Chapter VI: Section V: Historical Sketch of the Exegesis of the Book (1)

No book has furnished a wider field for the speculation and visionary projects of those who substitute their own imagination and enthusiastic feelings for the teaching of Scripture, than the Song of Solomon; the varieties and absurdities of which are a solemn warning against departing from the rules of sound philology and critical interpretation.

An enumeration of all the different interpretations of this Song would be too lengthy, and is not required. It will be sufficient to glance at the leading expositions. We begin with the Jewish.

323–246, B.C. [18] It has been supposed that the Septuagint, which may be regarded as the oldest Jewish exegetical tradition, contains some intimation that the translators of the Old Testament into Greek and their Jewish brethren of those days must have interpreted the Song of Solomon in an allegorical manner. The only passage adduced in corroboration of this opinion is, Ch. iv. 8, where the Septuagint renders מֵראֹשׁ אֲמָנָה from the top of Amana, by ἀπὸ ἀρχῆς πίστεως, from the top of faith. That this appeal is nugatory is obvious from the rendering of תִּרְצָה Tirzah by εὐδοκία, delight, vi. 4, and of בַּתנָדִיב noble daughter by θύγατερ Ναδάβ, daughter of Nadab, vii. 1; whence it is evident that the Septuagint frequently mistook proper names for appellatives and adjectives, and vice versâ. It appears inconceivable that a profound scholar like Keil, who is well acquainted with the frequent errors of the Septuagint, should quote this as a special and sufficient proof that “the Alexandrian version took this Song in an allegorical sense,” [19] especially as he knew that some have drawn from it the very opposite conclusion, who have argued that if the authors of the Septuagint had understood this book in any other than its obvious sense, they would have betrayed it in the translation. [20]

180, B.C. Jesus Sirach, xlvii. 14–17, is next adduced as furnishing some clue to the Jewish interpretation of this book. Ecclesiasticus, according to some, is a name given to it κατ’ ἐξοχὴν, because of its being the most remarkable and useful of the ecclesiastical or apocryphal books; others say it was so called from its resemblance to Solomon’s Ecclesiastes, and others, again, with more probability, that this name was given to it by the Latins, to denote its use in the church. Its Greek name, however, Σοφία Ἰησοῦ υἱοῦ Σειράχ, wisdom of Jesus son of Sirach, is more appropriate. It specifies at once the author, who mentions his own name in Ch. l. 27. The age given to the book here, is that which is thought most probable. [21] This apocryphal writer says in his apostrophe to Solomon,—“How wise wast thou in thy youth, and, as a flood, filled with understanding! Thy mind covered the earth, and thou filledst it with enigmatic sayings. Thy name went forth to the distant isles, and thou wast beloved for thy peace. Countries admired thee for songs, and proverbs, and enigmas, and solutions.” The 17th verse is supposed to include the whole writings of Solomon contained in the Old Testament; and it is affirmed that παραβολαὶ αἰνιγμάτων in verse 15, cannot be understood to mean the Proverbs (παροιμία) since these are separately mentioned in verse 17, hence it follows that they refer to the allegorical interpretation of this Song. [22]

Even Hengstenberg, who, though a defender of the allegorical interpretation, remarks, [23] “Sirach xlvii. 17, has wrongly been referred to in support of the allegorical interpretation. For the words ἐν ᾠδαῖς καὶ παροίμιαις καὶ παραβολαῖς καὶ ἐν ἑρμηνείαις ἀπεθαύμασάν σε χῶραι depend upon the historical narration in the Books of the Kings, and do not refer to the writings comprised in the Canon. This is evident from the mention of the ἑρμηνείαι, whereby the solutions of the enigmas in contradistinction to the enigmas themselves, can alone be meant. Comp. 1 Kings x. 1–3. Whereas in the Canon no such ἑρμηνείαι are to be found. Verse 15, in which Keil finds a special reference to the allegorical interpretation, likewise alludes to 1 Kings x., especially to verse 24.”

120, B.C. The Book of Wisdom has also been supposed to contain a clue to the interpretation of this Song. The author and the age of the Book are points of great contest. All that can be concluded with any degree of probability is, that the author was an Alexandrian Jew, who lived after the transplanting of the Greek philosophy into Egypt, and that he seems to refer to the oppression of the later Ptolemies. [24] In ch. viii. 2, Solomon is represented as speaking to Wisdom; “Her I loved and sought from my youth, I sought to bring her home for my bride, and I became a lover of her beauty.” Because Solomon is here made to speak of Wisdom as his bride, it has been maintained to be an explanation of the Song of Songs, as though the brides were necessarily the same. [25] Let any impartial reader peruse the description of Wisdom in the chapter quoted, and that of the bride in the Song of Songs, and he will be convinced that there is no intentional resemblance whatever.

37–95, A.D. Josephus is also said to have understood this Song in an allegorical sense, although it is not in a single instance quoted by him. His arrangement of the Books of the Old Testament is the only ground of this argument. It is said, as he [26] mentions twenty-two books which are justly accredited as Divine, (τὰ δικαίως θεῖα πεπιστευμένα) and describes five as belonging to Moses, thirteen to the Prophets, and the remaining four as containing hymns to God, and rules of life for men (αἱ δὲ λοιπαὶ τέσσαρες ὕμνους εἰς τὸν Θεὸν καὶ τοῖς ἀνθρώποις ὑποθήκας τοῦ βίου περιέχουσιν) viz., the Psalms, Job, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes, no place is left for this Song except among the Prophets; and if Josephus placed it there, it follows that he must have understood it allegorically. [27] But were we to admit that Josephus placed this Song among the prophetical writings, we should deny the conclusion attempted to be drawn from it. For according to the same mode of argumentation, we might infer that Josephus understood Ruth and Esther allegorically, for he also places these books among the prophetical writings. The fact is, that this historian, as he tells us himself, reckons the historical books among the prophetical ones. But we demur to the assertion that Josephus put this Song among the prophetical writings; it is far more likely that he placed it among the four books which he describes as consisting of hymns to God and precepts for the life of men. [28]

We come now to the Talmud, in which passages from this Song are quoted and interpreted. This elaborate work, consists of what is called the Mishna, constituting the text, and the Gemara, which is a commentary upon it, derived from two sources, viz.—Jerusalem and Babylon. The Jews, from time immemorial, had an unwritten law תּוֹרָה שֶׁבַּעַל פֶּה δόγματα ἄγραφα, in addition to the written one, תּוֹרָה שֶׁבַּכְּתָב, ἔγγραφος, contained in the Pentateuch. Hillel of Babylon (born 75 B.C.), who, next to Ezra, was celebrated by posterity as the restorer of the law, [29] first arranged and divided this oral law into six parts:—1, concerning sowing; 2, women; 3, festivals; 4, the rights of property; 5, holy things; 6, pure and impure things. This, which comprises everything that appertains to the Jewish law, was called מִשְׁנָה Mishna, δευτέρωσις, or the second recension of the law. In order to reconcile the Sadducees, who denied every law not founded on Holy Writ, Hillel laid down seven hermeneutic rules, whereby the Scriptures might be interpreted in such a manner that the oral law could be deduced from it. [30] When fears were afterwards entertained lest the oral tradition should be lost, Rabbi Judah Hakkadosh (i.e. holy), in the year 220 A.D., collected everything that had been said upon the subject, preserving the division of Hillel, and probably making some additions of his own. This he did in a manner so masterly and satisfactory, that it superseded every other previous attempt, and constitutes the present Mishna.

The Mishna became the chief object of study. The rules of Hillel were increased and much acted on; expositions were given upon the reasons that led to the decisions in the Mishna; the expounders were called אֲמוֹרָאִים Amoraim, public lecturers, and the exposition גְמָרָא Gemara.

After the death of Judah, many of his learned disciples, objecting to the appointment of his second son Gamaliel, to his father’s office, emigrated to Babylon, and having erected schools there, pursued the study of the Mishna. The academy they established in Sura rivalled the one in Tiberias. The Gemara of Tiberias, collated about 358 (A.D.) by an unknown individual, is called Talmud Jerushalmi; and the Gemara of Sura, the compilation of which was begun by R. Ashe (352–427), continued by his disciple and friend, Rabina, and finished about 525, is called Talmud Babli. The latter surpasses the former in comprehensiveness, perspicuity, and depth, is about four times as large, and fills 2947 folio pages. Both united are called The Talmud תַּלְמוּד book of instruction; and also גְמָרָא Gemara. It contains the civil and ceremonial law, debates on various branches of art and science, moral sayings, anecdotes, expositions on different passages of Scripture, &c. [31]

100–500, A.D.—In Yadaim, (Sect. iii. 5.) we find that R. Akiba, one of the greatest Rabbins who lived in the first century, and president of the Academy of Bai-Barc, said, “The whole world was not worthy of the day in which this sublime Song was given to Israel; for all the Scriptures are holy, but this sublime Song is most holy.” There can, therefore, be no doubt that the mysteries which this distinguished Rabbi found in the Song of Songs, he regarded as greater than those he discovered in any other portion of the Sacred Scriptures.

Subsequent Rabbins quote and explain different passages. Thus, Ch. i. 2 is discussed in Abodah Sarah (Sect. 2, p. 35). It is asked, “How are the words, ‘Thy love is better than wine’ understood?” Answer: When Rabbi Dimi came to Babylon, he said, “This verse is thus understood: the Congregation of Israel said to God, ‘Lord of the Universe, the words of thy friends (namely, the sages) are more excellent than even the wine of the Law.’”

Here we see that the beloved is taken to be God, and the loved one the Congregation of Israel.

Ch. i. 3, is quoted and expounded, a little further on, in the same tract of the Talmud, in the following manner. “R. Nachman ben R. Chasdah once said, in his discourse, the words ‘Delicious is the odour of thy perfumes,’ denote a learned man; for such an one is like a box of perfumes; if it is covered up, no one can smell the perfumes, but when it is opened the odour becomes widely diffused. It is so with a learned man without disciples, no one knows of his learning; but if he gets a circle of disciples his name and his learning become widely diffused. And not only this, but he himself will increase learning by teaching, so that things which he formerly did not understand will now become plain to him; for it is written in the same verse עלמות אהבוך DAMSELS LOVE THEE; read עלומות HIDDEN THINGS will love thee, i.e., will become plain to thee; and not only this, but even the angel of death will love him; read then על־מות HE WHO IS OVER DEATH will love thee; and still more, he will inherit both worlds, this world and the world to come; read also עולמות WORLDS love thee.”

Ch. i. 13, 14, and v. 13, are quoted and explained in Sabbath, p. 88, b., “Rabbi Joshuah ben Levi saith, What is meant by צרור המור דודי לי בין שדי ילין is the congregation of Israel, who is saying before the Holy One thus: O Lord, though my beloved (i.e. God) oppresses me, and is embittered against me, yet he still lodges with me. By אשכול הכופר דודי לי בכרמי עין גדי is meant, He who is the owner of all things, will forgive me the sin of the calf, with which I covered myself. A question is raised, How does בכרמי signify my covering? Then Rabbi Mar-Sutra ben Rabbi Nachman quotes כסא של כובס שכורמי עליו את הכלאם from another part of the Talmud (Kelim 35), where כרם means to cover. R. Joshuah ben Levi proceeds, What is meant by לחייו כערוגת הבושם is, At every commandment which proceedeth from the mouth of the Holy One on Mount Sinai, the world was filled with aromatics. A question is asked, If the world was filled at the first commandment, where was the odour diffused at the second commandment? Answer, The Holy One sent his wind from his stores, and carried them away successively, as it is written, שפתותיו שושנים do not read שושנים but ששונים repeating in succession. Rabbi Joshuah ben Levi concludes, At every commandment uttered by the mouth of the Holy One, the soul of Israel was drawn out of them, as it is written, ‘My soul went out when he spake.’ A question is again asked, If their soul was drawn out at the first commandment, how could they receive the second? Answer. He (i.e. God) caused the dew to come down, by which he will raise the dead, and revived them, as it is written, ‘Thou, O God, didst send a plentiful rain, whereby thou didst confirm thine inheritance, when it was weary.’” Ps. lxviii. 9. [32]

Here, again, we see that the bridegroom is taken to be the Holy One, the Owner of all things, and the bride the congregation of Israel. The reader, looking into the text of the Talmud quoted in the note, will observe that most of this interpretation has been obtained, either by the separation of words, the transposition and change of letters, or by substituting in the commentary words, similar in sound to those in the Scriptures. Thus, צרור a bundle, a bag, is explained by מיצר oppress; מור myrrh by מימר embitter; אשכול a cluster by איש שהכל לו He whose are all things; כופר cypress flowers by כפר pardon; עין גדי En-gedi by עון עגל the sin of the calf.

This mode of interpretation is not confined to the Song of Songs, but is applied to all parts of the Bible, and is an illustration of the way in which the hermeneutic rules laid down by Rabbi Hillel, and augmented by R. Ishmael, and others, were carried out.

550, A.D.—The Targum or Chaldee paraphrase is the first entire commentary upon the Song of Songs which has been handed down to us. The author is unknown. Kitto erroneously affirms, that it was “made several centuries before the time of Christ, and probably before the traditionary interpretation of the author himself (i.e. the author of this Song) would entirely be lost.” [33] The inferior style in which it is written, the copious use it makes of legends of a very late date, and especially the mention it makes of the Gemara (Ch. i. 2), which was not completed till nearly the middle of the sixth century, prove most distinctly that this paraphrase was made in the sixth century. Hävernick, [34] however, is equally wrong in affirming that the Mahomedans are mentioned in Ch. i. 7. That the sons of Ishmael here alluded to are not the Mahomedans, is evident from Ch. vi. 7. of the same paraphrase, where we are told that these בְּנוֹי דְיִשְׁמָעֵאל headed by Alexander the Great, came to wage war against Jerusalem at the time of the Maccabees.

The Targum takes the Song of Songs as an allegory, describing prophetically the history of the Jewish nation, beginning with their Exodus from Egypt, and detailing their doings and sufferings, down to the coming of the Messiah, and the building of the third Temple.

Thus, according to this allegory, Ch. i. 3, describes Jehovah’s fame, which went abroad in consequence of the wonders he wrought when bringing the Israelites out of Egypt; verse 12 describes the departure of Moses to receive the two tables of stone, and how the Israelites, in the mean time, made the golden calf; verse 14 describes the pardon of that sin, and the erection of the Tabernacle; Ch. iii. 6–11, describes the passage of the Israelites, under the leadership of Joshua, over the Jordan, their attacking and conquering the Canaanites, and the building of Solomon’s Temple; Ch. v. 2, describes the Babylonian captivity; Ch. vi. 2, the deliverance of Israel through Cyrus; and the building of the second Temple; Ch. vi. 7, &c., describes the battles of the Maccabees; Ch. vii. 11, 12, the present dispersion of the Jews, and their future anxiety to learn the time of their restoration; Ch. viii. 5, &c., describes the resurrection of the dead, the final ingathering of Israel, the building of the third Temple, &c., &c.

“The beloved,” according to the Targum, is the Lord; “the loved one” is the Congregation of Israel; “the companions of the beloved” (Ch. i. 7) are the Edomites and the Ishmaelites; “the daughters of Jerusalem” are, in Ch. i. 5, the Gentile nations; in ii. 7, iii. 5, viii. 4, the Congregation of Israel; and in v. 8, the prophets; “the brothers of the loved one” are the false prophets; “the little sister,” in viii. 8, is the people of Israel; the speakers in the same verse are the angels; the speaker in viii. 13, is the Lord; “the companions,” in the same verse are the Sanhedrim.

The following specimen of the Targum, on the first chapter of this Song, will give the reader an idea of the way in which the paraphrase develops the allegorical construction of this book.

1. The Song of Songs, &c.—The songs and praises which Solomon the
prophet, King of Israel, sang, by the spirit of prophecy, before
God, the Lord of the whole world. Ten songs were sung in this
world, but this song is the most celebrated of them all. The first
song Adam sang when his sins were forgiven him, and when the
sabbath-day came, and protected him, he opened his mouth and said,
“A song for the sabbath-day,” &c. (Ps. xcii.) The second song Moses
and the children of Israel sang when the Lord of the world divided
the Red Sea for them, they all opened their mouths and sang as one
man, the song, as it is written, “Then sang Moses and the children
of Israel.” (Exod. xv. 1.) The third song the children of Israel
sang when the well of water was given to them, as it is written,
“Then sang Israel.” (Numb. xxi. 17.) The fourth song Moses the
prophet sang, when his time came to depart from this world, in
which he reproved the people of the house of Israel, as it is
written: “Give ear, O heavens, and I will speak.” (Deut. xxxii. 1.)
The fifth song Joshua the son of Nun sang, when he waged war in
Gibeon, and the sun and moon stood still for him thirty-six hours,
and when they left off singing their song, he himself opened his
mouth and sang this song, as it is written: “Then sang Joshua
before the Lord.” (Josh. x. 12.) The sixth song Barak and Deborah
sang in the day when the Lord delivered Sisera and his army into
the hands of the children of Israel, as it is written: “Then sang
Deborah, &c.” (Judg. v. 11.) The seventh song Hannah sang when a
son was given her by the Lord, as it is written: “And Hannah prayed
prophetically, and said.” (1 Sam. ii. 1, and the Targum in loco.)
The eighth song David the King of Israel sang for all the wonders
which the Lord did for him. He opened his mouth and sang a hymn, as
it is written: “And David sang in prophecy before the Lord.” (2
Sam. xxii. 1, and the Targum in loco.) The ninth song Solomon the
King of Israel sang by the Holy Spirit before God, the Lord of the
whole world. And the tenth song the children of the captivity shall
sing when they shall be delivered from their captivity, as it is
written and declared by Isaiah the prophet: “This song shall be
unto you for joy, as in the night in which the feast of the
passover is celebrated; and gladness of heart as when the people go
to appear before the Lord three times in the year, with all kinds
of music, and with the sound of the timbrel, to go up to the
mountain of the Lord, and to worship before the Lord, the Mighty
One of Israel.” (Is. xxx. 29, and the Targum in loco.)

2. Let him kiss me, &c.—Solomon the prophet said, “Blessed be the
name of the Lord who has given us the law through Moses the great
scribe, written upon two tables of stone; and the six parts of the
Mishna and the Talmud traditionally, and who spoke with us face to
face, as a man that kissed his friend, because of his great love
wherewith he loved us above the seventy nations.” [35]

3. Thy perfumes, &c.—At the report of thy wonders and mighty deeds
which thou hast done for thy people the house of Israel, all the
nations trembled who heard of thy famous strength, and thy great
miracles; and in all the earth was heard thy holy name, which is
more excellent than the anointing oil that was poured upon the
heads of kings and priests; therefore the righteous love to walk
after thy good way, because they shall inherit both this world and
the world to come.

4. Draw me, &c.—When the people of the house of Israel went out of
Egypt the shechinah of the Lord of the world went before them in a
pillar of cloud by day, and in a pillar of fire by night, and the
righteous of that generation said, Lord of the whole world, draw us
after thee, and we will run in thy good way! Bring us to the foot
of Mount Sinai, and give us thy law out of thy treasury in heaven,
and we will rejoice and be glad in the twenty-two letters [36] with
which it is written, and we will remember them, and love thy divine
nature, and withdraw ourselves from the idols of the nations; and
all the righteous, who do that which is right before thee, shall
fear thee and love thy commandments.

5. I am swarthy, &c.—When the house of Israel made the calf, their
faces became black, like the sons of Cush, who dwelt in the tents
of Kedar; but when they returned by repentance, and were forgiven,
the shining splendour of their faces was increased to that of
angels, because they made the curtains for the tabernacle, and the
shechinah of the Lord dwelt among them; and Moses, their teacher,
went up to heaven and made peace between them and their King.

6. Do not look down upon me, &c.—The congregation of Israel said
before all the nations, Do not despise me because I am blacker than
you, for I have done your deeds, and worshipped the sun and moon;
for false prophets have been the cause that the fierce anger of the
Lord has come upon me, and they taught me to worship your idols,
and to walk in your laws; but the Lord of the world, who is my God,
I did not serve, and did not walk in his precepts, and did not keep
his commandments and laws.

7. Tell me, &c.—When the time came for Moses the prophet to depart
from this world, he said to the Lord, It is revealed to me that
this people will sin, and be carried into captivity; show me now
how they shall be governed and dwell among the nations, whose
decrees are oppressive as the heat and the scorching sun in the
summer solstice, and wherefore is it that they shall wander among
the flocks of the sons of Esau and Ishmael, who make their idols
equal to thee, as though they were thy companions.

8. If thou knowest not, &c.—The Holy One, blessed be his name, said
to Moses, the prophet, “I suffer myself to be entreated to abolish
their captivity; the congregation of Israel, which is like a fair
damsel, and which my soul loves, she shall walk in the ways of the
righteous, and shall order her prayers according to the order of
her governors and leaders, and instruct her children, who are like
to the kids of the goats, to go to the synagogue and the schools;
and by the merits of this they shall be governed in the captivity,
until the time that I send King Messiah, and he shall lead them
quietly to their habitations; yea, he shall bring them to the house
of the sanctuary, which David and Solomon, the shepherds of Israel,
shall build for them.”

9. I compare thee, &c.—When Israel went out of Egypt, Pharaoh and
his hosts pursued after them with chariots and horsemen, and their
way was shut up on the four sides of them; on the right hand and on
the left were wildernesses full of fiery serpents, and behind them
was wicked Pharaoh with his army, and before them was the Red Sea,
what did the holy blessed God do? He was manifested in the power of
his might upon the Red Sea, and dried the sea up, but the mud he
did not dry up. The wicked and the mixed multitude, and the
strangers who were among them, said, The waters of the sea he was
able to dry up, but the mud he was not able to dry up. In that very
hour the fierce anger of the Lord came upon them, and he sought to
drown them in the waters of the sea, as Pharaoh, and his army, and
his chariots, and his horsemen, and his horses were drowned, had it
not been for Moses the Prophet, who spread his hands in prayer
before the Lord, and turned away the anger of the Lord from them.
Then he and the righteous of that generation opened their mouths,
and sang a song, and passed through the Red Sea on dry land,
through the merits of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, the beloved of the
Lord.

10. Beautiful are thy cheeks, &c.—When they went out into the
wilderness the Lord said to Moses, “How comely is this people, that
the words of the law should be given unto them, and they shall be
as a bridle in their jaws, that they may not depart out of the good
way, as a horse turneth not aside that has a bridle in his jaws;
and how fair is their neck to bear the yoke of my commandments; and
it shall be upon them as a yoke upon the neck of a bullock which
plougheth in the field, and feeds both itself and its owner.”

11. Circlets of gold, &c.—Then was it said to Moses, “Go up into
heaven, and I will give thee the two tables of stone, hewn out of
the sapphire of the throne of my glory, shining as the best gold,
disposed in rows, written with my finger, on which are engraven the
ten commandments, purer than silver that is purified seven times
seven, which is the number of the things explained in them in
forty-nine various ways, and I shall give them by thy hands to the
people of the house of Israel.”

12. While the King, &c.—Whilst Moses, their teacher, was in heaven
to receive the two tables of stone, and the law and the
commandments, the wicked of that generation and the mixed multitude
that was among them rose up and made a golden calf, and caused
their works to stink, and an evil report of them went out in the
world; for before this time a fragrant odour of them was diffused
in the world, but afterwards they stank like nard, the smell of
which is very bad, and the plague of leprosy came down upon their
flesh.

13. A bag of myrrh, &c.—At that time the Lord said to Moses, “Go
down, for the people have corrupted themselves, desist from
speaking to me, and I will destroy them.” Then Moses returned and
asked mercy of the Lord, and the Lord remembered for them the
binding of Isaac, whom his father bound, on Mount Moriah, upon the
altar; and the Lord turned from his fierce anger, and caused his
shechinah to dwell among them as before.

14. A bunch of cypress flowers, &c.—So then went Moses down with
the two tables of stone in his hands; and, because of the sins of
Israel, his hands grew heavy, and the tables fell and were broken.
Then went Moses and ground the calf to powder, and scattered the
dust of it upon the brook, and made the children of Israel to drink
it, and slew all that deserved to die, and went up a second time
into heaven, and prayed before the Lord, and made atonement for the
children of Israel; then was the commandment to make a tabernacle
and an ark. Immediately Moses hastened and made the tabernacle, and
all its furniture, and the ark; and he put in the ark the two other
tables, and appointed the sons of Aaron, the priests, to offer the
offerings upon the altar, and to pour the wine upon the offerings;
but from whence had they wine to pour? For in the wilderness they
had no proper place for sowing; neither had they fig-trees, nor
vines, nor pomegranates; but they went to the vineyards of En-gedi,
and took clusters of grapes from thence, and pressed wine out of
them, and poured it upon the altar, the fourth part of a hin to one
lamb.

15. Behold thou art beautiful, &c.—When the children of Israel
performed the will of their King, he himself praised them in the
family of the holy angels, and said, “How fair are thy works, my
daughter, my beloved, O congregation of Israel, in the time that
thou doest my will, and studiest in the words of my law; and how
well ordered are thy works and thy affairs, as young doves that are
fit to be offered upon the altar!”

16. Behold thou art comely, &c.—The congregation of Israel answered
before the Lord of the world, and thus said, “How fair is the
shechinah of thy holiness, when thou dwellest among us, and
receivest prayers with acceptance; and when thou dwellest in our
beloved bed, and our children are multiplied in the world, and we
increase and multiply like a tree that is planted by a stream of
water, whose leaf is fair, and whose fruit is plenteous!”

17. The beams of, &c.—Solomon, the prophet, said, “How beautiful is
the house of the sanctuary of the Lord, which is built by my hands,
of wood of Gulmish; but far more beautiful will be the house of the
sanctuary which shall be built in the days of the King Messiah, the
beams of which will be of the cedars of the garden of Eden, and
whose rafters will be of cypress, pine, and box.”

The precedent of the Talmud in taking the beloved as the Lord, and the loved one as the Congregation of Israel, and in explaining the text in such a manner as to make it square with her doings, has quite prepared us for the Chaldee exposition, the author of which most probably was himself one of the later Talmudists. How could the paraphrast do otherwise? “Are not the words of the sages more excellent than even the wine of the Law?” [37] “Is not he who transgresses the words of the scribes more guilty than he who transgresses the words of the Law?” [38] Having, therefore, been once settled by the sages that this Song describes the doings and sufferings of Israel, it only remained for the expositors to apply their exegetical canons, viz.: of transposing, changing, or omitting letters; explaining words by others of a similar sound; making each letter of a word begin another word; reducing an expression to its numerical value, and explaining the text accordingly, &c. &c., in order to palm upon this book, in a consecutive order, the remarkable events in connection with the history of the Jews.

Thus, the love of God to Israel, which was greater than to all the seventy other nations mentioned in Ch. i. 2, was obtained by reducing the word יין to its numerical value, seventy; the two worlds, in verse 3, which the pious are to inherit, were obtained by changing עלמות maidens, into עולמות worlds, according to the example of the Talmud; [39] the twenty-two letters with which the Law is written, in verse 4, were obtained by reducing the word בך to its numerical value; the Tabernacle, in verse 5, was obtained from the word ירעות, and the effected peace by changing the proper name שלמה into שלום peace; the worship of the sun and moon, in verse 6, was obtained from the word שמש sun; the ploughing bullock, in verse 10, was obtained by changing תורים ringlet, and חרוזים necklace, into תור חרז; the two tables shining as the best gold, verse 11, were obtained by rendering תורי זהב golden Laws, and the seven times seven, or the forty different interpretations of the Law, by reducing the word זהב to its numerical value, ז being seven, and ה and ב seven, and then multiplying seven by seven; the binding of Isaac, in verse 13, was obtained by rendering צרור המור by ערור המוריה the binding of Moriah; the sin of the calf, and the atonement of that, in verse 14, were obtained by changing עין גדי En-gedi, into עון עגל the sin of the calf, and by substituting כפר pardon, for כופר cypress-flower, according to the example of the Talmud. [40] This is the development of Hagadic exegesis, and this the paraphrase appealed to in support of the allegorical interpretation, and in the track of which future allegorists more or less follow.

892–942. From the Chaldee paraphrase to R. Saadias Gaon, a period of about 350 years, thick darkness covers the annals of Jewish literature. With him, however, a new epoch begins to dawn. Saadias was born at Pithom, in Egypt, about the year 892, and died in the year 942. He was “Gaon,” or spiritual head of the Jews in Babylon, and is well known by his translation of the Bible into Arabic, the Pentateuch of which is inserted in Walton’s Polyglott. [41] Among the many philosophical and exegetical works this eminent man bequeathed to posterity, is a commentary on the Song of Songs, which was originally written in Arabic, and was translated into Hebrew by some unknown individual. This work is exceedingly rare, and I have happily found a copy of the original Constantinople edition in the British Museum, of which Dukes was not aware when he wrote his “Literarische Mittheilungen.” The view that Saadias takes is that “Solomon relates in it the history of the Jews, beginning with their Exodus from Egypt, and extending it beyond the coming of the Messiah.” Thus far he agrees with the Targum, but his commentary on the text is entirely at variance with that paraphrase.

According to Saadias, Ch. i. 2–iii. 5, describes the bondage of Israel in Egypt, their liberation, the giving of the Law, the battles with Sihon, Og, and the King of Aroar, the wrath of God at the time of the spies, &c. Ch. iii. 6–iv. 7, describes the erection of the Tabernacle, the various journeys in the wilderness, the high position of Moses and Aaron, &c. Hitherto Israel has been called by the appellation my loved one, for they had not as yet entered Canaan; henceforth they are called bride (כלה), because God takes them into the promised land; just as a bridegroom calls his loved one bride, when he takes her home. Ch. iv. 8–v. 1, describes Israel’s entrance into Canaan, the building of the first Temple, the separation of Judah and Israel, the Shechinah departing from Israel and abiding with Judah, and the people coming up to Jerusalem to the three great festivals. Ch. v. 2–vi. 3, describes the rebellion of Israel and Ahaz, God sending prophets to warn them to repent, the destruction of the Temple, the Babylonian captivity, Israel’s liberation, the building of the second Temple, and the covenant of God with his repenting people. Ch. vi. 4–ix. describes the twofold condition of the people that returned from Babylon, some of whom were godly, while others took strange women, forgot the holy language, and were therefore called שחר dawn, being neither real light nor real darkness, neither pious nor wicked. Ch. vi. 10–vii. 9, refers to the present dispersion, in which the Jews, though being many days without a king, without a priest, &c., say we still live in the fear of God, and are His. Ch. vii. 12–viii. 4, refers to the sufferings of the Messiah ben Joseph, the manifestation of the Messiah ben David, the obedience of Israel to God in those days, and to the Lord’s rejoicing over them as a bridegroom over his bride. Ch. viii. 5, to the end, describes Israel restored, the third Temple built, and all the people walking according to the will of the Lord.

The principal persons in this Song are understood in the following manner: “the beloved” is the Lord; “the loved one,” the Congregation of Israel; “the companions of the beloved,” (Ch. i. 7,) are Moses, Aaron, and Miriam; “the daughters of Jerusalem,” the Congregation of Israel; “the little sister,” the two tribes and a half; “the speaker,” the Lord; “the inhabitant of the gardens,” is the sages; “the companions,” in the same verse, are the Israelites wishing to listen to the teaching of their sages.

The following is a specimen of R. Saadias’s commentary, the Hebrew of which is given in the note. [42]

1–3. The Song of Songs, &c.—Know, my brother, that you will find a
great diversity of opinions as regards the interpretation of this
Song of Songs; and it must be confessed that there is reason for
it, since the Song of Songs is like a lock, the key of which hath
been lost. Some maintain that it refers to the kingdom of Israel;
others say that it refers to the days of the Messiah; and others
again affirm that it refers to the time of the dispersion and the
Messiah, and assert that by beloved (דוד) the Messiah is meant,
and by bride (כלה) is meant the law (תורה). But this is a sin,
an error, and a great heresy. The truth is, that by beloved (דוד)
is meant the Lord, for it is written, “I will sing to my beloved a
song of love respecting his vineyard” (Isa. v. 1), which the
prophet Isaiah explains (verse 7), “The vineyard of the Lord of
Hosts is the house of Israel.” Solomon relates in this book the
history of the Jews commencing with their Exodus from Egypt until
after the coming of the Messiah, and compares the position of
Israel to God to that of a bride to a bridegroom, because she
(Israel) is dear to him, and he to her. When he first takes her
from her father’s house he calls her my friend (רעיתי), when he
brings her to his house he calls her my bride (כלה), when she
finds favour in his eyes he calls her my sister (אחותי), and
praises her from head to foot; then he is angry with her, and she
returns and praises him from head to foot; then he praises her a
second time. And, because it is unlawful for a bridegroom and bride
to come together without a marriage-contract and witnesses,
therefore Solomon begins with the words, “Let him give me kisses of
his mouth;” that is, the commandments and the statutes, comprising
both the written and the oral law which the Lord gave to Israel
through the pious Moses, Aaron, and Miriam, so that Israel’s fame
went forth into the world in consequence of their wisdom, as it is
written, “And thy renown went forth among the heathen for thy
beauty,” &c. (Ezek. xvi. 14), so much so that many of the nations
desired to be gathered under the wings of the shechinah and become
Jews; and these are the mixed multitudes, Jethro and others, and
therefore it is said, “Thy perfumes are good in odour,” that is,
the Lord tried them from the departure out of Egypt till their
entrance into Canaan whether they would walk in his ways, as it is
written, “Thou didst follow me in the wilderness,” &c. Jer. ii. 2.

4. Draw me, &c.—Having related in this verse how Israel walked in
the fear of the Lord, and received the ten commandments in the 6th
of Sivan, and then made the calf on the 17th of Tamuz, Solomon in
astonishment says in their name,

5. I am swarthy, &c.—That is, I am swarthy, but comely; I am
swarthy because of making the calf, but comely because of receiving
the ten commandments; and Israel says that his sin has been
forgiven through the three thousand men, the wicked among Israel,
who served idols, who were killed before the sun to atone for the
great sin, as it is written, “For thou hadst done it in secret, but
I will do it before all Israel, and before the sun” (2 Sam. xii.
11, 12); and the nations made me keeper of the service of other
gods, for I served strange gods, as it is written, “And they
changed their glory into the likeness of a calf that eateth grass”
(Psal. cv. 25.)

The reader will have observed that this early commentator does already compare the Song of Songs to a lock, the key of which has been lost, and refers to several modes in which it has been interpreted.

1000–1040. The allegorical interpretation was nevertheless introduced into the Jewish liturgical services in the middle ages, when they were seeking, from traditions, dogmas, biblical events, &c., to construct sacred hymns and poems to be said or sung at their feasts and fasts. [43] Being regarded as representing the departure of Israel from Egypt (יציאת מצרים), and their subsequent history in confirmation of Jehovah’s covenant with them, the Song of Songs is used in a poetical paraphrase on the first and second morning services of the Passover feast, which was designed to celebrate the Exodus from Egypt as the commencement of the conjugal relation between God and his people. For the same reason, the book itself is read in the synagogue on the Sabbath of the middle days of the Passover (חול המועד של פסח). The poetical paraphrase above alluded to is in an alphabetical form, has the author’s name in it, and each stanza closes with a quotation from the book in regular order, which renders the paraphrastic meaning artificial and obscure. Some idea of it may be gathered from the following version which we have made of R. Solomon ben Judah Hababli’s paraphrase, comprising the first five verses of the Song of Songs.

1 The Light and Saviour of the chosen people
Deserving protection,
He shall have from His beloved assembly
“A song of Songs.”

2 The Graceful One, the object of all longing desires.
The Reviving Cordial of the fainting heart,
The Bountiful Source of abundant supply,
“He hath kissed me with kisses.” [44]

3 The loved one above all nations,
The keeper of the Law Thou hast given,
Her didst Thou perfume with Thy spices,
“The odour of Thy sweet ointments.” [45]

4 The chosen of Thy house and nobles,
Lo! we are surrounded with splendour,
We press to the house of Thy glory,
“Oh draw us after thee.” [46]

5 Oh Thou all majestic, yet mild,
Thou hast crown’d me with grace above many,
Though now with grief I am marred,
“I am swarthy, but comely.” [47]

It must, however, be borne in mind that the synagogal poetry was not authorized to express the creed of the whole nation; which is evident from the fact that many learned and pious Jews unscrupulously, and without censure, rejected some of its opinions. Some of these poems were composed by prelectors of separate congregations, and for the use of the particular synagogues in which they officiated. The adoption or rejection of any such poem entirely depended upon the influence of the prelector on his congregation, and upon the theme and merit of the composition. The poetical paraphrase of the allegorical interpretation of the Song of Songs was sure to be adopted because of the consolation which it imparts to the dispersed and suffering Israelites, inasmuch as it assures them that God has not cast them off, that He is still their beloved, and they are still his loved ones, and that he will speedily be reunited to them.

1040–1105. Through R. Solomon ben Isaac, the founder of the Germano-French Rabbinical literature, this encouraging allegorical interpretation was introduced into Germany and France, where the suffering Jews obtained consolation. This distinguished commentator, commonly called Rashi, and, through the misleading of Buxtorf, erroneously named Jarchi, was born at Troyes, in Champagne, in 1040, where he also died, about 1105. [48]

“My opinion is,” says Rashi, “that Solomon foresaw, by the aid of the Holy Spirit, that Israel would be carried into sundry captivities, and undergo sundry dissolutions; that they would lament in their captivity over their former glory, and recall the former love, which God manifested for them above all other nations; that they would say, ‘I will go and return to my first husband, for then was it better with me than now’ (Hos. ii. 9); that they would acknowledge His kindness and their own rebellion, and the good things which He promised to give them in the latter days (i.e., at the coming of Messiah.)

“This book is written by inspiration, and represents a wife forsaken by her husband, and shut up, longing after him, recalling to her mind her love in youth to her beloved, and confessing her guilt; her beloved sympathising with her affection, and remembering the kindness of her youth, the charms of her beauty, and her good works, which had tied him to her with an everlasting love.

“The design of this book is to show to Israel that God has not afflicted her (i.e., Israel) willingly; that though He did send her away, He has not cast her off; that she is still His wife, and He her husband, and that He will again be united to her.” [49]

According to Rashi, דוד represents God as a husband, and the “loved one” the congregation of Israel, as a wife forsaken for a time by him; the “companions of the beloved” are the heathen kings and princes, under the figure of wolves; “the daughters of Jerusalem,” are the heathen nations; the “brothers of the loved one,” are the Egyptians; the “little sister” is the forsaken wife of the Song, &c. &c.

The following is a specimen of Rashi’s commentary:—

1. The Song of Songs, &c.—Our Rabbins state, that whenever Solomon
is mentioned in this Song, it signifies the Holy One, the King of
Peace. This is confirmed by the fact that the name of Solomon’s
father is not here given, as in Prov. i. 1 and Eccl. i. 1. This
most excellent Song was addressed to God by his people, the
congregation of Israel. Rabbi Akiba says, that the world was not
worthy of the day in which the Song of Songs was given to Israel;
for all the Scriptures are holy, but the Song of Songs is most
holy. Rabbi Eliezer ben Azariah says, it is like to a king who took
a measure of wheat, and gave it to the baker, saying, Produce from
it so much flour, so much bran, and so much chaff, and make me a
refined and excellent cake of the flour; so all Scriptures are
holy, but this Song is most holy; for the whole of this book
teaches the fear of God and submission to his kingdom.

2. Let him kiss me, &c.—This Song Israel utters in her captivity
and widowhood. Oh that King Solomon would give me kisses of His
mouth, as in the time of yore! Some kiss the hand, and others the
shoulders; but I desire that He should behave to me as in former
days, viz., kiss my mouth as a bridegroom kisses his bride; for Thy
caresses are better than all the banquets of wine, and all joys and
pleasures. It is a Hebrew idiom to call every banquet of pleasure
and joy by the name of wine (Comp. Esth. vii. 2; Isaiah xxiv. 9; v.
12). This is the literal sense; but, according to the allegory,
this refers to the giving of the Law, and God’s speaking with
Israel face to face. These favours still continue to be more
precious to them than any delights; and as they are assured by God
that He will appear again to reveal the secrets and mysteries of
the Law, Israel prays to Him for the fulfilment of His promises.
This is the meaning of “Let him kiss me!”

3. Thy perfumes, &c.—A good name is called good oil. The fragrance
of Thy name is so excellent that the ends of the earth have smelt
it when they heard of Thy fame and of Thy great wonders in Egypt.
Thy name is called שמן, i.e., Thou art oil, and art constantly
poured forth, so that Thy sweet odour might be widely diffused.
This is the nature of good oil. As long as it is sealed in a
bottle, it does not emit any smell; but when the bottle is opened,
and the oil poured into a vessel, the smell is diffused. The
maidens love thee. Jethro, hearing of the wonderful doings of God
in Egypt, confessed the God of Israel (Exodus xviii.); so Rahab,
when she heard that the Lord had dried up the waters of the Red
Sea, became a proselyte (Joshua ii. 11). By the maidens are meant
the Gentiles; they are so called because God is represented as a
youth.

4. Draw me, &c.—I gathered from Thy messengers that Thou didst wish
to draw me, and I immediately replied, We will run after Thee to be
Thy wife. He has brought me, &c. And up to the present time I still
rejoice, and am glad that I have been united to Thee. We celebrate,
&c. Even now, though a living widow, I celebrate Thy love more than
a banquet of pleasure and mirth. They love thee, &c. I and my
forefathers, in their days, have loved Thee with fervent and
upright love, without deception. This is the literal meaning
according to the context. But, according to the allegory, Israel
reminds God of the kindness of their youth and the love of their
espousals (Jer. ii. 2), of their following Him in the wilderness, a
land of aridity and the shadow of death, whither they took no
provisions, because they believed in Him and in His messenger, and
did not say, How shall we follow Thee in the wilderness, a place
destitute of fertility and food? but went after Him, and “He
brought them into his apartments:” that is, surrounded them with
the protecting clouds. And even now, though in distress and
affliction, they rejoice and are glad in Him and delight in the
Law; and herein celebrate His love more than wine, and manifest
their sincere attachment to Him.

5. I am swarthy, &c.—You, my companions, let me not be lightly
esteemed in your eyes, although my Husband forsook me because of my
swarthiness; for I am swarthy because of the tanning sun, yet I am
comely because of the symmetry of my beautiful limbs. If I am
swarthy, like the tents of Kedar, which are discoloured by the
rain, in consequence of their being constantly spread out in the
wilderness, I shall easily be washed, and be as beautiful as the
curtains of Solomon. The allegorical meaning is, the congregation
of Israel speaks this to the Gentiles,—I am swarthy in my own
works, but I am comely in the works of my fathers; and some of my
own works even are good. And though I am tainted with the sin of
the calf, I have, to counterbalance this, the merit of accepting
the Law. Israel calls the Gentiles “daughters of Jerusalem,”
because Jerusalem is to be the metropolis of all nations, as it is
predicted, “And I will give them to thee for daughters” (Ezek. xvi.
61); and, again, “Ekron and her daughters” (Josh. xv. 44).

Rashi also says, that he had seen “a number of other commentaries on this Song; some containing an exposition of the whole Book, and others of separate passages, but they are compatible neither with the language of Scripture, nor with the connexion of the verses.” [50]

1085–1155. The spread of this consoling allegorical interpretation in France and Germany was promoted by the commentary [51] of the distinguished R. Samuel ben Meier, called Rashbam, the grandson of Rashi, who was born about 1085, and died about 1155. [52]