Chapter IV (2)

(8.) Cissus discolor (Ampelideae, Fam. 67).—A leaf, not nearly full-grown, the third from the apex of a shoot on a cut-down plant, was observed during 31 h. 30 m. (see Fig. 99). The day was cold (15°–16° C.), and if the plant had been observed in the hot-house, the circumnutation, though plain enough as it was, would probably have been far more conspicuous.

Fig. 99. Cissus discolor: circumnutation of leaf, traced from 10.35 A.M. May 28th to 6 P.M. 29th. Apex of leaf 8 3/4 inches from the vertical glass.

(9.) Vicia faba (Leguminosae, Fam. 75).—A young leaf, 3.1 inches in length, measured from base of petiole to end of leaflets, had a filament affixed to the midrib of one of the two terminal leaflets, and its movements were traced during 51½ h. The filament fell all morning (July 2nd) till 3 P.M., and then rose greatly till 10.35 P.M.; but the rise this day was so great, compared with that which subsequently occurred, that it was probably due in part to the plant being illuminated from above. The latter part of the course on July 2nd is alone given in the following figure (Fig. 100). On the next day (July 3rd) the leaf again fell in the morning, then circumnutated in a conspicuous manner, and rose till late at night; but the movement was not traced after 7.15 P.M., as by that time the filament pointed towards the upper edge of the glass. During the latter part of the night or early morning it again fell in the same manner as before.

As the evening rise and the early morning fall were unusually large, the angle of the petiole above the horizon was measured at the two periods, and the leaf was found to have risen 19° between 12.20 P.M. and 10.45 P.M., and to have fallen 23° 30 seconds between the latter hour and 10.20 A.M. on the following morning.

Fig. 100. Vicia faba: circumnutation of leaf, traced from 7.15 P.M. July 2nd to 10.15 A.M. 4th. Apex of the two terminal leaflets 7 1/4 inches from the vertical glass. Figure here reduced to two-thirds of original scale. Temp. 17°–18° C.

The main petiole was now secured to a stick close to the base of the two terminal leaflets, which were 1.4 inch in length; and the movements of one of them were traced during 48 h. (see Fig. 101). The course pursued is closely analogous to that of the whole leaf. The zigzag line between 8.30 A.M. and 3.30 P.M. on the second day represents 5 very small ellipses, with their longer axes differently directed. From these observations it follows that both the whole leaf and the terminal leaflets undergo a well-marked daily periodical movement, rising in the evening and falling during the latter part of the night or early morning; whilst in the middle of the day they generally circumnutate round the same small space.

Fig 101. Vicia faba: circumnutation of one of the two terminal leaflets, the main petiole having been secured, traced from 10.40 A.M. July 4th to 10.30 A.M. 6th. Apex of leaflet 6 5/8 inches from the vertical glass. Tracing here reduced to one-half of original scale. Temp. 16°–18° C.

(10.) Acacia retinoides (Leguminosae).—The movement of a young phyllode, 2 3/8 inches in length, and inclined at a considerable angle above the horizon, was traced during 45 h. 30 m.; but in the figure here given (Fig. 102), its circumnutation is shown during only 21 h. 30 m. During part of this time (viz., 14 h. 30 m.) the phyllode described a figure representing 5 or 6 small ellipses. The actual amount of movement in a vertical direction was .3 inch. The phyllode rose considerably between 1.30 P.M. and 4 P.M., but there was no evidence on either day of a regular periodic movement.

Fig. 102. Acacia retinoides: circumnutation of a young phyllode, traced from 10.45 A.M. July 18th to 8.15 A.M. 19th. Apex of phyllode 9 inches from the vertical glass; temp. 16½°–17½° C.

(11.) Lupinus speciosus (Leguminosae).—Plants were raised from seed purchased under this name. This is one of the species in this large genus, the leaves of which do not sleep at night. The petioles rise direct from the ground, and are from 5 to 7 inches in length. A filament was fixed to the midrib of one of the longer leaflets, and the movement of the whole leaf was traced, as shown in Fig. 103. In the course of 6 h. 30 m. the filament went four times up and three times down. A new tracing was then begun (not here given), and during 12½ h. the leaf moved eight times up and seven times down; so that it described 7½ ellipses in this time, and this is an extraordinary rate of movement. The summit of the petiole was then secured to a stick, and the separate leaflets were found to be continually circumnutating.

Fig. 103. Lupinus speciosus: circumnutation of leaf, traced on vertical glass, from 10.15 A.M. to 5.45 P.M.; i.e., during 6 h. 30 m.

(12.) Echeveria stolonifera (Crassulaceæ, Fam. 84).—The older leaves of this plant are so thick and fleshy, and the young ones so short and broad, that it seemed very improbable that any circumnutation could be detected. A filament was fixed to a young upwardly inclined leaf, .75 inch in length and .28 in breadth, which stood on the outside of a terminal rosette of leaves, produced by a plant growing very vigorously. Its movement was traced during 3 days, as here shown (Fig. 104). The course was chiefly in an upward direction, and this may be attributed to the elongation of the leaf through growth; but we see that the lines are strongly zigzag, and that occasionally there was distinct circumnutation, though on a very small scale.

Fig. 104. Echeveria stolonifera: circumnutation of leaf, traced from 8.20 A.M. June 25th to 8.45 A.M. 28th. Apex of leaf 12 1/4 inches from the glass, so that the movement was much magnified; temp. 23°–24½° C.

(13.) Bryophyllum (vel Calanchæ) calycinum (Crassulaceæ).—Duval-Jouve (‘Bull. Soc. Bot. de France,’ Feb. 14th, 1868) measured the distance between the tips of the upper pair of leaves on this plant, with the result shown in the following Table. It should be noted that the measurements on Dec. 2nd were made on a different pair of leaves:—

8 A.M. 2 P.M. 7 P.M. Nov. 16. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15 mm.. . . . . .25 mm. . . .. . . .(?) ” 19. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48 ” . . . . . . . 60 ”. . . . . . . 48 mm. Dec. 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22 ”. . . . . . . . 43 ”. . . . . . . .28 ”

We see from this Table that the leaves stood considerably further apart at 2 P.M. than at either 8 A.M. or 7 P.M.; and this shows that they rise a little in the evening and fall or open in the forenoon.

(14.) Drosera rotundifolia (Droseraceae, Fam. 85).—The movements of a young leaf, having a long petiole but with its tentacles (or gland-bearing hairs) as yet unfolded, were traced during 47 h. 15 m. The figure (Fig. 105) shows that it circumnutated largely, chiefly in a vertical direction, making two ellipses each day. On both days the leaf began to descend after 12 or 1 o’clock, and continued to do so all night, though to a very unequal distance on the two occasions. We therefore thought that the movement was periodic; but on observing three other leaves during several successive days and nights, we found this to be an error; and the case is given merely as a caution. On the third morning the above leaf occupied almost exactly the same position as on the first morning; and the tentacles by this time had unfolded sufficiently to project at right angles to the blade or disc.

Fig. 105. Drosera rotundifolia: circumnutation of young leaf, with filament fixed to back of blade, traced from 9.15 A.M. June 7th to 8.30 A.M. June 9th. Figure here reduced to one-half original scale.

The leaves as they grow older generally sink more and more downwards. The movement of an oldish leaf, the glands of which were still secreting freely, was traced for 24 h., during which time it continued to sink a little in a slightly zigzag line. On the following morning, at 7 A.M., a drop of a solution of carbonate of ammonia (2 gr. to 1 oz. of water) was placed on the disc, and this blackened the glands and induced inflection of many of the tentacles. The weight of the drop caused the leaf at first to sink a little; but immediately afterwards it began to rise in a somewhat zigzag course, and continued to do so till 3 P.M. It then circumnutated about the same spot on a very small scale for 21 h.; and during the next 21 h. it sank in a zigzag line to nearly the same level which it had held when the ammonia was first administered. By this time the tentacles had re-expanded, and the glands had recovered their proper colour. We thus learn that an old leaf circumnutates on a small scale, at least whilst absorbing carbonate of ammonia; for it is probable that this absorption may stimulate growth and thus re-excite circumnutation. Whether the rising of the glass filament which was attached to the back of the leaf, resulted from its margin becoming slightly inflected (as generally occurs), or from the rising of the petiole, was not ascertained.

In order to learn whether the tentacles or gland-bearing hairs circumnutate, the back of a young leaf, with the innermost tentacles as yet incurved, was firmly cemented with shellac to a flat stick driven into compact damp argillaceous sand. The plant was placed under a microscope with the stage removed and with an eye-piece micrometer, of which each division equalled 1/500 of an inch. It should be stated that as the leaves grow older the tentacles of the exterior rows bend outwards and downwards, so as ultimately to become deflected considerably beneath the horizon. A tentacle in the second row from the margin was selected for observation, and was found to be moving outwards at a rate of 1/500 of an inch in 20 m., or 1/100 of inch in 1 h. 40 m.; but as it likewise moved from side to side to an extent of above 1/500 of inch, the movement was probably one of modified circumnutation. A tentacle on an old leaf was next observed in the same manner. In 15 m. after being placed under the microscope it had moved about 1/1000 of an inch. During the next 7½ h. it was looked at repeatedly, and during this whole time it moved only another 1/1000 of an inch; and this small movement may have been due to the settling of the damp sand (on which the plant rested), though the sand had been firmly pressed down. We may therefore conclude that the tentacles when old do not circumnutate; yet this tentacle was so sensitive, that in 23 seconds after its gland had been merely touched with a bit of raw meat, it began to curl inwards. This fact is of some importance, as it apparently shows that the inflection of the tentacles from the stimulus of absorbed animal matter (and no doubt from that of contact with any object) is not due to modified circumnutation.

(15.) Dionoea muscipula (Droseraceae).—It should be premised that the leaves at an early stage of their development have the two lobes pressed closely together. These are at first directed back towards the centre of the plant; but they gradually rise up and soon stand at right angles to the petiole, and ultimately in nearly a straight line with it. A young leaf, which with the petiole was only 1.2 inch in length, had a filament fixed externally along the midrib of the still closed lobes, which projected at right angles to the petiole. In the evening this leaf completed an ellipse in the course of 2 h. On the following day (Sept. 25th) its movements were traced during 22 h.; and we see in Fig. 106 that it moved in the same general direction, due to the straightening of the leaf, but in an extremely zigzag line. This line represents several drawn-out or modified ellipses. There can therefore be no doubt that this young leaf circumnutated.

Fig. 106. Dionaea muscipula: circumnutation of a young and expanding leaf, traced on a horizontal glass in darkness, from noon Sept. 24th to 10 A.M. 25th. Apex of leaf 13½ inches from the glass, so tracing considerably magnified.

A rather old, horizontally extended leaf, with a filament attached along the under side of the midrib, was next observed during 7 h. It hardly moved, but when one of its sensitive hairs was touched, the blades closed, though not very quickly. A new dot was now made on the glass, but in the course of 14 h. 20 m. there was hardly any change in the position of the filament. We may therefore infer that an old and only moderately sensitive leaf does not circumnutate plainly; but we shall soon see that it by no means follows that such a leaf is absolutely motionless. We may further infer that the stimulus from a touch does not re-excite plain circumnutation.

Another full-grown leaf had a filament attached externally along one side of the midrib and parallel to it, so that the filament would move if the lobes closed. It should be first stated that, although a touch on one of the sensitive hairs of a vigorous leaf causes it to close quickly, often almost instantly, yet when a bit of damp meat or some solution of carbonate of ammonia is placed on the lobes, they close so slowly that generally 24 h. is required for the completion of the act. The above leaf was first observed for 2 h. 30 m., and did not circumnutate, but it ought to have been observed for a longer period; although, as we have seen, a young leaf completed a fairly large ellipse in 2 h. A drop of an infusion of raw meat was then placed on the leaf, and within 2 h. the glass filament rose a little; and this implies that the lobes had begun to close, and perhaps the petiole to rise. It continued to rise with extreme slowness for the next 8 h. 30 m. The position of the pot was then (7.15 P.M., Sept. 24th) slightly changed and an additional drop of the infusion given, and a new tracing was begun (Fig. 107). By 10.50 P.M. the filament had risen only a little more, and it fell during the night. On the following morning the lobes were closing more quickly, and by 5 P.M. it was evident to the eye that they had closed considerably; by 8.48. P.M. this was still plainer, and by 10.45 P.M. the marginal spikes were interlocked. The leaf fell a little during the night, and next morning (25th) at 7 A.M. the lobes were completely shut. The course pursued, as may be seen in the figure, was strongly zigzag, and this indicates that the closing of the lobes was combined with the circumnutation of the whole leaf; and there cannot be much doubt, considering how motionless the leaf was during 2 h. 30 m. before it received the infusion, that the absorption of the animal matter had excited it to circumnutate. The leaf was occasionally observed for the next four days, but was kept in rather too cool a place; nevertheless, it continued to circumnutate to a small extent, and the lobes remained closed.

Fig. 107. Dionoea muscipula: closure of the lobes and circumnutation of a full-grown leaf, whilst absorbing an infusion of raw meat, traced in darkness, from 7.15 P.M. Sept. 24th to 9 A.M. 26th. Apex of leaf 8½ inches from the vertical glass. Figure here reduced to two-thirds of original scale.

It is sometimes stated in botanical works that the lobes close or sleep at night; but this is an error. To test the statement, very long glass filaments were fixed inside the two lobes of three leaves, and the distances between their tips were measured in the middle of the day and at night; but no difference could be detected.

The previous observations relate to the movements of the whole leaf, but the lobes move independently of the petiole, and seem to be continually opening and shutting to a very small extent. A nearly full-grown leaf (afterwards proved to be highly sensitive to contact) stood almost horizontally, so that by driving a long thin pin through the foliaceous petiole close to the blade, it was rendered motionless. The plant, with a little triangle of paper attached to one of the marginal spikes, was placed under a microscope with an eye-piece micrometer, each division of which equalled 1/500 of an inch. The apex of the paper-triangle was now seen to be in constant slight movement; for in 4 h. it crossed nine divisions, or 9/500 of an inch, and after ten additional hours it moved back and had crossed 5/500 in an opposite direction. The plant was kept in rather too cool a place, and on the following day it moved rather less, namely, 1/500 in 3 h., and 2/500 in an opposite direction during the next 6 h. The two lobes, therefore, seem to be constantly closing or opening, though to a very small distance; for we must remember that the little triangle of paper affixed to the marginal spike increased its length, and thus exaggerated somewhat the movement. Similar observations, with the important difference that the petiole was left free and the plant kept under a high temperature, were made on a leaf, which was healthy, but so old that it did not close when its sensitive hairs were repeatedly touched, though judging from other cases it would have slowly closed if it had been stimulated by animal matter. The apex of the triangle was in almost, though not quite, constant movement, sometimes in one direction and sometimes in an opposite one; and it thrice crossed five divisions of the micrometer (i.e. 1/100 of an inch) in 30 m. This movement on so small a scale is hardly comparable with ordinary circumnutation; but it may perhaps be compared with the zigzag lines and little loops, by which the larger ellipses made by other plants are often interrupted.

In the first chapter of this volume, the remarkable oscillatory movements of the circumnutating hypocotyl of the cabbage have been described. The leaves of Dionaea present the same phenomenon, which is a wonderful one, as viewed under a low power (2-inch object-glass), with an eye-piece micrometer of which each division (1/500 of an inch) appeared as a rather wide space. The young unexpanded leaf, of which the circumnutating movements were traced (Fig. 106), had a glass filament fixed perpendicularly to it; and the movement of the apex was observed in the hot-house (temp. 84° to 86° F.), with light admitted only from above, and with any lateral currents of air excluded. The apex sometimes crossed one or two divisions of the micrometer at an imperceptibly slow rate, but generally it moved onwards by rapid starts or jerks of 2/1000 or 3/1000, and in one instance of 4/1000 of an inch. After each jerk forwards, the apex drew itself backwards with comparative slowness for part of the distance which had just been gained; and then after a very short time made another jerk forwards. Four conspicuous jerks forwards, with slower retreats, were seen on one occasion to occur in exactly one minute, besides some minor oscillations. As far as we could judge, the advancing and retreating lines did not coincide, and if so, extremely minute ellipses were each time described. Sometimes the apex remained quite motionless for a short period. Its general course during the several hours of observation was in two opposite directions, so that the leaf was probably circumnutating.

An older leaf with the lobes fully expanded, and which was afterwards proved to be highly sensitive to contact, was next observed in a similar manner, except that the plant was exposed to a lower temperature in a room. The apex oscillated forwards and backwards in the same manner as before; but the jerks forward were less in extent, viz. about 1/1000 inch; and there were longer motionless periods. As it appeared possible that the movements might be due to currents of air, a wax taper was held close to the leaf during one of the motionless periods, but no oscillations were thus caused. After 10 m., however, vigorous oscillations commenced, perhaps owing to the plant having been warmed and thus stimulated. The candle was then removed and before long the oscillations ceased; nevertheless, when looked at again after an interval of 1 h. 30 m., it was again oscillating. The plant was taken back into the hot-house, and on the following morning was seen to be oscillating, though not very vigorously. Another old but healthy leaf, which was not in the least sensitive to a touch, was likewise observed during two days in the hot-house, and the attached filament made many little jerks forwards of about 2/1000 or only 1/1000 of an inch.

Finally, to ascertain whether the lobes independently of the petiole oscillated, the petiole of an old leaf was cemented close to the blade with shellac to the top of a little stick driven into the soil. But before this was done the leaf was observed, and found to be vigorously oscillating or jerking; and after it had been cemented to the stick, the oscillations of about 2/1000 of an inch still continued. On the following day a little infusion of raw meat was placed on the leaf, which caused the lobes to close together very slowly in the course of two days; and the oscillations continued during this whole time and for the next two days. After nine additional days the leaf began to open and the margins were a little everted, and now the apex of the glass filament remained for long periods motionless, and then moved backwards and forwards for a distance of about 1/1000 of an inch slowly, without any jerks. Nevertheless, after warming the leaf with a taper held close to it, the jerking movement recommenced.

This same leaf had been observed 2½ months previously, and was then found to be oscillating or jerking. We may therefore infer that this kind of movement goes on night and day for a very long period; and it is common to young unexpanded leaves and to leaves so old as to have lost their sensitiveness to a touch, but which were still capable of absorbing nitrogenous matter. The phenomenon when well displayed, as in the young leaf just described, is a very interesting one. It often brought before our minds the idea of effort, or of a small animal struggling to escape from some constraint.

(16.) Eucalyptus resinifera (Myrtaceae, Fam. 94).—A young leaf, two inches in length together with the petiole, produced by a lateral shoot from a cut-down tree, was observed in the usual manner. The blade had not as yet assumed its vertical position. On June 7th only a few observations were made, and the tracing merely showed that the leaf had moved three times upwards and three downwards. On the following day it was observed more frequently; and two tracings were made (see A and B, Fig. 108), as a single one would have been too complicated. The apex changed its course 13 times in the course of 16 h., chiefly up and down, but with some lateral movement. The actual amount of movement in any one direction was small.

Fig. 108. Eucalyptus resinifera: circumnutation of a leaf, traced, A, from 6.40 A.M. to 1 P.M. June 8th; B, from 1 P.M. 8th to 8.30 A.M. 9th. Apex of leaf 14½ inches from the horizontal glass, so figures considerably magnified.

(17.) Dahlia (garden var.) (Compositæ, Fam. 122).—A fine young leaf 5 3/4 inches in length, produced by a young plant 2 feet high, growing vigorously in a large pot, was directed at an angle of about 45° beneath the horizon. On June 18th the leaf descended from 10 A.M. till 11.35 A.M. (see Fig. 109); it then ascended greatly till 6 P.M., this ascent being probably due to the light coming only from above. It zigzagged between 6 P.M. and 10.35 P.M., and ascended a little during the night. It should be remarked that the vertical distances in the lower part of the diagram are much exaggerated, as the leaf was at first deflected beneath the horizon, and after it had sunk downwards, the filament pointed in a very oblique line towards the glass. Next day the leaf descended from 8.20 A.M. till 7.15 P.M., then zigzagged and ascended greatly during the night. On the morning of the 20th the leaf was probably beginning to descend, though the short line in the diagram is horizontal. The actual distances travelled by the apex of the leaf were considerable, but could not be calculated with safety. From the course pursued on the second day, when the plant had accommodated itself to the light from above, there cannot be much doubt that the leaves undergo a daily periodic movement, sinking during the day and rising at night.

Fig. 109. Dahlia: circumnutation of leaf, traced from 10 A.M. June 18th to 8.10 A.M. 20th, but with a break of 1 h. 40 m. on the morning of the 19th, as, owing to the glass filament pointing too much to one side, the pot had to be slightly moved; therefore the relative position of the two tracings is somewhat arbitrary. The figure here given is reduced to one-fifth of the original scale. Apex of leaf 9 inches from the glass in the line of its inclination, and 4 3/4 in a horizontal line.

(18.) Mutisia clematis (Compositæ).—The leaves terminate in tendrils and circumnutate like those of other tendril-bearers; but this plant is here mentioned, on account of an erroneous statement[11] which has been published, namely, that the leaves sink at night and rise during the day. The leaves which behaved in this manner had been kept for some days in a northern room and had not been sufficiently illuminated. A plant therefore was left undisturbed in the hot-house, and three leaves had their angles measured at noon and at 10 P.M. All three were inclined a little beneath the horizon at noon, but one stood at night 2°, the second 21°, and the third 10° higher than in the middle of the day; so that instead of sinking they rise a little at night.

[11] ‘The Movements and Habits of Climbing Plants,’ 1875, p. 118.

(19.) Cyclamen Persicum (Primulaceae, Fam. 135).—A young leaf, 1.8 of an inch in length, petiole included, produced by an old root-stock, was observed during three days in the usual manner (Fig. 110). On the first day the leaf fell more than afterwards, apparently from adjusting itself to the light from above. On all three days it fell from the early morning to about 7 P.M., and from that hour rose during the night, the course being slightly zigzag. The movement therefore is strictly periodic. It should be noted that the leaf would have sunk each evening a little lower down than it did, had not the glass filament rested between 5 and 6 P.M. on the rim of the pot. The amount of movement was considerable; for if we assume that the whole leaf to the base of the petiole became bent, the tracing would be magnified rather less than five times, and this would give to the apex a rise and fall of half an inch, with some lateral movement. This amount, however, would not attract attention without the aid of a tracing or measurement of some kind.

(20.) Allamanda Schottii (Apocyneae, Fam. 144).—The young leaves of this shrub are elongated, with the blade bowed so much downwards as almost to form a semicircle. The chord—that is, a line drawn from the apex of the blade to the base of the petiole—of a young leaf, 4 3/4 inches in length, stood at 2.50 P.M. on Dec. 5th at an angle of 13° beneath the horizon, but by 9.30 P.M. the blade had straightened itself so much, which implies the raising of the apex, that the chord now stood at 37° above the horizon, and had therefore risen 50°. On the next day similar angular measurements of the same leaf were made; and at noon the chord stood 36° beneath the horizon, and 9.30 P.M. 3½° above it, so had risen 39½°. The chief cause of the rising movement lies in the straightening of the blade, but the short petiole rises between 4° and 5°. On the third night the chord stood at 35° above the horizon, and if the leaf occupied the same position at noon, as on the previous day, it had risen 71°. With older leaves no such change of curvature could be detected. The plant was then brought into the house and kept in a north-east room, but at night there was no change in the curvature of the young leaves; so that previous exposure to a strong light is apparently requisite for the periodical change of curvature in the blade, and for the slight rising of the petiole.

Fig. 110. Cyclamen Persicum: circumnutation of leaf, traced from 6.45 A.M. June 2nd to 6.40 A.M. 5th. Apex of leaf 7 inches from the vertical glass.

(21.) Wigandia (Hydroleaceae, Fam. 149).—Professor Pfeffer informs us that the leaves of this plant rise in the evening; but as we do not know whether or not the rising is great, this species ought perhaps to be classed amongst sleeping plants.

Fig. 111. Petunia violacea: downward movement and circumnutation of a very young leaf, traced from 10 A.M. June 2nd to 9.20 A.M. June 6th. N.B.—At 6.40 A.M. on the 5th it was necessary to move the pot a little, and a new tracing was begun at the point where two dots are not joined in the diagram. Apex of leaf 7 inches from the vertical glass. Temp. generally 17½° C.

(22.) Petunia violacea (Solaneae, Fam. 157).—A very young leaf, only 3/4 inch in length, highly inclined upwards, was observed for four days. During the whole of this time it bent outwards and downwards, so as to become more and more nearly horizontal. The strongly marked zigzag line in the figure on p. 248 (Fig. 111), shows that this was effected by modified circumnutation; and during the latter part of the time there was much ordinary circumnutation on a small scale. The movement in the diagram is magnified between 10 and 11 times. It exhibits a clear trace of periodicity, as the leaf rose a little each evening; but this upward tendency appeared to be almost conquered by the leaf striving to become more and more horizontal as it grew older. The angles which two older leaves formed together, were measured in the evening and about noon on 3 successive days, and each night the angle decreased a little, though irregularly.

Fig. 112. Acanthus mollis: circumnutation of young leaf, traced from 9.20 A.M. June 14th to 8.30 A.M. 16th. Apex of leaf 11 inches from the vertical glass, so movement considerably magnified. Figure here reduced to one-half of original scale. Temp. 15°–16½° C.

(23.) Acanthus mollis (Acanthaceae, Fam. 168).—The younger of two leaves, 2 1/4 inches in length, petiole included, produced by a seedling plant, was observed during 47 h. Early on each of the three mornings, the apex of the leaf fell; and it continued to fall till 3 P.M., on the two afternoons when observed. After 3 P.M. it rose considerably, and continued to rise on the second night until the early morning. But on the first night it fell instead of rising, and we have little doubt that this was owing to the leaf being very young and becoming through epinastic growth more and more horizontal; for it may be seen in the diagram (Fig. 112), that the leaf stood on a higher level on the first than on the second day. The leaves of an allied species (‘A. spinosus’) certainly rose every night; and the rise between noon and 10.15 P.M., when measured on one occasion, was 10°. This rise was chiefly or exclusively due to the straightening of the blade, and not to the movement of the petiole. We may therefore conclude that the leaves of Acanthus circumnutate periodically, falling in the morning and rising in the afternoon and night.

(24.) Cannabis sativa (Cannabineae, Fam. 195).—We have here the rare case of leaves moving downwards in the evening, but not to a sufficient degree to be called sleep.[12] In the early morning, or in the latter part of the night, they move upwards. For instance, all the young leaves near the summits of several stems stood almost horizontally at 8 A.M. May 29th and at 10.30 P.M. were considerably declined. On a subsequent day two leaves stood at 2 P.M. at 21° and 12° beneath the horizon, and at 10 P.M. at 38° beneath it. Two other leaves on a younger plant were horizontal at 2 P.M., and at 10 P.M. had sunk to 36° beneath the horizon. With respect to this downward movement of the leaves, Kraus believes that it is due to their epinastic growth. He adds, that the leaves are relaxed during the day, and tense at night, both in sunny and rainy weather.

[12] We were led to observe this plant by Dr. Carl Kraus’ paper, ‘Beiträge zur Kentniss der Bewegungen Wachsender Laubblätter,’ Flora, 1879, p. 66. We regret that we cannot fully understand parts of this paper.

(25.) Pinus pinaster (Coniferæ, Fam. 223).—The leaves on the summits of the terminal shoots stand at first in a bundle almost upright, but they soon diverge and ultimately become almost horizontal. The movements of a young leaf, nearly one inch in length, on the summit of a seedling plant only 3 inches high, were traced from the early morning of June 2nd to the evening of the 7th. During these five days the leaf diverged, and its apex descended at first in an almost straight line; but during the two latter days it zigzagged so much that it was evidently circumnutating. The same little plant, when grown to a height of 5 inches, was again observed during four days. A filament was fixed transversely to the apex of a leaf, one inch in length, and which had already diverged considerably from its originally upright position. It continued to diverge (see A, Fig. 113), and to descend from 11.45 A.M. July 31st to 6.40 A.M. Aug. 1st. On August 1st it circumnutated about the same small space, and again descended at night. Next morning the pot was moved nearly one inch to the right, and a new tracing was begun (B). From this time, viz., 7 A.M. August 2nd to 8.20 A.M. on the 4th, the leaf manifestly circumnutated. It does not appear from the diagram that the leaves move periodically, for the descending course during the first two nights, was clearly due to epinastic growth, and at the close of our observations the leaf was not nearly so horizontal as it would ultimately become.

Fig. 113. Pinus pinaster: circumnutation of young leaf, traced from 11.45 A.M. July 31st to 8.20 A.M. Aug. 4th. At 7 A.M. Aug. 2nd the pot was moved an inch to one side, so that the tracing consists of two figures. Apex of leaf 14½ inches from the vertical glass, so movements much magnified.

Pinus austriaca.—Two leaves, 3 inches in length, but not quite fully grown, produced by a lateral shoot, on a young tree 3 feet in height, were observed during 29 h. (July 31st), in the same manner as the leaves of the previous species. Both these leaves certainly circumnutated, making within the above period two, or two and a half, small, irregular ellipses.

(26.) Cycas pectinata (Cycadeæ, Fam. 224).—A young leaf, 11½ inches in length, of which the leaflets had only recently become uncurled, was observed during 47 h. 30 m. The main petiole was secured to a stick at the base of the two terminal leaflets. To one of the latter, 3 3/4 inches in length, a filament was fixed; the leaflet was much bowed downward, but as the terminal part was upturned, the filament projected almost horizontally. The leaflet moved (see Fig. 114) largely and periodically, for it fell until about 7 P.M. and rose during the night, falling again next morning after 6.40 A.M. The descending lines are in a marked manner zigzag, and so probably would have been the ascending lines, if they had been traced throughout the night.

Fig. 114. Cycas pectinata: circumnutation of one of the terminal leaflets, traced from 8.30 A.M. June 22nd to 8 A.M. June 24th. Apex of leaflet 7 3/4 inches from the vertical glass, so tracing not greatly magnified, and here reduced to one-third of original scale; temp. 19°–21° C.

CIRCUMNUTATION OF LEAVES: MONOCOTYLEDONS.

(27.) Canna Warscewiczii (Cannaceae, Fam. 2).—The movements of a young leaf, 8 inches in length and 3½ in breadth, produced by a vigorous young plant, were observed during 45 h. 50 m., as shown in Fig. 115. The pot was slided about an inch to the right on the morning of the 11th, as a single figure would have been too complicated; but the two figures are continuous in time. The movement is periodical, as the leaf descended from the early morning until about 5 P.M., and ascended during the rest of the evening and part of the night. On the evening of the 11th it circumnutated on a small scale for some time about the same spot.

Fig. 115. Canna Warscewiczii: circumnutation of leaf, traced (A) from 11.30 A.M. June 10th to 6.40 A.M. 11th; and (B) from 6.40 A.M. 11th to 8.40 A.M. 12th. Apex of leaf 9 inches from the vertical glass.

(28.) Iris pseudo-acorus (Irideae, Fam. 10).—The movements of a young leaf, rising 13 inches above the water in which the plant grew, were traced as shown in the figure (Fig. 116), during 27 h. 30 m. It manifestly circumnutated, though only to a small extent. On the second morning, between 6.40 A.M. and 2 P.M. (at which latter hour the figure here given ends), the apex changed its course five times. During the next 8 h. 40 m. it zigzagged much, and descended as far as the lowest dot in the figure, making in its course two very small ellipses; but if these lines had been added to the diagram it would have been too complex.

Fig. 116. Iris pseudo-acorus: circumnutation of leaf, traced from 10.30 A.M. May 28th to 2 P.M. 29th. Tracing continued to 11 P.M., but not here copied. Apex of leaf 12 inches beneath the horizontal glass, so figure considerably magnified. Temp. 15°–16° C.

(29.) Crinum Capense (Amaryllideae, Fam. 11).—The leaves of this plant are remarkable for their great length and narrowness: one was measured and found to be 53 inches long and only 1.4 broad at the base. Whilst quite young they stand up almost vertically to the height of about a foot; afterwards their tips begin to bend over, and subsequently hang vertically down, and thus continue to grow. A rather young leaf was selected, of which the dependent tapering point was as yet only 5½ inches in length, the upright basal part being 20 inches high, though this part would ultimately become shorter by being more bent over. A large bell-glass was placed over the plant, with a black dot on one side; and by bringing the dependent apex of the leaf into a line with this dot, the accompanying figure (Fig. 117) was traced on the other side of the bell, during 2½ days. During the first day (22nd) the tip travelled laterally far to the left, perhaps in consequence of the plant having been disturbed; and the last dot made at 10.30 P.M. on this day is alone here given. As we see in the figure, there can be no doubt that the apex of this leaf circumnutated.

Fig. 117. Crinum Capense: circumnutation of dependent tip of young leaf, traced on a bell-glass, from 10.30 P.M. May 22nd to 10.15 A.M. 25th. Figure not greatly magnified.

A glass filament with little triangles of paper was at the same time fixed obliquely across the tip of a still younger leaf, which stood vertically up and was as yet straight. Its movements were traced from 3 P.M. May 22nd to 10.15 A.M. 25th. The leaf was growing rapidly, so that the apex ascended greatly during this period; as it zigzagged much it was clearly circumnutating, and it apparently tended to form one ellipse each day. The lines traced during the night were much more vertical than those traced during the day; and this indicates that the tracing would have exhibited a nocturnal rise and a diurnal fall, if the leaf had not grown so quickly. The movement of this same leaf after an interval of six days (May 31st), by which time the tip had curved outwards into a horizontal position, and had thus made the first step towards becoming dependent, was traced orthogonically by the aid of a cube of wood (in the manner before explained); and it was thus ascertained that the actual distance travelled by the apex, and due to circumnutation, was 3 1/8 inches in the course of 20½ h. During the next 24 h. it travelled 2½ inches. The circumnutating movement, therefore, of this young leaf was strongly marked.

(30.) Pancratium littorale (Amaryllideae).—The movements, much magnified, of a leaf, 9 inches in length and inclined at about 45° above the horizon, were traced during two days. On the first day it changed its course completely, upwards and downwards and laterally, 9 times in 12 h.; and the figure traced apparently represented five ellipses. On the second day it was observed seldomer, and was therefore not seen to change its course so often, viz., only 6 times, but in the same complex manner as before. The movements were small in extent, but there could be no doubt about the circumnutation of the leaf.

(31.) Imatophyllum vel Clivia (sp.?) (Amaryllideae).—A long glass filament was fixed to a leaf, and the angle formed by it with the horizon was measured occasionally during three successive days. It fell each morning until between 3 and 4 P.M., and rose at night. The smallest angle at any time above the horizon was 48°, and the largest 50°; so that it rose only 2° at night; but as this was observed each day, and as similar observations were nightly made on another leaf on a distinct plant, there can be no doubt that the leaves move periodically, though to a very small extent. The position of the apex when it stood highest was .8 of an inch above its lowest point.

(32.) Pistia stratiotes (Aroideae, Fam. 30).—Hofmeister remarks that the leaves of this floating water-plant are more highly inclined at night than by day.[13] We therefore fastened a fine glass filament to the midrib of a moderately young leaf, and on Sept. 19th measured the angle which it formed with the horizon 14 times between 9 A.M. and 11.50 P.M. The temperature of the hot-house varied during the two days of observation between 18½° and 23½° C. At 9 A.M. the filament stood at 32° above the horizon; at 3.34 P.M. at 10° and at 11.50 P.M. at 55°; these two latter angles being the highest and the lowest observed during the day, showing a difference of 45°. The rising did not become strongly marked until between 5 and 6 P.M. On the next day the leaf stood at only 10° above the horizon at 8.25 A.M., and it remained at about 15° till past 3 P.M.; at 5.40 P.M. it was 23°, and at 9.30 P.M. 58°; so that the rise was more sudden this evening than on the previous one, and the difference in the angle amounted to 48°. The movement is obviously periodical, and as the leaf stood on the first night at 55°, and on the second night at 58° above the horizon, it appeared very steeply inclined. This case, as we shall see in a future chapter, ought perhaps to have been included under the head of sleeping plants.

[13] ‘Die Lehre von der Pflanzenzelle,’ 1867, p. 327.

(33.) Pontederia (sp.?) (from the highlands of St. Catharina, Brazil) (Pontederiaceae, Fam. 46).—A filament was fixed across the apex of a moderately young leaf, 7½ inches in height, and its movements were traced during 42½ h. (see Fig. 118). On the first evening, when the tracing was begun, and during the night, the leaf descended considerably. On the next morning it ascended in a strongly marked zigzag line, and descended again in the evening and during the night. The movement, therefore, seems to be periodic, but some doubt is thrown on this conclusion, because another leaf, 8 inches in height, appearing older and standing more highly inclined, behaved differently. During the first 12 h. it circumnutated over a small space, but during the night and the whole following day it ascended in the same general direction; the ascent being effected by repeated up and down well-pronounced oscillations.

Fig. 118. Pontederia (sp.?): circumnutation of leaf, traced from 4.50 P.M. July 2nd to 10.15 A.M. 4th. Apex of leaf 16½ inches from the vertical glass, so tracing greatly magnified. Temp. about 17° C., and therefore rather too low.

CRYPTOGAMS.

(34.) Nephrodium molle (Filices, Fam. 1).—A filament was fixed near the apex of a young frond of this Fern, 17 inches in height, which was not as yet fully uncurled; and its movements were traced during 24 h. We see in Fig. 119 that it plainly circumnutated. The movement was not greatly magnified as the frond was placed near to the vertical glass, and would probably have been greater and more rapid had the day been warmer. For the plant was brought out of a warm greenhouse and observed under a skylight, where the temperature was between 15° and 16° C. We have seen in Chap. I. that a frond of this Fern, as yet only slightly lobed and with a rachis only .23 inch in height, plainly circumnutated.[14]

[14] Mr. Loomis and Prof. Asa Gray have described (‘Botanical Gazette,’ 1880, pp. 27, 43), an extremely curious case of movement in the fronds, but only in the fruiting fronds, of Asplenium trichomanes. They move almost as rapidly as the little leaflets of Desmodium gyrans, alternately backwards and forwards through from 20 to 40 degrees, in a plane at right angles to that of the frond. The apex of the frond describes “a long and very narrow ellipse,” so that it circumnutates. But the movement differs from ordinary circumnutation as it occurs only when the plant is exposed to the light; even artificial light “is sufficient to excite motion for a few minutes.”

Fig. 119. Nephrodium molle: circumnutation of rachis, traced from 9.15 A.M. May 28th to 9 A.M. 29th. Figure here given two-thirds of original scale.

In the chapter on the Sleep of Plants the conspicuous circumnutation of Marsilea quadrifoliata (Marsileaceae, Fam. 4) will be described.

It has also been shown in Chap. I. that a very young Selaginella (Lycopodiaceæ, Fam. 6), only .4 inch in height, plainly circumnutated; we may therefore conclude that older plants, whilst growing, would do the same.

(35.) Lunularia vulgaris (Hepaticae, Fam. 11, Muscales).—The earth in an old flower-pot was coated with this plant, bearing gemmae. A highly inclined frond, which projected .3 inch above the soil and was .4 inch in breadth, was selected for observation. A glass hair of extreme tenuity, .75 inch in length, with its end whitened, was cemented with shellac to the frond at right angles to its breadth; and a white stick with a minute black spot was driven into the soil close behind the end of the hair. The white end could be accurately brought into a line with the black spot, and dots could thus be successively made on the vertical glass-plate in front. Any movement of the frond would of course be exhibited and increased by the long glass hair; and the black spot was placed so close behind the end of the hair, relatively to the distance of the glass-plate in front, that the movement of the end was magnified about 40 times. Nevertheless, we are convinced that our tracing gives a fairly faithful representation of the movements of the frond. In the intervals between each observation, the plant was covered by a small bell-glass. The frond, as already stated, was highly inclined, and the pot stood in front of a north-east window. During the five first days the frond moved downwards or became less inclined; and the long line which was traced was strongly zigzag, with loops occasionally formed or nearly formed; and this indicated circumnutation. Whether the sinking was due to epinastic growth, or apheliotropism, we do not know. As the sinking was slight on the fifth day, a new tracing was begun on the sixth day (Oct. 25th), and was continued for 47 h.; it is here given (Fig. 120). Another tracing was made on the next day (27th) and the frond was found to be still circumnutating, for during 14 h. 30 m. it changed its course completely (besides minor changes) 10 times. It was casually observed for two more days, and was seen to be continually moving.

Fig. 120. Lunularia vulgaris: circumnutation of a frond, traced from 9 A.M. Oct 25th to 8 A.M. 27th.

The lowest members of the vegetable series, the Thallogens, apparently circumnutate. If an Oscillaria be watched under the microscope, it may be seen to describe circles about every 40 seconds. After it has bent to one side, the tip first begins to bend back to the opposite side and then the whole filament curves over in the same direction. Hofmeister[15] has given a minute account of the curious, but less regular though constant, movements of Spirogyra: during 2½ h. the filament moved 4 times to the left and 3 times to the right, and he refers to a movement at right angles to the above. The tip moved at the rate of about 0.1 mm. in five minutes. He compares the movement with the nutation of the higher plants.[16] We shall hereafter see that heliotropic movements result from modified circumnutation, and as unicellular Moulds bend to the light we may infer that they also circumnutate.

[15] ‘Ueber die Bewegungen der Faden der _Spirogyra princeps:_ Jahreshefte des Vereins für vaterländische Naturkunde in Württemberg,’ 1874, p. 211.

[16] Zukal also remarks (as quoted in ‘Journal R. Microscop. Soc.,’ 1880, vol. iii. p. 320) that the movements of Spirulina, a member of the Oscillatorieae, are closely analogous “to the well-known rotation of growing shoots and tendrils.”

CONCLUDING REMARKS ON THE CIRCUMNUTATION OF LEAVES.

The circumnutating movements of young leaves in 33 genera, belonging to 25 families, widely distributed amongst ordinary and gymnospermous Dicotyledons and amongst Monocotyledons, together with several Cryptogams, have now been described. It would, therefore, not be rash to assume that the growing leaves of all plants circumnutate, as we have seen reason to conclude is the case with cotyledons. The seat of movement generally lies in the petiole, but sometimes both in the petiole and blade, or in the blade alone. The extent of the movement differed much in different plants; but the distance passed over was never great, except with Pistia, which ought perhaps to have been included amongst sleeping plants. The angular movement of the leaves was only occasionally measured; it commonly varied from only 2° (and probably even less in some instances) to about 10°; but it amounted to 23° in the common bean. The movement is chiefly in a vertical plane, but as the ascending and descending lines never coincided, there was always some lateral movement, and thus irregular ellipses were formed. The movement, therefore, deserves to be called one of circumnutation; for all circumnutating organs tend to describe ellipses,—that is, growth on one side is succeeded by growth on nearly but not quite the opposite side. The ellipses, or the zigzag lines representing drawn-out ellipses, are generally very narrow; yet with the Camellia, their minor axes were half as long, and with the Eucalyptus more than half as long as their major axes. In the case of Cissus, parts of the figure more nearly represented circles than ellipses. The amount of lateral movement is therefore sometimes considerable. Moreover, the longer axes of the successively formed ellipses (as with the Bean, Cissus, and Sea-kale), and in several instances the zigzag lines representing ellipses, were extended in very different directions during the same day or on the next day. The course followed was curvilinear or straight, or slightly or strongly zigzag, and little loops or triangles were often formed. A single large irregular ellipse may be described on one day, and two smaller ones by the same plant on the next day. With Drosera two, and with Lupinus, Eucalyptus and Pancratium, several were formed each day.