Chapter I (20)

The position and form of the machinery is likewise affected by these conditions. Without the necessity of being protected from a rough sea, it is placed on the deck in an elevated position. The cylinders of large diameter and short stroke invariably used in Europe are unknown in America, and the proportions are reversed, a small diameter and stroke of great length being invariably adopted. It is rarely that two engines are used. A single engine, placed in the centre of the deck, with a cylinder from forty to sixty inches' diameter, and from eight to ten foot stroke, drives paddle-wheels from twenty-one to twenty-five feet in diameter, producing from twenty-five to thirty revolutions per minute. The great magnitude of the paddle-wheels and the velocity imparted to them enable them to perform the office of fly-wheels, and to carry the engine round its centres, not however without a perceptible inequality of motion, which gives to the American steamer an effect like that of a row boat advancing by starts with each stroke of the piston. The length of stroke adopted in these engines enables them to apply with great effect the expansive principle, which is almost universally used, the steam being generally cut off at half stroke.

The steamers which navigate the Hudson are vessels of considerable magnitude, splendidly fitted up for the accommodation of passengers; they vary from one hundred and eighty to two hundred and forty feet in length, and from twenty to thirty feet in width of beam. In the following table is given the particulars of nine steamers plying on this river, taken from [Pg494] the work of Mr. Stevenson, and from the paper of Mr. Renwick, inserted in the last edition of Tredgold:—

—————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————
| Length | Breadth | Draft | Drain | Length
Names. | of | of | of | of | of
| Deck. | Beam. | Water. | Wheel. | Paddles.
—————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————
| Ft. | Ft. | Ft. | Ft. | Ft.
Dewit Clinton | 230 | 28 | 5·5 | 21 | 13·7
Champlain | 180 | 27 | 5·5 | 22 | 15
Erie | 180 | 27 | 5·5 | 22 | 15
North America | 200 | 30 | 5 | 21 | 13
Independence | 148 | 26 | —— | —— | ——
Albany | 212 | 26 | —— | 24·5 | 14
Swallow | 233 | 22·5 | 3·75 | 24 | 11
Rochester | 200 | 25 | 3·75 | 23·5 | 10
Utica | 200 | 21 | 3·5 | 22 | 9·5
—————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————

—————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————
| Depth | Number | Drain | Length| Number | Part of
Names. | of | of | of | of | of | Stroke
| Paddles| Engines| Cylinder| Stroke| Revs | at which
| | | | | | it is
| | | | | | cut off.
—————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————
| In. | | In. | Ft. | |
Dewit Clinton | 36 | 1 | 65 | 10 | 29 | 3/4
Champlain | 34 | 2 | 44 | 10 | 27·5 | 1/2
Erie | 34 | 2 | 44 | 10 | 27·5 | 1/2
North America | 30 | 2 | 44·5 | 8 | 24 | 1/2
Independence | —— | 1 | 44 | 10 | |
Albany | 30 | 1 | 65 | —— | 19 |
Swallow | 30 | 1 | 46 | —— | 27 |
Rochester | 24 | 1 | 43 | 10 | 28 |
Utica | 24 | 1 | 39 | 10 | |
—————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————

None of these vessels have either masts or rigging, and consequently never derive any propelling power except from the engines: they are neither manned nor commanded by persons having any knowledge of navigation: the works that are visible above their decks are the beam and framing of the engine, and the chimneys.

The engines used for steamers on the Hudson, and other great rivers and bays on the eastern coast of America, are most commonly condensing engines, but they nevertheless work with steam of very high pressure, being seldom less than twenty-five pounds per square inch, and sometimes as much as fifty. By reference to the preceding table it will be seen, that the velocity of the piston greatly exceeds the limit generally observed in Europe. It is customary in European marine engines to limit the speed of the piston to about two hundred and twenty feet per minute. Even the piston of a locomotive engine does not much exceed the rate of three hundred feet per minute. In the American steamers, however, the pistons commonly move at the rate of from five to six hundred feet per minute, while the circumference of the paddle-wheels are driven at the rate of from twenty to twenty-two miles an hour. [Pg495]

The hulls of these boats are formed with a perfectly flat bottom and perpendicular sides, rounded at the angles, as represented in _fig._ 135. At the bow, or cutwater, they are made very sharp, and the deck projects to a great distance over the sides. The weight of the machinery is distributed over an extensive surface of the bottom of this feeble structure, by means of a frame-work of substantial carpentry to which it is attached.

At the height of from four to six feet above the water-line is placed the deck, which is a platform, having the shape of a very elongated ellipse. The extremities of its longer axis are supported by the sternpost and the cutwater, and its sides expand in gentle curves on either hand to a considerable distance beyond the limits of the hull; those parts of the deck thus overhanging the water are called the wheel guards.

Beneath the first deck is the saloon, or dining-room, which also, as is usual in European steamers, forms the gentlemen's sleeping-room. It usually extends from end to end of the vessel. The middle of the first deck is occupied by the engine, boilers, furnaces, and chimneys, of which latter there are generally two. Between the chimneys and the stern, above the first deck, is constructed the ladies' cabin, which is covered by the second deck, called the promenade deck. The great length of these boats and the elevation of the cabins render it impossible for a steersman at the stern to see ahead, and they are, consequently, steered from the bow; the wheel placed there communicating with the helm at the stern, by chains or rods carried along the sides of the boat. Until a recent period, the wheel was connected with the stern by ropes, but some fatal accidents, produced by fire, [Pg496] in which these ropes were burnt, and the steersman lost all power to guide the vessel, caused metal rods or chains to be substituted.

(232.) The paddle-wheels universally used in American steam-boats are formed, as if by the combination of two or more common paddle-wheels, placed one outside the other, on the same axle, but so that the paddle boards of each may have an intermediate position between those of the adjacent one, as represented in _fig._ 136.

The spokes, which are bolted to cast-iron flanges, are of wood. These flanges, to which they are so bolted, are keyed upon the paddle shaft. The outer extremities of the spokes are attached to circular bands or hoops of iron, surrounding the wheel; and the paddle boards, which are formed of hard wood, are bolted to the spokes. The wheels thus constructed, sometimes consist of three, and not unfrequently four, independent circles of paddle boards, placed one beside the other, and so adjusted in their position, that the boards of no two divisions shall correspond.

The great magnitude of the paddle-wheels, and the circumstance of the navigation being carried on, for the most part, in smooth water, have rendered unnecessary, in America, the adoption of any of those expedients for neutralising the effects of the oblique action of the paddles, which have been tried, but hitherto with so little success, in Europe.

(233.) Sea-going steamers are not numerous in America, the chief of them being those which ply between New York and Providence, and between New York and Charleston. These vessels, however, do not resemble the sea-going steamers of Europe as closely as might be expected; and to those who are accustomed to the latter, the sea-going [Pg497] steamers of America can hardly be regarded as safe means of transport.

In the following Table is given the dimensions of five of these vessels, all plying between New York and Providence:—

——————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————
| Length | Breadth | Draft | Diameter | Length
Names. | of | of | | of | of
| Deck. | Beam. | | Wheel. | Paddles.
——————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————
| Ft. | Ft. | Ft. | Ft. | Ft.
Providence | 180 | 27 | 9 | —— | ——
Lexington | 207 | 21 | —— | 23 | 9
Narragansett | 210 | 26 | 5 | 25 | 11
Massachusetts | 200 | 29·5 | 8·5 | 22 | 10
Rhode Island | 210 | 26 | 6·5 | 24 | 11
——————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————
—————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————
| Depth | Number | Diameter| Length| Number | Part of
Names. | of | of | of | of | of | Stroke
| Paddles| Engines| Cylinder| Stroke| Revs | at which
| | | | | | it is
| | | | | | cut off.
—————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————
| In. | | In. | Ft. | |
Providence | —— | 1 | 10 | 65 | |
Lexington | 30 | 1 | 11 | 48 | 24 |
Narragansett | 30 | 1 | 60 | 12 | 2 | 1/2
Massachusetts | 28 | 2 | 44 | 8 | 26 |
Rhode Island | 30 | 1 | 11 | 60 | 21 |
—————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————

The Narragansett, the finest of these vessels, is built of oak, strengthened by diagonal straps or ties of iron, by which her timbers are connected; she is driven by a condensing engine, and has two boilers, exposing about three thousand square feet of surface to the fire. The steam is maintained at a pressure of from twenty to twenty-five lbs. per square inch: the cylinder is horizontal.

The cabins of these sea-boats are of great magnitude, and afford excellent accommodation for passengers, containing generally four hundred berths. In the Massachusetts the chief cabin is one hundred and sixty feet long, twenty-two feet wide, and twelve feet in height, its vast extent being uninterrupted by pillars or any other obstruction. "I have dined," says Mr. Stevenson, "with one hundred and seventy-five persons in this cabin, and, notwithstanding this numerous assembly, the tables, which were arranged in two parallel rows, extending from one end of the cabin to the other, were far from being fully occupied, the attendance was good, and every thing was conducted with perfect regularity and order. There are one hundred and twelve fixed berths ranged round this cabin, and one hundred temporary berths can be erected in the middle of the floor: besides these there are sixty fixed berths in the ladies' cabin, and several temporary sleeping [Pg498] places can be erected in it also. The cabin of the Massachusetts is by no means the largest in the United States. Some steamers have cabins upwards of one hundred and seventy-five feet in length. Those large saloons are lighted by Argand lamps, suspended from the ceiling, and their appearance, when brilliantly lighted up and filled with company, is very remarkable. The passengers generally arrange themselves in parties at the numerous small tables into which the large tables are converted after dinner, and engage in different amusements. The scene resembles much more the coffee-room of some great hotel than the cabin of a floating vessel."

(234.) Nothing has excited more surprise among engineers and others interested in steam navigation in Europe, than the statements which have been so generally and so confidently made of the speed attained by American steamers. This astonishment is due to several causes, the chief of which is the omission of all notice of the great difference between the structure and operation of the American steamers and the nature of the navigation in which they are engaged, compared with the structure and operation of, and the navigation in which European steamers are employed: as well might the performance of a Thames wherry, or one of the fly-boats on the northern canals, be compared with that of the Great Western, or the British Queen. The statements alluded to all have reference to steamers navigating the Hudson between New York and Albany, the form and structure of which we have already described; and doubtless the greatest speed ever attained on the surface of water has been exhibited in the passages of these vessels.

Mr. Stevenson states, that exclusive of the time lost in stoppages, the voyage between New York and Albany is usually made in ten hours. Dr. Renwick, however, who has probably more extensive opportunities of observation, states, that the average time, exclusive of stoppages, is ten hours and a half. The distance being 125·18 geographical miles, the average rate would therefore be 11-9/10 miles per hour. If it be observed that the average rate of some of the best sea-going steamers in Europe obtained from experiments [Pg499] and observations made by myself, more than three years ago, showed a rate of steaming little less than ten geographical miles per hour, and that since that time considerable improvements in steam navigation have been made, and further, that these performances were made under exposure to all the disadvantages of an open sea, the difference between them and the performance of the American river steamers will cease to create astonishment.

Dr. Renwick states that he made, in a boat called the "New Philadelphia," one of the most remarkable passages ever performed. He left New York at five in the afternoon, with the first of the flood, and landed at Catskill, distant 95·8 geographical miles from New York, at a quarter before twelve. Passengers were landed and taken in at seven intermediate points: the rate, including stoppages, was therefore 14·2 miles per hour; and if half an hour be allowed for stoppages, the actual average rate of motion would be fifteen miles and three quarters an hour. As the current, which in this case was with the course of the vessel, did not exceed three miles and a half an hour, the absolute velocity through the water would have been somewhat under twelve miles an hour. This speed is nearly the same as the speed obtained from taking the average time of the voyages between New York and Albany at ten hours and a half; it would therefore appear that the great speed attained in this trip must have been chiefly, if not altogether, owing to the effect of the current.

(235.) The steamers which navigate the great northern lakes differ so little in their construction and appearance from the European steam-boats, that it will not be necessary here to devote any considerable space to an account of them. These vessels were introduced on the lakes at about the same time that steamers were first introduced on the Clyde. These steamers are strongly built vessels, supplied with sails and rigging, and propelled by powerful engines. The largest in 1837, when Mr. Stevenson visited the States, was the _James Madison_. This vessel was one hundred and eighty-one feet in length on the deck, thirty feet in breadth of beam, and twelve feet six inches in depth of hold: her draught of water was ten feet, and her measured capacity seven hundred [Pg500] tons. She plyed between Buffalo on Lake Erie and Chicago on Lake Michigan, a distance of nine hundred and fifty miles.

The severe storms and formidable sea encountered on the lakes render necessary for the navigation, vessels in all respects as strong and powerful as those which navigate the open ocean.

(236.) By far the most remarkable and important of all the American rivers is the Mississippi and its tributaries. That part of the American continent which extends from the southern shores of the great northern lakes to the northern shores of the Gulf of Mexico, is watered by these great streams. The main stream of the Mississippi has its fountains in the tract of country lying north of the Illinois and east of Lake Michigan, in latitude forty-three degrees. At about latitude thirty-nine degrees, a little north of St. Louis, it receives the waters of the Missouri, and further south, at the latitude of thirty-seven degrees, the Ohio flows into it, after traversing five degrees of longitude and four of latitude, and winding its way from the Alleghany range through several of the states, and forming a navigable communication with numerous important towns of the Union, among which may be mentioned Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Frankfort, Lexington, and Louisville. The main stream of the Mississippi, after receiving the waters of the Arkansas, and numerous other minor tributaries, flows into the Gulf of Mexico by four mouths. The main stream of the Mississippi, independently of its tributaries, forms an unbroken course of inland navigation for a distance of nearly two thousand three hundred miles. Its width, through a distance of one thousand one hundred miles from its mouth, is not less than half a mile, and its average depth a hundred feet. The Ohio, its chief eastern tributary, flowing into it at a distance of about a thousand miles from its mouth, traverses also about the same extent of country, and is navigable throughout the whole of that extent. This river also has several navigable tributaries of considerable extent, among which may be mentioned the Muskingum, navigable for one hundred and twenty miles; the Miami, navigable for seventy-five miles; the Scioto, navigable for one hundred and twenty [Pg501] miles; the Tennessee, navigable for two hundred and fifty miles; the Cumberland, navigable for four hundred and forty miles; the Kentucky, navigable for one hundred and thirty miles; and the Green River, navigable for one hundred and fifty miles. The total length of the Ohio and its tributaries is estimated at above seven thousand miles.

(237.) Steam-boats were introduced on the Mississippi about the year 1812, the period of their first introduction in Europe; and their increase has been rapid beyond all precedent. In the year 1831 there were one hundred and ninety-eight steamers plying on its waters; and the number in 1837 amounted to nearly four hundred. These vessels are built chiefly on the banks of the Ohio, at the towns of Pittsburg and Cincinnati, at distances of about two thousand miles from the mouth of the river they are intended to navigate.

(238.) These steamers, which are decidedly inferior to those which navigate the eastern waters, are generally of a heavy build, fitted to carry goods as well as passengers, and vary from one hundred to seven hundred tons burthen. Their draught of water is also greater than that of the eastern river steamers—varying from six to eight feet. The hull, at about five feet from the water line, is covered with a deck, under which is the hold, in which the heavy part of the cargo is stowed. About the middle of this deck the engines are placed, the boilers and furnaces occupying a space nearer to the bow, near which two chimneys are placed. The fire-doors of the furnaces are presented towards the bow, and exposed so as to increase the draught. That part of the first deck which extends from the machinery to the stern is the place allotted to the crew and the deck passengers, and is described as being filthy and inconvenient in the extreme. A second deck is constructed, which extends from the chimneys near the bow to the stern of the vessel. On this is formed the great cabin or saloon, which extends from the chimneys to within about thirty feet of the stern, where it is divided by a partition from the ladies' cabin, which occupies the remaining space. These principal cabins are surrounded by a gallery about three feet in width, from which, at convenient [Pg502] places, an ascent is supplied by stairs to the highest deck, called the hurricane or promenade deck.

(239.) The engines by which these boats are propelled are totally different from the machinery already described as used in the eastern steamers. They are invariably non-condensing engines, worked by steam of extremely high pressure; the boilers are therefore tubular, and the cylinders small in diameter, but generally having a long stroke.

The pressure of steam used in these machines is such as is never used in European engines, even when worked on railways. A pressure of one hundred pounds per inch is here considered extremely moderate. The captain of one of these boats, plying between Pittsburg and St. Louis, told Mr. Stevenson that "under ordinary circumstances his safety valves were loaded with a pressure equal to one hundred and thirty-eight pounds per square inch, but that the steam was occasionally raised as high as one hundred and fifty pounds to enable the vessel to pass parts of the river in which there is a strong current;" and he added, by way of consolation, that "this pressure was never exceeded except on _extraordinary occasions_!"

The dimensions and power of the Mississippi steamers may be collected from those of the St. Louis, a boat which was plying on that river in 1837. That vessel measured two hundred and fifty feet on deck, and had twenty-eight feet breadth of beam. Her draught of water was eight feet, and her measured capacity one thousand tons. She was propelled by two engines with thirty-inch cylinders, and ten feet stroke; the safety valve being loaded at one hundred pounds per square inch.

The paddle wheels of these vessels are attached to the paddle shaft, in such a manner as to be thrown into and out of gear, at discretion, by the engineer, so that the paddle shaft may revolve without driving the wheels: by this expedient the power of the engine is used to feed the boilers while the vessel stops at the several stations. The vessel is therefore stopped, not, as is usually the case, by stopping the engines, but by throwing the wheels out of connection with the paddle shaft. The engines continue to work, but their [Pg503] power is expended in forcing water into the boiler. By this expedient the activity of the engines may, within practical limits, be varied with the resistance the vessel has to encounter. In working against a strong current, the feed may be cut off from the boilers, and the production of steam, and consequently the power of the engines, thereby stimulated, while this suspension of the feed may be compensated at the next station.

The stoppages to take in goods and passengers, and for relays of fuel, are frequent. "The liberty which they take with their vessels on these occasions," says Mr. Stevenson, "is somewhat amusing: I had a good example of this on board a large vessel, called the Ontario. She was steered close in shore amongst stones and stumps of trees, where she lay for some hours to take in goods: the additional weight increased her draught of water, and caused her to heel a good deal; and when her engines were put in motion, she actually _crawled_ into the deep water on her paddle wheels: the steam had been got up to an enormous pressure to enable her to get off, and the volume of steam discharged from the escapement pipe at every half stroke of the piston made a sharp sound almost like the discharge of fire-arms, while every timber in the vessel seemed to tremble, and the whole structure actually groaned under the shocks."

Besides the steamers used for the navigation of the Mississippi, innumerable steam tugs are constantly employed in towing vessels between the port of New Orleans and the open sea of the Gulf of Mexico. Before the invention of steam navigation, this southern capital of the United States laboured under the disadvantage of possessing almost the only bad and inconvenient harbour in the vast range of coast by which the country is bounded. New Orleans lies at a distance of about one hundred miles from the Gulf of Mexico. The force of the stream, the frequency of shoals, and the winding course of the channel rendered it scarcely possible for a sailing vessel to pass between the port and the sea with the same wind. The anchorage was every where bad, and great difficulty and risk attended the mooring of large vessels to the banks. The steam engine has, however, overcome all [Pg504] these difficulties, and rendered the most objectionable harbour of the Union a safe and good seaport, perfectly easy of approach and of egress at all times; a small steam tug will take in tow several large ships, and carry them with safety and expedition to the offing, where it will dismiss them on their voyage, and take back vessels which may have arrived.

[Pg505]