Chapter XXX: Remarks on Various Questions

There are many problems connected with geology which can only be solved by detailed study of the stratified rocks, and when solved the principles of the science will be more fully elucidated. In the present state of our knowledge some of these problems are ripe for discussion, others can merely be indicated, while others again have probably remained hidden, though it will be the task of the geologist of the future to clear them up. Among the many questions which demand knowledge of stratigraphical geology for their right understanding are the following, which will be briefly considered in this chapter:--the changes in the position of land and sea in past times, and the growth of continents; the replacement of a school of uniformitarianism by one of evolutionism; and the duration of geological time.

_Changes in the position of land and sea._ Certain physicists have arrived at the conclusion that the general position of our oceans and continents was determined at a very early period in the earth's history, and that the changes which have occurred in their position since then have been comparatively insignificant. The wide extent of land over which stratified rocks are distributed at once indicates that from the point of view of the geologist the changes have been very important, and it is worth inquiring whether they are not sufficiently important to prove that the primitive oceans and continents have undergone so much alteration as to be unrecognisable. Some authorities, while recognising the great changes which have occurred in the relative position of land and sea during those periods of which geologists have direct information, suppose that the changes took place to a large degree in certain 'critical areas' bordering the more stable areas of permanent ocean on the one side and permanent land on the other.

In discussing the question of general permanence of land and ocean regions it will be convenient to commence with a study of the present land areas, and at the outset we may take into consideration the present distribution of marine sediment over different parts of the land, using the last edition of M. Jules Marcou's geological map of the world for the purpose[119]. A glimpse at this map indicates that more than half of the land areas are occupied by rocks which are as yet unknown (many of which _may_ be marine sediments), or by crystalline schists of which the mode of origin has not yet been fully explained, so that a large part of Central Asia, the interior of Africa, and of South America may have existed as land from very early times, and the same may be said of smaller portions of Europe and North America. Actual observation of a geological map therefore indicates the possibility that about half of the land surfaces may have existed as such through very long periods, but though there is a possibility of this, the probability is not very great. The unknown regions, as remarked above, may consist to a considerable extent of marine sediments, and the existence of isolated patches of late Palæozoic and of Mesozoic strata in the heart of Central Asia, points to the submergence of much wider regions than those in which these isolated patches have been found. Again, the character of the sediments when they abut against the crystalline schists frequently proves that these sediments once extended further over the crystalline schists, and have since been removed by denudation, so that even if we assume that the crystalline schists are all of very early date, and not necessarily formed in any case from marine sediments, we cannot suppose that all the area occupied by them has existed as land for long periods of time. On the other hand, the major part of Europe and North Africa, extensive tracts in Asia, the greater part of Australia, a very large part of North America and considerable tracts of South America give proofs of having been occupied by the oceans in Palæozoic and later times.

[Footnote 119: A reduced copy of this map will be found opposite the title-page of the first volume of Prof. Prestwich's _Geology_.]

It may be answered that most of these regions containing marine sediments occur in critical areas, which have undergone a certain amount of oscillation owing to earth-movements, and that the interior parts of the great continental masses have been practically stationary. But if these lands had been land-areas through geological ages they must have been acted upon by the agents of subaerial denudation, throughout these ages, and long ago reduced to peneplains[120] unless the action of these subaerial agents was counteracted by that of elevating forces, but if these forces were sufficient to counteract the action of subaerial denudation through countless ages, they were also sufficient to raise extensive tracts of land above sea-level, and materially to alter the distribution of land and sea, and if elevation could go on to this extent, why not also depression?

[Footnote 120: A term proposed by Prof. W. M. Davis for a nearly level surface of subaerial denudation, as opposed to a plain of marine denudation.]

Proceeding a step further, and examining the character of the sediments as well as their geographical distribution, we find further evidence of great crust-movements. It has been urged that deep-water sediments do not occur amongst the strata found on the continents,--that there are no representatives of the abysmal deposits of recent ocean floors amongst the strata of the geological column[121], but the researches of the last two decades have brought to light foraminiferal and radiolarian deposits, pteropodal deposits, and possibly deep-sea clays, which are comparable with those in process of formation at great depths in existing oceans, and though the proofs of their deep-sea origin are not always as full as might be desired in the case of the older rocks[122], we can speak with greater certainty when we examine those of Tertiary age, and if the deep-sea accumulations of this late date can be uplifted above sea-level, this is much more likely to have occurred with those of past times. When a deposit like the radiolarian rock of Barbadoes, the deep-water character of which has been conclusively proved, can be elevated into land since Miocene or possibly Pliocene times, it is evident that the crust-movements have been sufficient to produce the most profound changes in the distribution of land and sea during the long ages which are known to us. Another argument against the occurrence of extensive changes has been derived from an examination of those islands which are spoken of as oceanic islands. Strictly speaking an oceanic island is one in which the present fauna and flora give indications of their introduction by transport across intervening sea, and no indications of the existence of forms of life which inhabited it when it was once united to a continent; it may be inferred with a considerable degree of certainty that these islands have been isolated for long periods of time. It has been stated that these oceanic islands never contain marine sediments of any considerable degree of antiquity, and that there are therefore no traces of former continents over those wide tracts of ocean which are occupied by oceanic islands. The evidence is of a negative character. The islands would be less likely to exhibit ancient sediments than continents, for being near the ocean, they would be readily submerged, and the older deposits masked by newer ones, though this need not necessarily account for the entire absence of ancient rocks amongst them. The danger of the argument lies in the fact that we do not yet know how far these old rocks really are absent, as the geology of the oceanic isles has not been fully explored from this point of view, and already several cases of the asserted presence of ancient rocks on these islands have been recorded.

[Footnote 121: See Mr A. R. Wallace's _Island Life_.]

[Footnote 122: See chapter IX.]

The argument derived from the present distribution of organisms is far too complex to be discussed here, and the student is recommended to read a masterly review of the evidence in Dr W. T. Blanford's Presidential Address to the Geological Society in 1890, on the question of the Permanence of Ocean Basins[123]. After reviewing the evidence furnished by a study of modern distribution he concludes that it "is far too contradictory to be received as proof of the permanence of oceans and continents."

[Footnote 123: _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._, vol. XLVI., _Proc._, p. 59.]

The existence of former extensive land tracts over regions now occupied by sea is naturally more difficult to prove than that of sea over land, as we depend upon inference rather than actual observation to a much greater degree than when considering the permanence of continents, nevertheless a considerable amount of indirect evidence in favour of the existence of widespread land tracts over our present ocean regions has been accumulated and will be briefly noticed. We may take first the evidence derived from the nature of sediments, and afterwards that which has been acquired by studying distribution of organisms in past times.

The indications of existence of an extensive tract of continent over the North Atlantic Ocean, during Palæozoic times have already been considered, and it was seen that the thinning out of the Palæozoic sediments when traced away from the present Atlantic borders in an easterly direction over Europe and in a westerly one over North America pointed to the existence of this Palæozoic 'Atlantis,' as maintained by Prof. Hull in his work, "Contributions to the Physical History of the British Isles." This writer gives some reasons for supposing that the continental mass began to break up towards the end of Palæozoic times, though it is not clear that complete replacement of land by sea occurred, and the nature of the Wealden deposits has been pointed to as evidence of the existence of an extensive tract of land to the west of Britain during the Cretaceous period.

The Palæontological evidence in favour of destruction of ancient continental areas and their replacement by the sea is more satisfactory than that which is based on physical grounds. The distribution of the Glossopteris flora of the Permo-Carboniferous period points to the former existence of a great southern continent, including the sites of Australia, India, South Africa and South America,--the Gondwanaland of Prof. E. Suess[124].

[Footnote 124: On this question and that of the other destroyed continental areas noted here, see W. T. Blanford's _Presidential Address_, _loc. cit._]

Again, a study of Jurassic and Cretaceous faunas has led palæontologists to conclude that there was a connexion betwixt S. Africa and India in Mesozoic times across a portion of the area now occupied by the Indian Ocean, and also between S. Africa and S. America, and these inferences are supported by study of the distribution of existing forms.

The sudden appearance of the Dicotyledonous Angiosperms in Upper Cretaceous rocks has also been used as evidence of destruction of considerable tracts of land subsequently to Upper Cretaceous times, and there is a certain amount of evidence in favour of the existence of this land in the north polar region, in an area now largely occupied by water, though relics of it are left, as the Faroe Isles, Spitsbergen, Novaya Zembla and Franz Josef Land.

I cannot conclude the consideration of the question of permanence of oceans and continents more fitly than by quoting from Dr Blanford's address. He says, "There is no evidence whatever in favour of the extreme view accepted by some physicists and geologists that every ocean-bed now more than 1000 fathoms deep has always been ocean, and that no part of the continental area has ever been beneath the deep sea. Not only is there clear proof that some land-areas lying within continental limits have at a comparatively recent date been submerged over 1000 fathoms, whilst sea-bottoms now over 1000 fathoms deep must have been land in part of the Tertiary era, but there are a mass of facts both geological and biological in favour of land-connexion having formerly existed in certain cases across what are now broad and deep ocean[125]."

[Footnote 125: _Loc. cit._, _Proc._ p. 107.]

_Growth of continents._ Whatever view as to the general permanence of continents and oceans be ultimately established, the occurrence of widespread changes in the position of land and sea is indisputable, and it is of interest for us to consider the nature of these changes in the formation of continents. Prof. J. D. Dana has put forward a hypothesis of growth of continents by a process of accretion, causing diminution in the oceanic areas, which at the same time became deeper: such growth need not always take place in exactly the same way, and study of the distribution of the strata of the North American continent suggests that the growth there was endogenous, the older rocks lying to the west and north forming a horseshoe shaped continent enclosing a gulf-like prolongation of the Atlantic, which became contracted by deposition and uplift in successive geological periods, though it is still partly existent as the Gulf of Mexico. The Eurasian continent, especially its western portion, suggests more irregular growth around scattered nuclei of older rocks, though the process is not completed, and many gulf-like prolongations, as the Baltic and the Mediterranean, still remain as water-tracts, which have not yet been added to the continents.

Although extensive additions to continents may be and no doubt are often largely due to epeirogenic movements, the influence of orogenic movements on continent-formation is very pronounced. As the result of orogenic movements, the rocks of portions of the earth's crust become greatly compressed, and give rise to masses which readily resist denudation; moreover, these comparatively rigid masses, as shown by M. Bertrand, tend to undergo elevation along the same lines as those which formed the axes of previous elevations, and accordingly after a continental area has undergone denudation for a considerable period, the uplands consist of rocks which have undergone orogenic disturbance, while the tracts of ground which are occupied by rocks which have not suffered disturbances of this character, even if originally uplifted far above sea-level, tend to be destroyed, and ultimately occupied by tracts of ocean. Stumps of former mountain chains may be again and again established as nuclei of continents and as every period of orogenic movement will add to the number of these nuclei, the continental areas must in course of time become more complex in structure. Moreover, as some areas are affected by orogenic movements to a greater extent than others, the complexity of different continental masses will vary. Thus, western Europe has been affected by orogenic movements during many periods since the commencement of Cambrian times and its structure is extremely complex, while the central and western parts of Russia have not been subjected to violent orogenic disturbances since Cambrian times, and accordingly we find the structure of that area comparatively simple; the greater part of Africa seems to have escaped these movements since remote times, and the structure of that continent is extremely simple when compared with the Eurasian continental tract. It need hardly be stated that the formation of extensive chains composed of volcanic material, by accumulation of lavas and ashes on the earth's surface, may give and often has given rise to more rigid tracts, which will bring about the same effects as those produced by orogenic disturbance as illustrated on a small scale by the Lower Palæozoic volcanic rocks of Cambria and Cumbria.

_Uniformitarianism and Evolution._ According to the extreme uniformitarian views held by some geologists, the agents which are in operation at the present day are similar in kind and in intensity to those which were at work in past times, though no geologist will be found who is sufficiently bold to assert that this holds true for all periods of the earth's history, but only for those of which the geologist has direct information derived from a study of the rocks, and he is content to follow his master Hutton in ignoring periods of which he cannot find records amongst the rocks. The modern geologist, however, while rightly regarding the rocks as his principal source of information finds that he cannot afford to ignore the evidence furnished by the physicist, chemist, astronomer and biologist, which throws light upon the history of periods far earlier than those of which he has any records preserved amongst the outer portions of the earth itself, just as the modern historian is not content with written records, but must turn to the 'prehistoric' archæologist and geologist for information concerning the history of early man upon the earth. Interpreting the scope of geology in this general way, rigid uniformitarianism must be abandoned. Assuming that the tenets of the evolutionist school are generally true, the question is, how far does this affect the geologist in his study of those periods of which we have definite records amongst the rocks? This is a question which cannot readily be answered at the present day, for our study of the rocks is not sufficiently far advanced to enable us to point out effects amongst the older rocks which were clearly caused by agents working with greater intensity than they do at present, but as, on the other hand, we cannot prove that these effects are due to agents working with no greater intensity than that which now marks these operations, it is unphilosophical to assume the latter. No student of science at the present day would state that because there has been no observed case of incoming of fresh species within the time that man has actually observed the present faunas and floras, the hypothesis of evolution of organisms is disproved, for the time of observation has been too short, and similarly the time which has elapsed since the formation of, say, the Cambrian rocks may have been too short, as compared with the time which has elapsed since the formation of the earth, to allow of any important change in the operation of the geological agents.

Leaving out of account, for the moment, the actual evidence which has been derived from a study of the rocks, we may briefly consider the theoretical grounds upon which the substitution of an evolutionist school of geology for one of uniformity has been suggested[126]. The principal sources of energy which have exerted an influence upon geological changes are the heat received from the sun and that given off from the earth itself, both of which must have diminished in quantity throughout geological ages. To the former source we largely owe climatic changes and the operations of denudation, and accordingly of deposition; to the latter, those of earth-movement and vulcanicity. It by no means follows that because the agents were once potentially more powerful than now, they would necessarily produce greater effects, for that depends to some extent upon the various conditions which prevailed at different times. To give an example:--if there had at any time been a universal ocean of considerable depth, however active the agents of denudation were then, they could produce no effect whatever, having nothing to work upon; to take a less extreme case, if our continents at any past time were smaller and less elevated than at present, agents of denudation working with greater intensity than that of the present agents need not necessarily have produced a greater amount of denudation than that which is going on at the present day. Again, let us consider vulcanicity: "It is as certain," says Lord Kelvin, "that there is less volcanic energy in the whole earth than there was a thousand years ago, as it is that there is less gunpowder in a 'Monitor' after she has been seen to discharge shot and shell, whether at a nearly equable rate or not, for five hours without receiving fresh supplies than there was at the beginning of the action." But it does not follow that the manifestations of volcanic activity were necessarily more violent in early geological times than now, for the degree of violence would be affected by other things than the volcanic energy, such as the thickness of the earth's crust.

[Footnote 126: The student may consult an interesting article by Prof. Sollas bearing on this subject. See _Geol. Mag._ Dec. 2, vol. IV. p. 1.]

And now, let us consider briefly the characters of the rocks of the crust, to see if they throw any light upon this question. The earliest sediments of which we have any certain knowledge resemble in a striking manner those formed at the present day, and they seem to have been formed under very much the same conditions, though further work may show that there were somewhat different conditions which did produce definite differences in the characters of the earlier strata[127]. Our knowledge of earth-movement and vulcanicity which took place in past times is still too small to enable us to draw any certain conclusions connected with the subject under discussion from it. Perhaps the most suggestive indication of one set of conditions having been generally similar in those early periods of which we have definite records amongst the rocks is furnished by study of past climate. If we accept the nebular hypothesis as a starting point, we must admit that in the early stages of the earth's history the temperature of the surface, which would then be largely dependent upon the amount of heat given out from the earth itself as well as upon that received from the sun, must have been much higher than it is at the present day, and indeed the mere diminution of the amount of heat received from the sun would probably be sufficient to account for a very marked lowering of the temperature. Besides this change of temperature, resulting in gradual lowering of temperature over the whole earth's surface, we have other changes dependent upon different conditions, as proved by the fact, that there have been alternations of glacial and genial periods. If the general temperature had been very high in the early periods of which we have actual records, the oscillations would not be sufficient to produce a lowering of temperature sufficient to cause glacial periods, whereas if it had not been appreciably higher than now, glacial periods might be produced. This may be represented diagrammatically.

[Footnote 127: On this matter see Teall, J. J. H., 'Presidential Address to Section C,' _Report of the British Association_, 1893.]

Let _a_ represent the temperature at the commencement of earth-history and _b_ that necessary for glaciation, and _bc_ the lapse of time between then and now. The curved line indicates the gradual fall in temperature due to diminution of the amount of heat, while the zigzag line represents the oscillations due to secular climatic changes. If the Cambrian period x occurred comparatively soon after the commencement of earth-history as shown in fig. _A_, no glaciation could be produced, even during periods when secular changes caused colder conditions than the mean, whereas if the Cambrian period occurred at a time very remote from the commencement of earth-history as shown in _B_, glacial conditions could be produced then as now, for the mean temperature, as shown by the distance of the curve from the line _bc_, would be practically as it now is. The studies of the last few decades have brought into prominence the occurrence of glacial periods in remote times, probably in early Palæozoic times; and as far as the mean temperature of the earth's surface is concerned, it would appear, from the knowledge in our possession, that matters were not very different in those early times from what they now are.

Some further remarks will be made in subsequent paragraphs concerning the period of the earth's history at which the geologist is first furnished with definite records, but in the meantime it may be observed that the geologist will do well, when working amongst the strata, to consider that the more active operation of agents, even in times of which he has definite knowledge, may have produced effects which he should be prepared to discover, as their discovery would be of considerable importance, and that he should not be content to infer that because it has been proved that agents operating with the same intensity as that which they have at present, _may_ have produced all the effects which he can actually observe, they therefore necessarily _did_ produce them.

_Recurrences._ Absolute uniformity of conditions is impossible, even in a single area. Every change which takes place upon the earth produces conditions somewhat dissimilar from those which previously existed, and these will leave their effects upon the physiography of the area. For this reason, assuming that the conditions have gradually changed from simpler to more complex, every period of time will have been marked by conditions which never prevailed before or afterwards, and these will leave their impress upon the deposits of the period. It is doubtful for instance, as already remarked, whether the exact conditions which gave rise to the extensive deposits of vegetable matter in Carboniferous times which now form coal, ever occurred to a like extent in previous or subsequent periods, and accordingly, though we have deposits of coal of other ages, none are so extensive as those of the Coal Measures. Again, as the strata of one period are largely composed of denuded particles of pre-existing strata, which were derived directly or indirectly from igneous rock, the soluble material existing in the igneous rocks must have been gradually eliminated unless restored by other processes, and we might expect to find that early sediments have, on the whole, a larger proportion of soluble silicates than the later ones.

Besides these changes, there are physical changes which are recurrent, and cause conditions generally similar to pre-existing ones to occur in an area after an interval of dissimilar ones. We have seen that deposits tend to vary according to the distance from the coast, limestone being succeeded by mud, this by sand and gravel, and after subsidence the sand and gravel are succeeded by mud, and that by limestone. These changes will produce some effect upon the organisms, and the recurrence of organisms is a well-known event, of which cases have been cited in a former chapter.

Again we find, as already pointed out, recurrence of climatic changes, with alternation of glacial and warmer periods, and these may have been very widespread, and would influence the other physical conditions, as well as the distribution of the organisms. Vulcanicity may have been more rife at some periods than others, for instance there seems, in the present imperfect state of our knowledge, evidence of enfeebled vulcanicity in later Mesozoic times, and of its renewed activity in Tertiary times. Again, orogenic movements seem to have occurred more extensively at some times than others, as for instance in early upper Palæozoic times, at the end of the Palæozoic epoch, and in early Tertiary times, though this may also be an apparent and not an actual truth, due to imperfect knowledge. In any case, in limited areas, there seem to have been alternations of periods of uplift accompanied by marked orogenic movements, and of widespread depression, accompanied by sedimentation.

The subject of rhythmic recurrence is worthy of further study. This recurrence in combination with evolutionary change may account for the apparent marked difference between Cambrian and Precambrian times, a difference which strikes some geologists as being too great to be accounted for as due to our ignorance only.

_Organic evolution._ This subject is too wide for more than passing notice in a work of this character. The evidence of Palæontology is of extreme importance to the biologist, and indeed, the way in which evolution of organisms has occurred can only be actually demonstrated by reference to Palæontology, and the study of Palæontology has already given much information concerning the lines on which evolution has proceeded in different groups of organisms. It must be remembered that the major divisions of the invertebrata were in existence in very early times; indeed representatives of most of them are found in the rocks containing the earliest known fauna, that of the _Olenellus_ beds of Cambrian age. If our present views as to evolution be correct, there is no doubt that the period which elapsed between the appearance of life upon the globe and the existence of the _Olenellus_ fauna must have been very great, possibly, as Huxley suggested, much greater than that which has elapsed between early Cambrian times and the present day. If this be so, however probable it is that we shall carry our knowledge of ancient faunas far back beyond Cambrian times, it is extremely improbable that we shall ever get traces of the very earliest faunas which occupied our earth.

_Geological time._ Various attempts have been made to give numerical estimates of the lapse of time which occurred since the earth was formed, or since the earliest known rocks were deposited. These attempts may be classed under two heads, namely, those made by physicists, mainly on evidence obtained otherwise than by a study of the rocks, and those made by geologists by calculating the mean rate of denudation and deposition of the rocks, and estimating the average thickness of the rocks of the geological column.

The calculations of physicists as to the age of the earth vary:--Lord Kelvin assigned 20,000,000 years as the minimum and 100,000,000 as the maximum duration of geological time. Prof. Tait has halved Lord Kelvin's minimum period, while Prof. G. Darwin admits the possibility of the lapse of 500,000,000 years.

The estimates made by geologists, which will appeal more directly to the geological student, also vary considerably, though they bear some proportion to those which have been put forward by the physicists. Prof. S. Haughton[128] assigned a period of 200,000,000 years for the accumulation of the rocks of the geological column; Mr Clifton Ward[129] one of 62,000,000 years, after studying the rocks of the English Lake District, and allowing for the gaps in the succession; Mr A. R. Wallace[130] further lowers the time for the formation of the column to 28,000,000 years; Sir A. Geikie[131] gives 73,000,000 years as the minimum and 680,000,000 as the maximum; while Mr J. G. Goodchild has lately[132] estimated the period at over 700,000,000 years.

[Footnote 128: _Nature_, vol. XVIII. p. 268.]

[Footnote 129: Ward, J. C., 'The Physical History of the English Lake District,' _Geol. Mag._ Dec 2, vol. VI. p. 110.]

[Footnote 130: Wallace, A. R., _Island Life_, Chap. X.]

[Footnote 131: Geikie, Sir A., 'Presidential Address to the British Association,' _Report Brit. Assoc._, 1892.]

[Footnote 132: Goodchild, J. G., _Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh_, vol. XIII. p. 259.]

Interesting as these figures are, they probably convey little to the ordinary reader, and it is doubtful whether the geologist is really affected by them to any extent when picturing to himself the vast duration of geological time. One numerical estimate probably does impress him, namely that made by Croll as to the date of the Great Ice Age, for if the Ice Age be so remote as Croll imagined, the commencement of earth-history must be inconceivably more remote; as Croll's estimate is not generally accepted, it is doubtful how far geologists are thus influenced, and probably the fact which does impress them most, leaving fossils out of account, is the very little change which has occurred in historic or even in prehistoric times as compared with the vast changes which are familiar to them after studying the strata of the geological column.

It is, after all, the succession of varied faunas which really gives students of the rocks the most convincing proof of the vast periods of geological time. If anyone doubts this assertion, let him consider what impression would be made upon him by observing the several thousand feet of strata of the column if none of them contained any organisms. Cognisant as he is of the slow rate of change of existing organisms, the fact that fauna has succeeded fauna in past times brings home to him in an unmistakeable manner the great antiquity of the earliest fossiliferous rocks, and as our detailed knowledge of these faunas increases the impression of great lapse of time is intensified. And if the earliest fossiliferous rocks be of such vast antiquity, and, as has been remarked, the period of their formation is comparatively recent with reference to the actual commencement of earth-history, the latter must indeed be inconceivably remote, and numerical estimates can do but little to familiarise us with the significance of the vast time which has rolled by since the world's birthday.

INDEX.

Abraum salts, 212
Æolian rocks, 24, 99, 100
Age, definition of, 60
Albian series, 236, 238
Algonkian rocks, 144
Ampthill clay, 232
Angelin, N. P., 161, 162, 165
Aptian series, 236, 237
Aqueous rocks, 24
Archæan rocks, 132
Ardmillan series, 170
Ardwick stage, 192
Arenaceous rocks, 29
Arvonian rocks, 141
Asaphus fauna, 165
Ashgill series, 164, 165, 167-169
Ashprington series, 184
Astian series, 256
Atlantis, 283
Aveline, W. T., 164
Aymestry limestone, 175, 176

Bagshot beds, 244, 246
Bajocian series, 227, 231
Bala limestone, 167
Bala series, 164
Barr series, 170
Barrande, J., 53, 55, 159, 161, 163
Barrois, C., 239
Barrow, G., 138
Barton beds, 244
Bath oolites, 226
Bathonian series, 227, 231
Bed, 27
Bedding plane, 27
Bell, A., 257
Belt, T., 153, 162
Bembridge beds, 251
Bertrand, M., 87, 286
Birkhill shales, 177
Black Jura, 226
Blake, J. F., 138-140
Blanford, W. T., 206, 208, 217, 282, 284
Bonney, T. G., 76, 141, 142
Boulder clay, 262
Bracklesham beds, 244
Bradford clay, 230
Break, palæontological, 61;
physical, 60
Bristow, H., 239
Brockram, 211
Brögger, W. C., 161-163
Brongniart, H., 18
Brongniart, C., 200
Bronze age, 275-277
Brown Jura, 226
Bunter sandstone, 218, 220-222
Bure valley beds, 256
Buttery clay, 276

Caerfai beds, 152, 154, 156
Calcareous rocks, 29
Caldicote series, 139
Callaway, C., 138-140
Callovian series, 227, 232
Cambrian faunas, 158-163
Cambrian system, 152-163
Caradoc series, 165, 168-171
Carbonaceous rocks, 29
Carboniferous fauna and flora, 199-201
Carboniferous limestone, 192, 194, 195
Carboniferous system, 192-201
Carnic beds, 225
Cataclastic rocks, 24
Cave man, 268
Cenomanian series, 236
Ceratopyge fauna, 162
Chalk, 236, 238, 239
Chalk marl, 236
Chemically-formed rocks, 29, 101
Chillesford crag, 256
Chronological terms, 60
Clastic rocks, 24
Climatic conditions, 103, 112, 290, 291
Climatic zones, in Jurassic times, 233;
in Cretaceous times, 241
Clymenian beds, 183
Coal, 196-199
Coal measures, 192;
mode of formation of, 195-199
Coblenzian beds, 184
Collyweston slate, 231
Colonies, theory of, 55
Contemporaneity of strata, 48
Continents, growth of, 285-287
Cope, E., 249
Corallian series, 227, 232
Coralline crag, 256, 257
Cornbrash, 230
Cornstones, 186
Coutchiching series, 144
Crags, 256-259
Cretaceous fauna and flora, 241-243
Cretaceous system, 236-243
Croll, J., 265, 295, 296
Cromer Forest series, 100, 256, 259
Cromer till, 262
Cucullæa beds, 183
Cuvier, Baron G., 18, 20

Dalradian rocks, 137
Dana, J. D., 285
Danian series, 236
Darwin, C., 20, 76
Darwin, G., 295
Daubrée, A., 88
David, T. W. E., 206
Davis, W. M., 258, 280
Dawkins, W. B., 266, 268, 270, 272, 277
Deep-sea deposits, 109
De Hayes, G. P., 19
De la Beche, Sir H., 92
Deposition, order of, 37, 116
Derivative rocks, 23
Devonian flora and fauna, 189-191
Devonian system, 183-191
Dictyograptus fauna, 162
Dimetian rocks, 141
Dogger, 226
Downtonian beds, 175
Dwyka conglomerate, 206

Edwards, F. E., 250
Eifelian beds, 184
Encrinurus fauna, 185
Englacial deposits, 261
Entomis slates, 183
Eocene fauna and flora, 248, 249
Eocene rocks, 244-250
Eozoon canadense, 143
Eparchæan rocks, 132
Epeirogenic movements, 32
Epiclastic rocks, 24;
simulation by cataclastic rocks, 38, 80
Epoch, definition of, 60
Estuarine series, 230
Etheridge, R., 19
Ettingshausen, Baron von, 250
Evans, Sir J., 266, 270, 274, 277
Evolution, 287, 293

Feistmantel, O., 208
Fenland, 276
Fluvio-glacial deposits, 261
Foreland grits, 184
Forest marble, 230
Forest period, 260, 275-277
Fossils, 42;
strata identifiable by, 40;
mode of occurrence of, 44;
relative value of, 47;
remanié, 52;
geographical distribution of, 55;
as indicative of physical conditions, 104
Fossil zone, 67
Foster, C. Le N., 239
Fox, H., 195
Freshwater deposits, 104;
distinction from marine, 105
Fuller's earth, 230
Fusulina beds, 201

Gala beds, 177
Gannister stage, 192
Gardner, J. S., 250
Gault, 236, 238
Geikie, Sir A., 60, 84, 95, 125, 130, 137, 141, 142, 144, 186, 188,
199, 247, 295
Geikie, J., 263
Girvan type, 170
Glacial deposits, permo-carboniferous, 206;
Pleistocene, 260-266
Glacial period, 260-266
Glenkiln shales, 169, 170
Glossopteris flora, 207, 208, 214
Godwin-Austen, R. A. C., 20
Gondwana series, 207
Gondwanaland, 207, 284
Goniatite beds, 183
Goodchild, J. G., 87, 130, 263, 295
Great ice age, 295, 296
Great oolite, 230, 231
Gregory, J. G., 258
Green, A. H., 122, 139, 193
Greensand, Lower, 236;
Upper, 236
Groom, T. T., 178
Gshellian beds, 193, 201

Hampshire basin, 245
Hangman grits, 184
Harker, A., 30, 88
Harkness, R., 161
Harmer, F. W., 258
Harpes fauna, 175
Harrison, W. J., 130
Hartfell shales, 169, 170
Hastings sands, 236, 237
Haughton, S., 295
Headon beds, 251
Heim, A., 32
Hempstead beds, 251
Hercynian systems of folds, 203
Hicks, H., 134, 141, 153, 154, 160, 161, 163, 167, 184, 266
Hickson, S. J., 109
Hill, A., 239
Hill, E., 142
Hilton shales, 210, 211
Hind, W., 196
Hinde, G. J., 169, 195
Hippurite limestone, 241, 242
Hirnant limestone, 167
Homotaxis, 48
Hughes, T. McK., 141, 264, 266
Hull, E., 120, 122, 193, 283
Hume, W. F., 239
Hunt, A. R., 101
Huronian system, 143
Hutton, J., 287
Huxley, T. H., 50, 250

Igneous rocks, 21-23
Ilfracombe beds, 184
Inferior oolite, 230
Inverted strata, 32;
detection of, 32
Iron age, 275, 276

Judd, J. W., 239, 247
Jukes, J. B., 84
Jukes-Browne, A. J., 126, 239, 264
Jurassic beds, 225
Jurassic fauna and flora, 234, 235
Jurassic system, 226-235

Kayser, E., 125, 191
Keewatin series, 144
Kelvin, Lord, 289
Kendall, P., 257
Keuper beds, 218, 221, 222
Kidston, B., 199
Kimmeridge clay, 232
Kimmeridgian series, 226
King, W., 217
Kjerulf, Th., 88
Koninck, L. de, 201
Kupferschiefer, 209

Lake, P., 126, 178
Lamina, 27
Lamplugh, G. W., 80, 119, 264
Lapworth, C., 32, 138, 139, 156, 168-170, 173, 178, 179
Laurentian rocks, 143
Lawson, A. C., 144, 145
Lehmann, J., 77
Lenham beds, 257
Lewis, H. C., 263
Lias, 226, 229
Liassian series, 227, 229
Lincolnshire limestone, 230, 231
Lincombe and Warberry grits, 184
Lindström, G., 114
Lingula flags, 152, 155, 156
Linnarsson, J. G. O., 161
Llandeilo limestone, 167
Llandeilo series, 165, 167
Llandovery series, 174-177
Loess, 267
Logan, Sir W., 20
London Basin, 245
London clay, 113, 244, 246
Longmyndian rocks, 138
Lower London Tertiary beds, 244, 246
Lubbock, Sir J., 270, 277
Ludlow series, 174-176
Lydekker, R., 250
Lyell, Sir C., 6, 12, 19, 106, 129, 224, 263, 270
Lynton slates, 184

McCoy, Sir F., 201
McMahon, C. A., 77
Madsen, H. P., 277
Magnesian Limestone, 209-211
Malm, 226
Maps, geological, 84, 130;
use of, 86, 120, 121
Marcou, J., 130, 279
Marine deposits, 102;
nature of fossils in, 107
Marl slate, 209, 210
Marlstone, 229
Marsh, O. C., 249
Marwood beds, 183
Matthew, G. F., 160-162, 180
Meadfoot sands, 184
Mechanically formed rocks, 29, 102
Mello, J. M., 270
Mendip system of folds, 203
Menevian beds, 152, 154, 156, 161
Metamorphic rocks, 25
Miall, L. C., 122
Michell, J., 10, 11
Millepore oolite, 230, 231
Miller, H., 189
Millet seed sands, 100
Millstone grit, 192
Miocene period, 252-255
Moffat shales, 169, 177
Mojsisovics, E. von, 224, 227
Morgan, C. Ll., 141
Morte slates, 184
Moscovian beds, 193, 301
Mountain limestone, 192
Murchison, Sir R. I., 19, 20, 174, 179
Murray, Sir J., 30
Muschelkalk, 218, 221, 222

Nehring, A., 267, 268
Neobolus fauna, 160
Neocomian series, 236-238
Neolithic age, 275-277
Neumayr, M., 115, 233
Newton, E. T., 45
Nicholson, H. A., 189, 250
Noachian Deluge, 8
Noetling, F., 160
Nordenskjöld, A. E., 113, 114
Noric beds, 225
Northamptonshire sands, 230
Norwich crag, 256, 257
Nummulitic limestone, 248

Old red sandstone, 183, 185, 186, 188, 191
Oldham, R. D., 208
Oldhaven beds, 244, 245
Olenellus fauna, 134, 153, 156-160
Olenus fauna, 152, 161, 162
Oligocene beds, 251, 252
Oligocene fauna and flora, 252
Oolite, 226
Ordovician faunas, 172, 173
Ordovician system, 164-173
Organically formed rocks, 29, 102, 109
Orogenic movements, 32
Osborne beds, 257
Owen, Sir R., 277
Oxford clay, 232
Oxford oolite, 226
Oxfordian series, 227, 232

Palæolithic fauna and flora, 270-274
Palæolithic man, 268, 272-274
Palæolithic period, 267-274
Palæontological break, 61
Palæo-physiography, 120
Paradoxides fauna, 152, 160, 161
Peat deposits, 275, 276
Pebble beds of Bunter, 218
Pebidian rocks, 140
Pengelly, W., 270
Pennant stage, 192
Pennine system of folds, 203
Penrith sandstone, 75, 210, 211
Period, definition of, 60
Permanence of ocean basins, 278-285
Permian fauna and flora, 214-216
Permian system, 209-217
Permo-carboniferous fauna and flora, 207, 208
Permo-carboniferous glacial deposits, 206
Permo-carboniferous period, 205-208
Phillips, J., 10, 11, 201
Physical break, 60
Pickwell Down sandstone, 183
Pilton beds, 183
Plaisancean series, 256
Planes of lamination, 27
Planes of stratification, 27
Pleistocene fauna and flora, 265, 266
Pleistocene period, 260-266
Pliocene fauna and flora, 259
Pliocene period, 256-259
Portland oolites, 226
Portlandian series, 226, 232
Prado, C. de, 161
Precambrian rocks, 132;
mode of formation of, 146
Preller, C. S. du R., 264
Prestwich, Sir J., 19, 130, 279
Productus limestones, 205, 206, 214
Protolenus fauna, 160
Pseudo-stromatism, 76
Purbeckian series, 226, 232
Pyroclastic rocks, 24

Quader sandstone, 240

Ramsay, Sir A. C., 130, 153, 163, 188
Reading beds, 244
Recurrences, 292
Red crag, 256, 257
Reid, C., 45, 257, 264, 268, 271
Renard, A., 30
Reversed fault, 34
Rhætic beds, 218
Rhiwlas limestone, 167
Richthofen, Baron von, 267, 268
Ridley, H. N., 271
River drift man, 268
Rotherham red rock, 202
Rothliegende, 209
Rouelle, 13

St Bees sandstone, 210
St Erth beds, 257
Salopian beds, 175
Salter, J. W., 161, 162, 186
Scarbro' limestone, 230, 231
Schists, crystalline, 76, 77, 133, 147
Scilla, A., 13
Screes, 101
Scrope, G. P., 76
Sections, geological, 84;
use of, 88
Sedimentary rocks, 23
Sedgwick, A., 16, 19, 20, 153, 174
Senonian series, 236
Series, definition of, 60
Seward, A. C., 113, 208
Sigmoidal structure, 33
Siliceous rocks, 29
Silurian faunas, 179, 180
Silurian system, 174-182
Simulation of structures, 72
Sinemurian series, 227, 229
Smith, W., 8, 12-18, 57, 85
Soil, 100
Solenhofen slate, 234
Sollas, W. J., 288
Solva beds, 152, 154, 156, 161
Speckled sandstone, 205, 206
Speeton series, 238
Spencer, H., 50
Spirorbis limestone, 201
Stages, definition of, 60
Steppe period, 260, 267-274
Stonesfield slate, 231
Strachey, J., 10
Strahan, A., 239, 264
Strata, 27;
classification of, 58, 125
Stratification, 26
Stratified rocks, 23;
composition of, 28;
origin of, 29;
classification of, 28, 125;
symbols to represent, 90
Stratigraphical geology, aim of, 1;
W. Smith, founder of, 8, 12-18
Suess, E., 110, 123, 207, 284
Superposition, law of, 31
Surveying, geological, 84
Systems, definition of, 60

Talchir stage, 205, 206
Tarannon shales, 174-177
Teall, J. J. H., 289
Terrestrial rocks, 99
Thanet sands, 244
Thinning out, 28
Thrust plane, 34;
detection of, 35, 82
Tiddeman, B. H., 87, 263, 270
Till, 262
Time, geological, 294-296
Toarcian series, 227, 229
Topley, W., 130, 239
Torridonian beds, 135-137
Tremadoc slates, 152, 155, 162, 163
Triassic fauna and flora, 223-225
Triassic system, 218-225;
ammonite zones of, 225
Trinucleus fauna, 165
Tullberg, S. A., 162
Turonian series, 236

Unconformity, 60, 78, 98
Underclays, 197
Uniformitarianism, 287-292
Uriconian rocks, 138
Ussher, W. A. E., 183

Valentian beds, 175
Verneuil, E. P. de, 161
Volcanic rocks, Cambrian, 155;
Carboniferous, 199;
Devonian, 184, 186;
Eocene, 246, 247;
Ordovician, 165-170;
Precambrian, 146
Vulcanicity, 289

Waagen, W., 213, 214
Walcott, C. D., 144, 158, 160, 161, 173
Wallace, A. R., 124, 235, 240, 281, 295
Ward, J. C., 87, 88, 263, 295
Warming, E., 115
Watts, W. W., 142, 168, 178
Wealden beds, 236, 237
Webster, T., 18
Weissliegende, 214
Wenlock limestone, 175, 176
Wenlock series, 174-177
Wenlock shale, 175-177
Werfener Schichten, 225
Werner, A. G., 12
Weybourne crag, 256
Whewell, W., 50
Whidbourne, G. F., 91
White Jura, 226
Whitehaven sandstone, 202
Whitehurst, J., 11, 12
Wiman, C., 46
Wood, S. V., 250, 259
Woodward, H., 191

Woodward, H. B., 68, 130, 131
Woodward, J., 8-10
Woodward, S. P., 108, 111
Woolhope limestone, 175
Woolwich beds, 244
Wright, G. F., 263

Yoredale series, 192

Zanclean series, 256
Zechstein, 209
Zone, fossil, 67;
ammonite, 225, 237;
graptolite, 69

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