción's Historia, vi, p. 193.

[89] See post, pp. 187-192.

[90] We present these regulations for the most part only in abstract.

[91] This decree is given by Fray Bernardino Nozaleda de Villa, the last Spanish archbishop of Manila, in his Colegio de S. José, (appendix, document no. 5, pp. x, xi), a pamphlet presenting the Church side in the recent controversy of San José College, argued before the Philippine Commission; and also by Pastells, in his edition of Colin, ii, pp. 493, 494. See also various documents treating of this college presented by Pastells, ut supra, iii, pp. 763-781.

[92] See LeRoy's Philippine Life in Town and Country (New York and London, 1905), pp. 120-122. See also various estimates on the capacities of the Filipinos in LeRoy's article "Friars in the Philippines," in Political Science Quarterly, xviii, pp. 675-678.

[93] This law, given by Felipe IV at Madrid, March 2, 1634, and again, November 4, 1636, is as follows: "We ask and request the archbishops and bishops to take measures and give orders in their dioceses for the curas and missionaries of the Indians by the use of the mildest means, to order and direct all the Indians to be taught the Spanish language, and to learn in it the Christian doctrine, so that they may become more capable of the mysteries of our holy Catholic faith, may profit for their salvation, and obtain other advantages in their government and mode of living."

[94] This law was given by "Carlos I and the sovereigns of Bohemia, governors in Valladolid," June 7, and July 17, 1550; and is as follows: "Having made special investigation as to whether the mysteries of our holy Catholic faith can be thoroughly and properly explained even in the most perfect language of the Indians, it has been seen that it is impossible without committing great discords and imperfections; and although chairs are founded, where the priests, who should have to instruct the Indians, may be taught, it is not a sufficient remedy, as the diversity of the language is great. Having resolved that it will be advisable to introduce the Castilian, we ordain that teachers be assigned to the Indians, who may teach them what they wish to learn of their own accord, in the manner that will be of least trouble to them and without expense. We have considered that this might be well done by the sacristans, just as they teach reading, writing, and the Christian doctrine in the villages of these kingdoms."

[95] Barrantes (Instrucción primaria) remarks that this penalty was always a dead letter, whenever such a charge was made, it being only formal.

[96] See VOL. XXVIII, p. 118, note 56.

[97] See VOL. XXVIII, p. 118, note 57.

[98] See documents concerning the Camacho controversy, in VOL. XLII, pp. 25-116.

[99] This título, containing fifteen laws, is entitled, "Of colleges and seminaries." Law ii dated Segovia, June 8, 1592, reads as follows: "Our royal arms shall be placed in college seminaries, and shall have the most prominent place, in recognition of the universal patronage which belongs to us by right and apostolic authority throughout the state of the Indias. We permit prelates to place their arms in an inferior location."

[100] A petition from Guerrero (see VOL. XXII, pp. 108-111) for royal aid shows under his charge more than fifty boys in August, 1626. It was accepted by the Dominicans, June 18, 1640. Hence the statement of Census of Philippines, iii, p. 599, that it was founded in 1640 is not strictly correct.

[101] The encomienda of Bignotan, in Ilocos. See Archipiélago Filipino, i, p. 343; and VOL. XXVIII, p. 139.

[102] See also VOL. XXVIII, pp. 139, 140.

[103] Census of Philippines, iii, p. 599, says that the college retained the name of "Seminary for orphan children of Saint Peter and Saint Paul," until 1706, when it adopted its present name by virtue of a provision of the provincial chapter of the Dominicans; but as seen here it was known under its present name very early, and probably the name was only fully legalized by the provision.

[104] Fray Sebastián Oquendo was a native of Oviedo, where he professed. He became lecturer in philosophy and theology in the Manila convent. In 1637 he was vicar of the Parián, and in 1639 prior of the Manila convent. He was twice definitor, minister of the natives in the Manila convent, and lastly vicar of the hospice of San Jacinto in Mexico from 1645 until his death in 1651. See Reseña biográfica, i, p. 375.

[105] Natives were admitted to the college some time after its foundation (1640, when the Dominicans took charge of it) upon the payment of certain tuition fees. See Census of Philippines, iii, p. 599; and Archipiélago Filipino, i, p. 343.

[106] The present building is situated within the walled city, and covers a large area of ground. It is one of the best for this purpose in the islands, and is ample and well constructed. Formerly the pupils wore a habit consisting of a blue mantle and black sleeves. Since the beginning branches of primary instruction have been taught. At the beginning of the eighteenth century two courses of grammar studies were added, the college being declared one of secondary instruction in 1867. At the present time the first four years of secondary instruction are given there in accordance with the regulations of the university of Santo Tomás, to which all institutions in which secondary instruction was given were subject. Lessons are also given in music, drawing and gymnastics. The statistics of the university of Santo Tomás and San Juan de Letran showed 1,447 pupils in all for general studies, and 337 pursuing courses in secondary instruction. The latter is under the direction of the Dominicans. See Census of Philippines, iii, p. 599; and Archipiélago Filipino, i, p. 343.

[107] By the Moret decrees of 1870, San Juan de Letran was to be made a part of the Philippine Institute.

[108] Perhaps the Nueva Recopilación of Spanish laws, published in 1567. This law is not to be found at the location mentioned in Recopilación de las leyes de Indias. See Walton's Civil law of Spain and Spanish America (Washington, 1900), p. 21.

[109] A royal decree given first to the Audiencia of Charcas (January 28, 1778), was extended to the Philippines, November 5, 1782 (See Barrantes, pp. 68-73). The latter decree provides for the establishment of schools for the teaching of Spanish, the expense to be met from the proceeds from foundations, and from communal property.

[110] On the teaching of Spanish in the Philippines, see Patricio de la Escotura's Memoria sobre Filipinas y Joló (Madrid, 1882, pp. 1-30).

[111] Law xxxv, título xv, book i, reads as follows: "We order that, in accordance with the holy council of Trent, the missionary religious pay contributions for college-seminaries, as the other clerics, beneficed persons, prebendaries, hospitals, and confraternities do, and are bound to do, in the manner that is and shall be assigned. We ask and request the secular prelates to have it obeyed exactly and punctually, and to warn the religious that if they do not observe it, they shall be removed from the missions." It is dated May 1, 1609.

[112] Law vii, título xxiii, book i, dated El Pardo, Nov. 8, 1594, reads as follows: "We order our royal officials of Peru to discount three per cent of the stipends given to the religious missionaries of the Order of St. Francis, which in accordance with law xxxv, título xv, of this book the seminaries are to have, in money and not in kind, and to give the remainder to the religious."

[113] This seminary was founded in 1870 by the very reverend Fray Mariano Cuartero, the first bishop of the diocese. The building is of stone with a galvanized iron roof supported by 160 beams. There are six Paulist priests, and two lay-brothers in charge of the institution, who are aided by three native clerics--pupils in the same seminary, who teach the Latin classes under the direction of the rector. The following fees are charged: matriculation, four pesos; boarding pupils, nine pesos per month, payable quarterly; and the three per cent of the stipend of the priests of the diocese. Instruction is divided into four years of Latin, and three of philosophy. The total number of pupils enrolled without distinction of courses or studies, from 1870 to 1885 inclusive, was 5,344; the total number of graduates, 4,397. Of those enrolled under secondary instruction, 86.1 per cent graduated; under philosophy, 85.9 per cent; under dogmatic theology, 85 per cent; and under moral theology and liturgy, 82.5 per cent. See Census of Philippines, iii, pp. 598, 599.

[114] Blumentritt says of the relations between the religious orders and the Philippine clergy: "They [i.e., the orders] won for themselves in early times, great gratitude from the natives by protecting them from the government officials, which was increased by admitting them to religious orders. But this happy condition was changed in the present century, for when the orders were abolished in Spain, the Philippines offered an asylum to the crowd of European novices, whose numbers soon barred further admission to the natives. Since that time the Philippine friars have been European Spaniards, who are often the only white men in the country districts, and who, being the only representatives of the ruling race, have made use of that position, in fact, if not with right, and constituted themselves the rulers of the land. In the fear that a liberal government might deprive them of their last refuge--the Philippines--by handing the parishes over to the (native) secular clergy, the Spanish friars began to pose as the only reliable support of Spanish rule in the archipelago, and to throw the suspicion of independence upon the secular clergy. So great is the ignorance of the Spaniards of the affairs of the archipelago, that this suggestion was easily entertained, although all insurrections have been suppressed, not by the friars, but by the government. Their power was further increased by the money they circulated in Spain, and the fear of the Spanish government that they might place their wealth at the disposal of the Carlists.

"These friars have been the enemies of every administrative reform which the colonial ministers have promised or effected from 1868 until the present time, and they have consequently and naturally appealed as the enemies of all progress and improvement in their country, not only to the secular clergy, but also to all the other inhabitants of the islands.... What kind of a spirit actuated them is best shown by the fact that they accused the Jesuits, who are highly esteemed, of liberalism, and so brought suspicion and distrust upon the teachers who were educated in the Jesuit teachers' seminary." See Census of Philippines, iii, pp. 612, 613.

[115] Gregorio Aglipay, the founder of the new Filipino Church, is an Ilokano by birth and is about forty years old. He was educated for the priesthood in a Catholic seminary, and ordained about 1890. His rise was rapid, for he was well looked upon by Spanish ecclesiastics. In the early pair of American occupation, however, he was excommunicated for some Church irregularity, "an action ... glaringly unjust and entirely irregular," says Stuntz. Thereupon he joined the insurgents and was made vicar-general by Aguinaldo. Shortly after the proclamation of April 4, 1899, by the Schurman commission, he took the oath of allegiance to the United States. In August, 1901, he had private conferences with several Protestant ministers regarding the religious condition of the Philippines, and declared his intention to head a movement for an independent church, asking the coöperation of the Protestants. The constitution was adopted in October, 1902, at a convention of the priests and laymen who had joined the movement, and Aglipay was elected archbishop. The movement spread rapidly. In north Ilokos but three priests with their churches remained loyal to Rome. Various estimates place the number of adherents to the new faith at 1,500,000, or 2,000,000, although they themselves claim 3,000,000. The question of their right to hold church property came up early, and Governor Taft ruled that the party which is in peaceful possession of any house of worship shall be deemed to be the rightful occupant, and the contrary must be proved in the courts before ejection can take place. More than 200 priests have joined the movement, and young native priests are being ordained with somewhat startling ease and carelessness, in the seminaries which the new Church has opened. The foremost priests and laymen have been open enemies of the United States, and some of them still advocate independence. Isabelo de los Reyes, a politician of the demagogue type, is one of the active leaders of the movement. A weekly paper is published in the interests of the new Church. Patriotism rather than religion is the reason for its rapid growth, so that its basis with many is political. The fear of the return of the friars was seized upon by the schismatics to gain new adherents. Homer C. Stuntz says: "Its easy program of religious reformations attracts thousands. It promises a better order of things, but makes no spiritual or moral demands. Priests may come into the movement, and keep their mistresses and continue their gambling. Aglipay himself has never been accused of immorality or gaming, but he sets up no standard of purity in his priesthood or among his people. The cockpit, games of cards and dice, the bino habit, and all other national vices come into the new Church without direct rebuke. This, its real weakness, gives it apparent strength. Because of this it is enabled to count its members by the million within less than two years from its birth." Protestant influence is seen on every hand. Protestant missionaries congratulate themselves that the Catholic front of the islands is broken by this movement. The office of bishop is elective, Aglipay himself being included by this rule. Stuntz's conclusions are as follows: "The Independent Filipino Catholic Church has come to stay. Just how strong a hold it will be able to keep over the multitudes which have flocked to its standard of revolt against the pope cannot be foretold. But it may be reckoned with as a permanent factor in the religious future of the Philippines." See LeRoy's Philippine Life, pp. 163-171; Homer C. Stuntz's The Philippines and the Far East (Cincinnati and New York, 1905), pp. 488-496; and Report of Philippine Commission, 1904, i, pp. 19, 20.

[116] See the program of these theoretical studies, in Census of Philippines, iii, p. 613.

[117] There was also at Manila, for many years, a military academy for the education of the sons of military men residing in the colony, as well as for soldiers and non-commissioned officers who desired to fit themselves for promotion. The son of a native needed great influence to enable him to enter, and such had generally to enlist as a soldier, more especially since the age-limit was lowered. Formerly, when the scale of ages was different in the colonies from the scale in Spain, officers graduated from this academy, but later when the scales were made uniform, this academy was closed, and opened again afterward under different conditions. Its candidates were eligible candidates for admission to the general military academy of Spain at Toledo, which annually gave notice to the academy of the number of scholars which it could accommodate. Many Filipinos took advantage of this and became efficient military men. The instruction given in the academy seems to have been superior to that afforded in many of the other institutions, and examinations were comparatively strict. Annual attendance was generally about 100. Since American occupation a military academy has been suggested for the Filipinos. See Report of Philippine Commission, 1900, i, p. 40, 1900-1903, p. 128; and Report of Commissioner of Education, 1899-1900, ii, pp. 1627, 1628.

[118] This is the oldest educational institution of the Philippines under the supervision of the Bureau of Education. The building of the school was destroyed by the earthquake of 1863. A nautical school was opened by the American government in Manila, December 15, 1899, with an enrolment of 22 pupils, and under the superintendency of Lieut. Commander V. S. Cottman, U.S.N., who was assisted by three instructors. He was relieved by Lieut. George F. Cooper, December 25, 1899. The course of instruction was at first for three years. At the beginning of the new term in June, 1900, four more instructors were appointed. There were five instructors at the opening of the first term in 1901. The instruction was first in Spanish, but for the sake of greater efficiency English was substituted. In July, 1901, the school opened with 83 pupils. In October, 1901, the course was extended to four years. The studies include English, mathematics, history, drawing, mechanics, and practical seamanship. The method of instruction and discipline are based upon those of the United States Naval Academy. The building, although well equipped in many ways, is not itself adequate for the purpose for which it is used. The school has not attained the excellence desired, due in part to the irregular attendance and lack of discipline, although attendance continues to increase. See Report of the Commissioner of Education (Department of the Interior), 1901, ii, pp. 1421-1423, and 1902, ii, pp. 2244-2246; Report of the Philippine Commission, 1900, i, p. 39, ii, p. 473, 1900-1903, p. 271, 1904, iii, pp. 826, 827, and 888, 889; and Census of Philippines, iii, pp. 663, 664.

The Philippine budget for 1880-81 included 4,397.33 pesos for the staff of the nautical academy, and those of painting and designing, history and bookkeeping, and the botanical garden; and 7,786.32 pesos for equipment. See Sanciano y Goson's Progreso de Filipinas (Madrid, 1881), pp. 23, 24.

[119] This society was founded in Manila in 1876 under the name of Liceo Artístico, which it changed in 1889 as above. Its purpose was to protect the moral and material interests of the Filipino musicians resident in the Philippines, and advance the musical progress and education of the natives. It gave with some irregularity a private monthly concert and three public concerts per year. It began to decline in 1891 and perished amid the political upheaval. See Archipiélago Filipino, i, p. 354.

[120] Semper, writing in 1869, says of education among the natives. "The Christian Spaniard has not been able to exert much more influence of a spiritual than of a political nature upon the character of the natives. Popular education was formerly, and is now, entirely in the hands of the priests. Excepting the professors of common and Roman law all the chairs of the University of Santo Tomás of Manila are in the hands of the priests, who naturally arrange not only the theological lectures, but those upon metaphysics, physics, and logic, as well, according to the principles of the Catholic Church. In the provinces every village has its public schools in which instruction is obligatory; but, besides reading and writing, only Christian doctrine and church music are taught. This instruction, moreover, is by no means generally given in Spanish; at least, the general introduction of Spanish is still so recent that it will be long before the Spanish officials will be able to converse, even with their subordinates, in Spanish. On the east coast of Mindanao, one of the oldest and most settled provinces, the native dialect was exclusively used until forty or fifty years ago, and the priests used the old Malay alphabet until the beginning of the century, even in their official business. The number of natives--the Spaniards call them 'Indians'--who can read and write is tolerably large, but owing to the total unreliability of all statistics on the subject, nothing accurate can be stated. In 1863 the Government attempted to make an enumeration of the population, and, incidentally, to note the number of those who could read and write. The fact that the result was never published seems to confirm the opinion that an unsatisfactory condition of things was found." See Census of Philippines, iii, p. 577.

[121] Under late Spanish domination, there were 67 private Latin schools in the archipelago, of which 23 were in the province of Manila, and nearly all the others in Luzón. In the term of 1886-87, there were 41 private schools, of secondary instruction, twelve of which were in the suburbs of Manila, two in the walled city, and the rest in the provinces of Luzón and the Visayas. Of the 41 professors in charge thereof, only one had the degree of doctor, eight were licentiates, and the rest held the degree of bachelor of arts. The course of study in these schools included Latin and Spanish grammar, Christian doctrine and sacred history, general geography and geography of Spain and the Philippines, Latin translation and analysis, elementary Greek, general history and history of Spain and the Philippines, arithmetic and algebra, rhetoric and poetry, geometry and plane trigonometry, and French. The attendance in 1895-96 was 1,915. They were under the charge of licentiates, in philosophy or science, or bachelors of arts who must have passed a teacher's examination, and were under inspectors, one of whom was appointed by the rector of the university, who was ex-officio head of all the schools of the islands. Some of the schools had a one-year course, others two, and others three. The teachers were Filipinos. The supervisors of public instruction had the power to visit the schools, and recommend their establishment or removal. The pupils were required to enrol and be examined in the university, except those in distant provinces, who could be examined by a board composed of the alcalde-mayor, the parish priest, and the respective professor. The result of the examination was sent to the secretary of the university. The Dominicans had one private school at Dagupan (Pangasinán), founded 1890-91; the Franciscans, that of Guinobatan (Albay), founded 1894-95; and the Recollects that of Bacólod (Negros Occidental), founded 1895. There are still a number of private schools in the archipelago. During recent years many have sprung up in Manila and the provinces which give primary and secondary education, although the instruction is generally poor. Some of them have been started in answer to the complaint of some Filipino parents that the American schools are godless; some have been started by Roman Catholic priests for the purpose of combating purely secular instruction; and some are the expression of Filipino nationality and independence. Within ten months, since June, 1901, 29 new private schools were opened in Manila alone. They are generally patterned after the old method, and are either teaching in Spanish or the vernacular. The popular demand for English has compelled many of them to make a show of teaching it, but it is generally being attempted without adequate teachers. It was suggested that the curriculum in such schools, except in matters of religious instruction, conform to the course of the public schools, and that they be under the official inspection, such a course making it possible to have a real compulsory school law. The Liceo de Manila is a school organized and run by Filipinos. The late C. J. Zulueta was professor of history in this school and read an address at its opening, June 19, 1902. See LeRoy's Philippine Life, pp. 223, 224; Census of Philippines, iii, pp. 599, 600; Report of Commissioner of Education, 1899-1900, ii, p. 1622, 1901, ii, pp. 1437, 1438; and Archipiélago Filipino, i, pp. 344, 345.

[122] i.e., Those wearing the cape or cloak.

[123] Later transformed into the Ateneo Municipal, q.v., post.

[124] This school was located in the same building as the nautical school, and was established July 15, 1839 at the request of the board of trade, which had presented its petition to this effect, October 1, 1838. The report of 1883 shows a total enrolment of 562 pupils in double entry bookkeeping for the years 1866-72, with a graduation of 91; and an enrolment of 228 for the study of English, with a graduation of 57. See Census of Philippines, iii, p. 614; and Montero y Vidal, Historia, iii, p. 30.

[125] See these instructions, in VOL. VII, pp. 141-172.

[126] See VOL. XVIII, pp. 282-288 for documents of 1610-19 regarding the grant of an encomienda made to this school or seminary.

[127] Perhaps for pinaua, which signifies "half-pounded rice," or "rice without the husk, but not bleached."

[128] Its foundation was approved in 1816, and endowed with the fitting rules and vocations, it had for some time only the character of a beaterio. In 1865 it was elevated to the rank of a school of higher grade. See Archipiélago Filipino, i, pp. 352, 353.

[129] These statistics show that Mas has been the chief authority followed by Mallat.

[130] Inasmuch as this citation was translated from Mas by Mallat, we have used Mas's words in preference to retranslating Mallat.

[131] See Mallat, i, pp. 367-369.

[132] Retana mentions a paper, El Noticiero Filipino, which he conjectures to have been founded in 1838, following Francisco Diaz Puertas, who mentions it. Retana refers to this passage of Mallat. See his Periodismo filipino (Madrid, 1895), for data regarding the various newspapers and periodicals of the Philippines. This also appeared in instalments in Retana's magazine La Política de España en Filipinas.

[133] See "Drama of the Filipinos" by Arthur Stanley Riggs in Journal of American Folk-Lore, xvii, no. lxvii; and Barrantes's El teatro tagalo (Madrid, 1889). Mr. Riggs has ready for the press also a book on the drama of the Filipinos.

[134] "In the atlas is found the Comintango de la languista, noted with the accompaniment of piano and guitar, to which we have joined the words." (Mallat, ii, p. 247, note). Bowring reproduces this music at the end of his Visit to the Philippines.

[135] In regard to the musical ability of the Filipinos, see the slightly adverse comments of Archbishop Nozaleda, in Senate Document, no. 190, 56th Congress, 2d session, 1900-1901, pp. 98-100.

[136] A dance allied to the quadrille, but with different and more graceful figures.

[137] See notes from Barrantes, in VOL. XLVI; and the decree of December 20, 1863.

[138] The Sociedad Económica de Amigos del Pais was founded in 1813 for the purpose of encouraging interest in the arts, sciences, commerce, and industries. Alexander A. Webb, former American consul at Manila, says of it. "It is claimed on its behalf that it has accomplished a vast amount of good, but there is not that degree of energy and activity manifested in its work to be seen in similar organizations in some other countries." It had a library of about 2,000 volumes on the arts and sciences, natural history, and agriculture. See Report of Commissioner of Education, 1897-98, p. 980.

[139] The Filipino artist, Juan Luna y Novicio was a pupil of this academy. He also studied in Madrid, Paris, and Rome, and some of his paintings are conserved in the largest galleries. The total number of pupils enrolled in this academy from 1872 to 1883 was 5,485. See Census of Philippines, iii, p. 615.

[140] Archipiélago Filipino, i, p. 349; Census of Philippines, iii, p. 614.

[141] Census of Philippines, iii, p. 614.

[142] See Report of Philippine Commission, 1900, i, pp. 39, 40. Drawing was introduced into the Philippine schools in 1903 upon a systematic basis. The Filipinos are interested and apt in this work, and show talent in original conception and artistic execution. The work is carried on by a staff of nine Filipino drawing teachers, one American teacher for the secondary and American schools, and a supervisor. The Filipino teacher is as competent as the American in this work. See Report of Philippine Commission, 1904, pt. 3, p. 890.

[143] The first band of Jesuits who arrived in the middle of 1859, consisted of six fathers and four brothers, their superior being José Fernandez Cuevas (see Montero y Vidal, iii, p. 272). The royal decree readmitting them was dated March 21, 1852 (Barrantes, Instrucción primaria, p. 103).

[144] That charge was approved by a superior decree dated December 15 of the same year (Montero y Vidal, iii, p. 272). Examinations were in charge of the Dominicans (Ed. Report for 1899-1900, ii, p. 1621).

[145] The work of the Jesuits in this school is praised highly by Tomás G. del Rosario in the Census of Philippines, iii, p. 596.

[146] See Report of Commissioner of Education, 1899-1900, ii, p. 1621.

[147] Edmond Plauchut, writing in Revue des Deux Mondes for 1877, xx, p. 910, says: "The history of superior instruction, like that of primary, is only the dry relation of a furious struggle between two religious orders, that of the friars, and that of the Jesuits."

[148] The Embriologia sagrada (Manila, 1856), by Gregorio Sanz.

[149] The first number of this fortnightly paper appeared in Manila, in March, 1859, and its last issue, December 15, 1860. It is but rarely found complete. Retana praises it highly. See Politica de España en Filipinas, iii, pp. 103-105.

[150] Schools exist in all the villages. The teacher is paid by the government, and usually receives two dollars [i.e., pesos] per month without either lodging or board. In large villages, the pay is as high as three and one-half dollars, but he must pay an assistant out of that. The schools are under the supervision of the parish priests. Reading and writing are taught, the instruction being in Spanish. The teacher is properly required to teach his scholars Spanish, but he himself does not know it. On the other hand, the Spanish officials do not understand the native languages. The priests, moreover, have no inclination to alter these conditions, which are very useful for their influence. Almost the only Indians who know Spanish are those who have been in the service of Europeans. A sort of devotional primer is read in the native speech (Bicol) at first, and later the Christian doctrine. The reading book is called Casayayan. On an average, half of the children attend school, usually from the seventh to the tenth year. They learn to read somewhat, and some learn also a little of writing, but they forget it soon. Only those who later enter service as clerks write easily, and most of them have a good hand. Some pastors do not allow boys and girls to attend the same school, in which case they also pay a special schoolmistress at the rate of one dollar per month. The Indians learn to reckon with great difficulty. They generally rake shells or stones to help them, which they heap up and then count. See Jagor's Reisen in den Philippinen (Berlin, 1873), pp. 128, 129.

[151] "The Spanish government was really anxious that all Filipinos should speak the Spanish language, as it is understood that the use of a common language is the manner of forming a national spirit and sentiment, the only thing that can preserve and unite in constant friendship people of different races. Nevertheless, the monastic orders were always decidedly opposed to the Spanish language being spoken in Philippine territory, because their interests would have been greatly injured if such language had become general throughout the archipelago, as from that time they would have ceased to be the intermediaries between the people and the authorities and would no longer be required by either, which would reduce their great influence with both parties.... As a consequence of all this the Spanish language did not become general, and due to the diversity of dialects in the country and the lack of books in these dialects, education went along a hard and difficult path. Some officials of the Spanish government assisted the friars in this work." See Tomás del Rosario's article in Census of Philippines, iii, p. 594. For the friar side of this question, see the statements of Fathers Navarro and Zamora, which will appear in the appendix to our VOL. XLVI.

[152] See appendix to VOL. XLVI for the regulations of the government normal school.

[153] The meteorological observatory was founded by the Jesuits in 1865, its main object being the discovery of the laws of the typhoons that rage in Oriental seas. Its other departments--seismatic, magnetic and astronomic--were added later. For the first five years the apparatus was very scarce, and most of that was lent by the Ateneo Municipal, but notwithstanding that, some excellent work was done in those early years. In 1870, the publication of a bulletin was begun, and new apparatus began to be installed. The first typhoon was forecast and notice of its coming given in 1879. Finally the government authorities made the observatory a central institution and placed it officially in charge of the Jesuits. In 1898, through the influence of the British meteorologist at Hongkong, the United States government ordered the coming of typhoons not to be announced, but the order was speedily revoked. Of this observatory Packard says in the Educational Report for 1897-98, pp. 973, 974: "The latest fruit of the scientific activity of the Jesuits, and the most important and best known scientific institution in the Philippines, and perhaps in the whole east, is the famous meteorological observatory of Manila, which was founded in 1865, and now has one of the most complete equipments for meteorological observations in the world. An important practical service which the observatory renders shipping is the warning of approaching hurricanes, which it is enabled to give by means of its branch stations at different points in several of the islands. The Jesuit father Faura, who is so well known for his meteorological work, has been for a long time in charge of the observatory, and began forecasting the weather as early as 1879. Expeditions have been made under his direction all over the archipelago, with a view to making magnetic and other observations." See also Archipiélago Filipino, ii, pp. 5-16.

[154] "Manual for the traveler:" a guide book, in which various interesting statistics are published.

[155] Historia geográfica, geológico y estadistica de Filipinas (Manila, 1876), by Agustin de la Cavada y Mendez de Vigo. This author was for many years a State official in the Philippines. He died in Spain in 1894. See Pardo de Tavera's Biblioteca filipina, p. 96.

[156] The Indian and mestizo advocates, too abundant in that country, are a real calamity to it, and the same thing may be said of them as of the Indian secular clergy. They do not know the law, nor do they ever come to understand what they have studied. They obtained their certificate, thanks to the excessive tolerance of their professors, and once converted into licentiates and even doctors, they pay for their benefits and the honor which they have received by becoming outrageous anti-Spanish. They believe themselves superior to the latter, and dream of republics in which they can figure and strut. Their ridiculous hopes, and their vanity and deficiency would be excusable, if they did not deceive their simple countrymen in a nursery of litigation with their eagerness of defending evil causes. Such is, although it be a cause for regret, the general rule. See Montero y Vidal, Archipiélago Filipino, pp. 192, 193, note.

[157] This is one of the needs that has been most apparent to the American authorities since 1898. The stress laid upon industrial training is evident from the many Filipinos among the government pupils now in the United States, who are being trained especially in agriculture and the various forms of engineering. Regarding trade schools and industrial instruction, see Report of Philippine Commission, 1905, iv, p. 412.

[158] See VOL. XLVI, appendix, for the regulations of the municipal school for girls.

[159] See ut supra.

[160] The school or college of Santa Potenciana was suppressed in 1865, and its building became the provisional palace of the governor general. Its collegiates reduced to twelve were transferred to the school of Santa Isabel. See Barrantes's Instrucción primaria en Filipinas (Manila, 1869), pp. 17, 18, note.

[161] See an account of this school in Archipiélago Filipino, i, p. 352.

[162] See Archipiélago Filipino, ii, pp. 280 et seq., for data regarding earthquakes in the Philippines. A number of shocks are recorded for 1880, but none especially disastrous.

[163] See also Archipiélago Filipino, i, pp. 352, 353.

[164] See also Archipiélago Filipino, i, p. 353.

[165] See also Archipiélago Filipino, i, p. 353.

[166] The following results of a table show the following statistics in regard to girls' schools between the years 1864-1883. Santa Catalina: boarding pupils, 1,617; teachers, 7. Santa Rosa: boarding pupils, 2,959; teachers, 23. Concordia: boarding pupils, 2,103; day pupils, 623; teachers, 32. Santa Isabel: free boarding pupils, 475; pay boarding pupils, 149; day pupils, 112. Municipal school: day pupils, 5,163; teachers, 74; awards conferred, 332; accesit, 1,058. The instruction given in these institutions was always under the immediate direction of the friars, and was consequently of a religious character. Some of them were known as beaterios or retreats, institutions devoted primarily to religious practice. Primary and secondary instruction were both given. In some of them the instruction was very poor, as many of the scholars graduated without knowing how to speak Spanish. It was only in the college of Santa Isabel, in the municipal school, and in some private schools that adequate instruction was given. Some of these colleges were houses of recreation or of rest rather than educational institutions, where not only girls, but women, both married and single, went to pass some time, for the purpose of change or to renew their clothing. Girls from the provinces often attended the schools in Manila to learn the social manners and polish of the capital, but they often failed of their purpose, for social education was frequently neglected in them. The class distinction between Spanish, mestizo, and Filipino girls was unfortunately inculcated. The principal ends of the sisters of charity being the care of their convents and hospitals, they could not obtain as good results in education as if their time had been spent entirely in that field. See Census of Philippines, iii, pp. 620, 621.

[167] This school must not be confused with the Agricultural Society of the Philippines, an institution created November 15, 1881, and a dependency of the department of general inspection of forests, especially as the separation of these two institutions was effected in July, 1884. See Report of Commissioner of Education, 1899-1900, ii, pp. 1625, 1626.