Chapter XV: Foreign Silver Standards--Pre-War

Table showing the various standards of the silver work manufactured in the principal countries previous to the European War, 1914-1918:--

+------------+------------------+------------+---------------+
| | | Thousandth | |
| Countries. | Silver per oz. | parts. | Remarks. |
+------------+------------------+------------+---------------+
| | oz. dwts. grs. | | |
| France | 0 18 23 | 948-1000 | Old Standard. |
| " | 0 19 0 | 950-1000 | 1st " |
| " | 0 18 0 | 900-1000 | Coinage. |
| " | 0 16 0 | 800-1000 | 2nd Standard. |
| Germany | 0 19 0 | 950-1000 | 1st " |
| " | 0 18 0 | 900-1000 | 2nd " |
| " | 0 16 0 | 800-1000 | 3rd " |
| " | 0 15 0 | 750-1000 | 4th " |
| Austria | 0 19 0 | 950-1000 | 1st " |
| " | 0 18 0 | 900-1000 | 2nd " |
| " | 0 16 0 | 800-1000 | 3rd " |
| " | 0 15 0 | 750-1000 | 4th " |
| Geneva | 0 19 0 | 950-1000 | 1st " |
| " | 0 17 12 | 875-1000 | 2nd " |
| " | 0 16 0 | 800-1000 | 3rd " |
| Holland | 0 17 12 | 875-1000 | Old Standard. |
| " | 0 18 16 | 933-1000 | 1st " |
| " | 0 16 16 | 833-1000 | 2nd " |
| Belgium | 0 19 0 | 950-1000 | 1st " |
| " | 0 18 0 | 900-1000 | 2nd " |
| " | 0 16 0 | 800-1000 | 3rd " |
| Spain | 0 14 18 | 738-1000 | Lowest " |
| Portugal | 0 16 21 | 844-1000 | One only. |
| Neuchatel | 0 16 0 | 800-1000 | One only. |
| Russia | 0 16 19 | 840-1000 | 1st Standard. |
| " | 0 15 0 | 750-1000 | 2nd " |
| Italy | 0 19 0 | 950-1000 | 1st " |
| " | 0 18 0 | 900-1000 | 2nd " |
| " | 0 16 0 | 800-1000 | 3rd " |
| China | 0 19 14-1/2 | 980-1000 | About. |
| Norway | 0 16 19 | 840-1000 | One only. |
| Sweden | 0 16 19 | 840-1000 | " |
| Denmark | 0 16 19 | 840-1000 | " |
+------------+------------------+------------+---------------+

In France, all articles manufactured as silver are subject to _Government control_ and pay duty, but this is very slight compared with the English duty, amounting only to one _franc_ per _hectogramme_, which is equal to about threepence per ounce. This is exclusive of the charge for testing and marking; the state of the articles sent for this purpose with regard to the state of manufacture is, moreover, very different from the custom in this country. Here they are sent in their rough or half-manufactured state, and this seems better suited to the particular processes through which they have to pass; whereas in France they may be tested and marked in their whole or finished state; and, if thought requisite, this operation may be performed while the goods are on their way to their final destination, by calling at the Control Office for that purpose.

The Continental silversmiths, especially the French workmen, exhibit much ingenuity, original thought, and refined taste, in the execution of their work; and the natural capacity for design which they possess enables them to produce articles of a very high order and artistic character. The construction of some of their productions is exceedingly ornamental and decorative, and in some instances this is even carried to excess, as may be seen from some very elaborate articles which they manufacture.

To them belongs the credit of being producers of the most artistic and best decorative work in the whole world. They set the _fashions_ and work them out with a will to be only found in a people so enthusiastic as the French. Their jewellery is very elegant, light, and showy; some of which is prepared so thin as regards material, that it has to be supported underneath by a wax composition, which, however, gives increased strength to all articles so manipulated. With regard to articles of _vertu_, the French workmen certainly far excel those of any other country: they are more original, and bring into play greater ingenuity in the various processes which they employ in their manufactures. Still with all this ingenuity and skill, their works of art in this department are not durable, being very _tinselfied_; in wear their shape and form soon undergo a change, and eventually they soon get destroyed. In this branch of art the French workman might learn something to his advantage from the English style of work, which is the most durable of any nation in the world. French silver plate and jewellery of the best manufacture partake of the first standard; all other kinds are of the lowest standard.

In Germany all silver manufactures are placed under _Imperative_ control, and lower standards than those given in the table, under their respective heads, cannot be worked. The German style is similar to that of the French, but the former manufacture an unusually large quantity of filigree articles, very light in construction, tasteful, and cheap; and the possession of these advantages enables them to export to England and other countries their wares at a cheap rate. They are commonly sold by weight, and not so much per article; in many cases the charge does not exceed 12_s._ 6_d._ per ounce. In filigree work the Germans cannot equal the taste and variety displayed in Indian workmanship. In India the natives have definite designs, but the Germans are too fond of a variety of colours in their wares, which do not always harmonize with their particular kind of work.

In Austria silver manufactures are commonly ornamented by enamel, niello, &c., which gives them a very pleasing appearance. They are usually light and showy, and something after the style of French work. The laws affecting the Austrian silver workers are the same as those of Germany.

The English style of work is strong and solid; and is undoubtedly superior to that of all Continental manufacturers as regards substantial workmanship, careful manipulation, and durability. It is, moreover, capable of a higher finish, and possesses more evenness of surface, together with a combination of strength, that admirably suits it for articles and utensils for daily use, and which causes it to be preferred before that of any other nation; and while France, Germany, and other countries may exhibit greater ingenuity, to England belongs the credit of producing the best _finished_ and the most _durable_ work of any nation in the world.

INDEX.

Acids, vegetable, 10

Action of acids on copper, 44
of silver under heat, 8

Acts of the Legislature, 189
on licences, 186
clause on, 193, 194

Advantages of scorification, 20

Air in furnace, 33

Alkalies, caustic, 10

Allowed, remedy in fineness, 72

Alloy, 41
Clark's patent, 172
commonly used, 63
for cupel quantity, 35
for hall-marking, 62
for plate, 71
for silver-wares, 72
French, for coinage, 69
French, for plate, 69
French, for silver-ware, 69
German, for coinage, 71
instructions in preparing, 70
new, 205
Nos. 1 to 8, 64-67
of the highest quality, 62
silver dissolving, 202
standard, 61
white, 172

Alloy, with copper, 68
with palladium, 173
with platinum, 172

Alloys of common silver, 167-170
characteristics of, 173, 174
imitation, 166-173
imitation, uses of, 173
of nickel, 46
of silver, 42
of tin with gold, 49
of tin with silver, 49
silversmith's, 40, 197

Aluminium alloy, 205
solder, 206

Amalgam, 41

Amalgamation of zinc, 153

America, 11

American supply of silver, 12

Ancient method of assaying, 37
workers in tin, 48

Ancients, 6

Annealing silver, 109

Anthracite, 21

Art in soldering, 90
in the silver trade, 122

Articles, hand-made, 54
of silver common, 147

Art of soldering, 74

Arts, metals employed in, 41

Assay crucible, 16
charge for, 17
English system, 39
fluxes, 16
of silver ores, 16
scorification, 19
weighing of, 30

Assayer's muffle, 28

Assaying, borax, use of, in, 22
Dr. Lamborn on, 38
of silver ores, 16

Austrian style of work, 211

Battery, Bunsen's, 152
constant, 150
exciting mixture, 151
for plating, 150
solution, 151

Bean-shot copper, 44

Best crucibles, 95

Birmingham, 52

Black cyanide, 157

Blowpipes, 89

Boiling-out mixture, 144
pan, 143
pickle, 93

Bone-ash, 32
cupel, 33

Borax, 22
sprinkle, 92

Breaking-down rollers, 112

Brightening, 29

British Isles, 11

Brown colour on silver goods, 146

Burning of lemel, 104
of polishings, 179, 180

Burnished silver work, 124

Burnishing silver work, 161, 162

Calculated alloys, various, 80

Calculating the qualities of silver, 64

Carbonate of soda, 16, 102

Casting-mould, 18

Cause of inferior work, 74

Caustic alkalies, 10

Cement for chasers, 121

Chain bracelets, 128

Chain solder, 85

Characteristics of imitation alloys, 173, 174
of metals, 41

Charcoal, 99

Charge and flux for crucible, 23
for assay, 17
for scorification assay, 20

Chief places for filigree, 53
of filigree manufacture, 8
uses of silver, 9

Chinese filigree, 56
silver, 170

Chloride of silver, 183

Christianity and tin, 48

Clark's alloy, 172

Cleaning plate, 198
powder for plate, 206

Coinage, 69
alloys for, 71
English, 61
French, 69
German, 71

Collecting-vessels, 184

Colour-improving, 149

Common articles of silver, 147
easy solder, 85
silver alloy, 167-173
silver solder, 84
solder, 85
solders, 81

Composition for solder, 81

Conducting-wires, 154

Connections for soldering, 77

Constant battery, 150

Continental cheap labour, 54
method of assaying, 22
silversmiths, 208

Copper, 42
action of acids on, 44
bean-shot, 44
characteristics of, 43
chemical name, 44
dissolving, 202
for alloying, 68
powder for, 199
protoxide of, 44
solder with, 76

Cost of silver alloys, 64, 67
of silver-rolling, 112

Cronstedt, 45

Crucible, dimensions, 16
for lemel, 106
mixture for, 104
pouring lemel from, 107
weighing metal for, 95

Crucible assay, 16
fluxes for, 16
process of, 19

Crucibles, 95
best to employ, 95
action with fluxes, 96
testing soundness, 97

Cupel, defects in, 33
mode of manufacture, 26
mould, 27
quantity of alloy for, 35
tongs, 28
withdrawal of silver, 34

Cupellation, 26
of silver ores, 31
purity of silver, 37

Cup-fusing, 19

Currents of air to furnace, 33

Cyanide solution, 156
black, 157

Defects in bone-ash cupel, 33

Density of nickel, 45
of silver, 7
of tin, 48

Dimensions of crucible, 16

Dipping-mixture, 199

Directions on melting, 94
in preparing solders, 88

Discoverer of electro-plating, 149

Dissolving silver, 202
copper, 202
impurities, 103
soft solder, 202
silver solder, 202
sealing-wax, 202
tin, 48

Dissolution of silver, 9

Dr. Lamborn, 38

Drawbacks to hall-marking, 63

Draw-bench, 114, 115

Drawing fine wire, 116

Draw-plate, 114

Draw-tongs, 115

Drossy solders, 88

Drum for wire-drawing, 115

Ductility of nickel, 45
of silver, 6
of tin, 49
of zinc, 48

East Indian silversmiths, 141

Easy solders, 79
for chains, 85
silver solder, 80
solder, 81
solder, for filigree work, 84
solder, common, 85

Economical processes, 175

Economy, 1

Education, technical, 2

Electro-plate, 46

Electro-plating, 147
discoverer of, 149
soft solder, 202

Elements, metallic, table of, 50

Employed metals, 41

Enamelling, 131

England, alloy commonly used, 63

English and foreign workmen, 2
coinage, 61
filigree workers, 91
silversmiths, 63
standard for silver, 60
style of work, 211
system of assay, 39

Enriching the surfaces of silver, 139

Exciting mixture for battery, 151

Experts, Government, 73

Filigree manufacture, 8
method of making, 57
of China and Japan, 56
of Norway and Sweden, 56
silver work, 127
wire, new, 59
work, 5, 40, 52
working, 56

Filed solders, 76

Flatting of twisted wire, 59

Flux and charge for crucible, 23
for soldering, 77
in pouring, 101

Fluxes for assay, 16
their action on crucibles, 96
employed in melting, 96

Foreign silver currency, 13
silver standards, 207, 8
workmen, 2

French alloy for silver ware, 69
alloy for coinage, 69
alloy for plate, 70

French duty, 208
standards, 69
style of work, 209

Fusibility of nickel, 45
of tin, 48
of silver solders, 80

Fusing-cup, 19

Galvanic ring, 129

German coinage, 71
standards, 72
style of work, 210

Gold alloyed with tin, 49
mode of soldering, 88
removing, from silver, 198, 205

Goods, silver, brown colour of, 146

Government experts, 73

Gravity, specific, of zinc, 47

Great Britain, 11

Guarantee mark, 73

Hall-marking, alloy for, 62
drawbacks, 63

Hand-made articles, 54

Hard silver solders, 79
solder, best, 81

Hardest silver solder, 78
silver solder, 79

Hardness of silver, 8

Hawk-sparrow, 119

Heating power of silver, 7

Hollow silver work, 131

Imitation silver alloys, 166, 173
alloys, characteristics of, 173
alloys, uses of, 173
silver, 166, 197

Improving colour of electro-plate, 149

Impurities, dissolving, 105

Indian filigree workers, 5

Indian filigree silversmiths, 141
mode of whitening, 142

Industrial arts, 41

Inferior plating solution, 159

Ingot-mould, 100

Instructions in preparing alloys, 68

Irregularities in rolling-mills, 110

Japanese filigree, 56

Jewellery trade, state of, 12

Law on silver wares, 73

Lead, 103

Legislature, Acts of, 186

Lemaille solder, 91

Lemel, 104
burning, 104
crucible, 106
melting, 104-106
pot for, 104
pouring from crucible, 107

Licence question, 191

Licences, 190

Litharge, 17

Loss, working, 175
real, 175
total working, 176

Making filigree, 56

Malleability of nickel, 45
of silver, 6
of tin, 49
of zinc, 48

Maltese filigree, 55

Manner of removing litharge, 35

Manufacture of cupels, 26
inferior, 73
of filigree, 53
of silver wares, 72

Mark, guarantee, 72

Marking, hall, 62

Marking, hall, drawbacks of, 63

Material, bad working, 98

Mechanical uses of silver, 52

Medium solders, 82
silver solder, 79

Melting, crucible for, 99
directions on, 94
fluxes employed, 96
imitation alloys, 166
points of metals, 51
solders, 86
tongs for, 100

Mercury, 15

Metal, fusible, 98
pure, 56

Metallic elements, table of, 50

Metals, 41
their characteristics, 41

Method of assaying, 22
for whitening, 139
of calculating qualities, 64
of preparing filigree, 59

Mills, rolling, 110
Kemp's, 111

Mine, richest, 12

Mining, 11

Mixing metals for melting, 97

Mixture, boiling-out, 144
dipping, 199
for washing-out, 138
stripping, 200

Mixtures for whitening, 147
for battery, 152
nitrate of silver, 148

Modes of melting lemel, 105
of preparing ring, 130
of whitening, Indian, 142
of whitening, our, 145

Molten metal, 99
lemel, 103

Mould-casting, 18

Mould cupel, 27

Mould ingot, 100

Muffle assayers, 28

Native silver, 11

Necessity for pure metal, 56

New alloy, 205
method for filigree, 59

Nickel, 45

Nitrate of silver, 8
of silver, mixture, 148

Nitre, 10

Norway filigree, 56

Old method of filigree, 57

Oldest method of whitening, 140

On the melting of silver, 94
working of silver, 108

Ores of silver, 9

Our mode of whitening, 145

Oxidizing silver work, 163

Palladium alloy, 173

Pallion solder, 89

Parliament, Acts of, 190

Perchloride of iron, 205

Physical properties of metals, 51

Plain solid work, 127

Plate, 4
alloy for, 70
cleaning powder, 206
electro, 46, 150
French, 70
manufacture, 190
powder, 202

Plating, battery for, 150
discoverer of, 149
electro, 150
fluid silver, 206
soft solder, 201
solution, 157

Plating solutions, recovery of silver, 160

Platinum alloy, 172

Plumbago, crucible for melting, 99

Polished silver, 7

Polishing, 135
lathe, 137

Polishings, burning of, 179

Pouring off lemel, 107

Powder for silver, 200

Precious metal, 1

Precipitation of silver, 183

Preparation for assay, 17
of bone-ash, 32
of plating solution, 155
of solders, 87

Present state of silver trade, 128

Press, 127
stamping, 132

Price of silver, 9

Principal alloys of silver, 42
metals, 51

Process, scorification, 18
advantages of, 20
details of, 23
of silver recovery, 180-183

Producing various shades, 165

Production of surface, 135

Protect polish of metals, 200

Protoxide of copper, 44
of zinc, 102

Pure silver, 3

Purity of silver, 37

Qualities used by silversmiths, 64

Quantity of alloy for cupel, 35

Quick-running solder, 85

Raised work, 120

Raising, 122

Recovery of silver from waste, 160
of silver from waste waters, 183, 185

Refining surface of silver, 146

Remarks on silver solders, 80

Remedy in fineness, 72

Removal of litharge, 35

Removing gold from silver, 198
gold from silver-wares, 205

Resist varnish, 202

Ring, galvanic, 129
preparing wire for, 130

Rollers, slitting, 112
breaking-down, 112

Rolling, silver, 108
mills, 110
silver, 112
wire, 113

Sal-ammoniac, 103

Saving waste, 177

Scientific name for tin, 49

Scorification process, 18
assay, 20

Scorifier, 19
special form, 19

Scrap silver, 102

Scratch-brushing, 161
brush lathe, 161

Scriptural testimony, 37, 38

Sealing-wax, dissolving, 202

Sediment, 185

Separation of silver, 21

Shades, 165

Shop floors, 177

Shot copper for alloying, 44

Silver a precious metal, 1
action under heat, 8
alloy, dissolving, 202
alloy for coinage, 72
alloy, standard, 61
alloyed with tin, 49
alloys, Chinese, 170
alloys, common, 167, 172
alloys, imitation, 167, 172

Silver alloys, No. 1, 64
No. 2, 64
No. 3, 65
No. 4, 65
No. 5, 66
No. 6, 66
No. 7, 67
No. 8, 67
American supply, 12
and aqua-regia, 8
and mercury, 15
annealing, 109
articles, 194
articles, common, 147
assay, 14
British, chief sources, 13
British yield, 11
burnishing, 162
characteristics of, 5
chief alloy of, 30
chloride, 183
commercial, 9
currency, 6
currency, foreign, 13
density of, 7
dissolution of, 9
dissolving, 202
ductility of, 6
easily tarnished, 129
European supplies, 12
filigree work, 125
for filigree work, 5
fusibility of, 7
goods, brown colour, 146
hardness of, 8
heating power of, 7
imitation, 198
known to the ancients, 6
law on, 73
lead and tin in, 103
malleability of, 6
mechanical uses of, 52

Silver, method of calculating, 63
mining, 11
native, 11
nitrate of, 8, 148
ores, 9
ores, assay of, 16
oxidizing, 163, 198
plating fluid, 206
polished, 7
powder, 199, 200
powder for copper, 199
precipitating, 183
principal alloys, 42
pure, 3
purity of, after cupellation, 37
recovery of, 160
recovery, 177, 178
rolling, 109
rolling, table of cost, 112
solders, 81
solder, dissolving, 202
solder, easy, 82
solder, hardest, 79
solder, medium, 82
solder, zinc in, 46
solders, fusibility of, 80
standards, foreign, 207
stripping mixture, 200
surface, improving, 139
tarnished, 7
test for, 6
trade, art in, 123
uses of, 9
various qualities, 52
ware, 69, 195
ware, French, 69
ware, German, 71
wares, alloys for, 72
wares, removing gold, 205
wares, testing, 203
weighing, 30
whitening of, 140

Silver work, burnished, 124
work, hollow, 131
yield of, 13

Silversmiths, 63
alloys, 40, 197
continental, 209
East Indian, 141
working, 2

Skittle-pot, 25
for lemel, 104

Slitting-rollers, 112

Snarling-tools, 122

Soda, carbonate of, 16, 102

Soft solder, 90, 202
dissolving, 202
plating, 202

Solder, composition for, 81, 98
best hard, 81
common, 83, 85
common easy, 86
dish, 89
easy, 79, 82, 86
filed, 76
for aluminium, 206
for chains, 85
for filigree, 84, 91
hard, 77
Lemaille, 91
medium, 76, 82
pallion, 88
quick running, 85
very common, 87
with arsenic, 86
with copper and silver, 76
with zinc, 76

Soldering, art of, 74, 90
alloy, dissolving, 202
connections, 77
mode of, 88
fluid, 201
flux, 77

Solders containing tin, 75

Solders, drossy, 88
for enamelling, 84
melting of, 83
preparations of, 87
remarks on, 80
tin in, 49

Solid plain work, 127

Solution for battery, 151
cyanide, 156
for plating, 157, 158
for precipitation, 184
inferior, 159
No. 1, 163
No. 2, 164
No. 3, 164

Soundness of crucibles, 97

Spain, 11

Sparrow-hawk, 119

Special soldering flux, 92

Specific gravity of zinc, 47

Spelter, 46
used by jewellers, 47

Spinning, 134, 135

Sprouting, 29

Stamped work, 126

Stamping-press, 132

Standard alloy for hall-marking, 62
alloys of the highest quality, 62

Standards, English, 60
French, 70
German, 71

State in which silver is found, 14

State of silver trade, 128

State of the jewellery trade, 12

Stone, Water-of-Ayr, 136

Strength of solution, 152

Stripping silver, 201

Style of work, Austrian, 211
English, 211
French, 209

Style of work, German, 210
Indian, 210

Surface, refining of silver, 145

Swedish filigree, 56

System of assaying, 39

Table of cost of silver-rolling, 112
of metallic elements, 50
of various duties, 90

Tarnishing of silver, 7
of zinc, 47

Tax or licence, 196

Technical education, 2

Test for pure silver, 6

Testing crucible, 97
silver wares, 203

Testimony, Scriptural, 37, 38

Test-ring, 31

Tin, 48
alloyed with gold, 49
alloyed with silver, 49
ancient workers, 48
and Christianity, 48
density of, 48
dissolving, 48
ductility of, 49
fusibility of, 48
in solders, 49, 76
malleability of, 49
scientific name, 50
tenacity of, 49
vapours, 49

Tongs, draw, 115

Tongs for melting, 100

Total working loss, 176

Trade, silver, state of, 128
useful information for, 197

Treatment, economical, 1
in furnace, 18
of waste, 179

Treatment of waste liquids, 180

Twisting wires, 58

Unjustly assessed tax, 195

Uses of silver, 9
borax, 22
for imitation alloys, 173
of lathe, 58
silver, mechanical, 52

Vapours of tin, 49

Various qualities of silver, 52
duties, table of, 190
metals, mixing, 95

Varnish, resist, 1

Wares, ornamental, 4
law on, 73
removing gold from, 205
silver alloy for, 72
silver, 197
testing purity, 203

Washing-out mixture, 138

Waste, saving, 178
liquids, treatment of, 180
treatment of, 181
waters, 182-185
water, precipitation in, 184

Water-of-Ayr stone, 139

Weighing of silver assay, 30

Whitening, old method, 140
Indian mode of, 142
our mode of, 145
powder, 147

Wire for filigree, 59
rolling, 112
drawer's drum, 115
drawer's punch, &c., 117
drawing, fine, 117

Wires, conducting, 154

Withdrawal from cupel, 34

Work, Austrian style, 211
burnishing, 162
English, style, 211
filigree, 5, 40, 125
French duty on, 208
French style, 209
German style, 210
hollow, 131
Indian style, 210
silver, burnishing, 124
solid, 127
stamped, 132

Workers, Indian, 5

Working filigree, 56
loss, 175
material, bad, 98
silversmiths, 2
total, 176

Workmen, English and Foreign, 2

Workmanship, process of, 55

Wrought work, 118

Yield of silver, 11, 13

Zinc, 46
a fusible metal, 98
amalgamation, 153
annealing, 47
ductility of, 48
gravity of, 47
in silver solder, 46, 76
malleability of, 48
on floors, 178
tarnishing of, 47
tenacity of, 48

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Transcriber Note

The following changes were made:

p. 47 "Fahr." moved from after "6·8 and 7·2" => to after "773°"
p. 93 "week pickle" => "weak pickle"
p. 175 "regulated workships" => "regulated workshops"

End of Project Gutenberg's The Silversmith's Handbook, by George E. Gee