Chapter IV: Post-Augustan Writers (1)

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS.

C.[72] Velleius Paterculus was born at latest B.C. 19, as he was quaestor-elect A.D. 6. He was descended from a distinguished family in Campania (Vell. ii. 16, 2; Liv. xxiii. 7 _sqq._). His father was a _praefectus equitum_ (ii. 104, 3). After some military experience in Thrace and Macedonia, Velleius accompanied C. Caesar, the grandson of Augustus, on his mission to the East, A.D. 1. His rank at this time was _tribunus militum_.

ii. 101, 2 (of the meeting of C. Caesar and the Parthian king), 'Sub initia stipendiorum meorum tribuno militum mihi visere contigit: quem militiae gradum ante sub patre tuo, M. Vinici, et P. Silio auspicatus in Thracia Macedoniaque, mox Achaia Asiaque et omnibus ad Orientem visis provinciis et ore atque utroque maris Pontici latere, haud iniucunda tot rerum, locorum, gentium, urbium recordatione fruor.'

In A.D. 4, as _praefectus equitum_, he accompanied Tiberius to Germany: ii. 104, 3, 'Hoc tempus me, functum ante tribunatu, castrorum Ti. Caesaris militem fecit; quippe protinus ab adoptione missus cum eo praefectus equitum in Germaniam, successor officii patris mei, caelestissimorum eius operum per annos continuos viii. praefectus aut legatus spectator et pro captu mediocritatis meae adiutor fui.'

In A.D. 6, when quaestor-elect, he commanded reinforcements sent from Rome to Tiberius in Pannonia, and at the expiration of his term of office as quaestor in Rome, he returned to Tiberius as a _legatus_: ii. 111, 3, 'Habuit in hoc quoque bello mediocritas nostra speciosi ministerii locum. Finita equestri militia designatus quaestor necdum senator aequatus senatoribus, etiam designatis tribunis plebei, partem exercitus ab urbe traditi ab Augusto perduxi ad filium eius. In quaestura deinde remissa sorte provinciae legatus eiusdem ad eumdem missus sum.'

In A.D. 9 Velleius served in Dalmatia (ii. 115, 5), afterwards spending two years in Germany (ii. 104, 3 above). In the winter of A.D. 12-13 he took part in the triumph of Tiberius: ii. 121, 2, 'Ex Pannoniis Delmatisque egit triumphum ... quem mihi fratrique meo inter praecipuos praecipuisque donis adornatos viros comitari contigit.'

Velleius was praetor-elect in A.D. 14: ii. 124, 4, 'Quo tempore mihi fratrique meo, candidatis Caesaris, proxime a nobilissimis ac sacerdotalibus viris destinari praetoribus contigit, consecutis ut neque post nos quemquam divus Augustus neque ante nos Caesar commendaret Tiberius.'

The publication of his history, sixteen years later, is the only circumstance recorded of Velleius after this date.

The _Historia Romana_, in two Books, was published A.D. 30, in the consulship of M. Vinicius, to whom the book is addressed (i. 8, 1, and often). The beginning of Book i. is lost; the first eight chapters in our text are occupied with a rapid survey of the history of Greece since the Trojan war, the Phoenician settlements in the Mediterranean, and the chief events in the history of the world before the foundation of Rome. C. 8 breaks off at the rape of the Sabine women, and there is a great lacuna before we reach, in c. 9, the defeat of Perseus at Pydna in B.C. 168. Ch. 9-13 carry the narrative down to the destruction of Carthage and Corinth. Book ii. commences at that point, and ends with the death of Livia, A.D. 29 (ii. 130, 5, 'cuius temporis aegritudinem auxit amissa mater').

Velleius is constantly calling attention to the brevity and compression of his treatment, in such phrases as 'omnia transcursu dicenda' (ii. 55), 'artatum opus' (ii. 86), 'recisum opus' (ii. 89). Much that the plan of his book compels him to omit, he promises to publish later in a larger work, _e.g._ ii. 99, 3, 'iusto servemus operi,' ii. 114, 4, 'iustis voluminibus ordine narrabimus.' Even as it is, he occasionally pauses to describe a great character (ii. 41, Caesar), or to express his personal opinion (ii. 66, 3, denunciation of Antony for Cicero's murder). Specially noticeable are the digressions on the Roman colonies (i. 14-15) and provinces (ii. 38-39), on the prominence of different types of genius at certain epochs (i. 16-18), and on literary history (ii. 9, the chief writers of the time of the Gracci; ii. 36, of the Ciceronian and Augustan ages; i. 5, praise of Homer; i. 7, of Hesiod). As is natural in so short a book, Velleius names very few authorities.

The motive of the history is evidently the glorification of the author's old general, Tiberius, whose actual reign, however, he dismisses in eight chapters. Probably he felt the subject too risky, and devoted his strength to the earlier life of Tiberius, which occupies the greater part even of the chapters nominally devoted to the reign of Augustus (ii. 59-123). Tiberius is spoken of throughout in terms of unqualified praise, and no hint is given of the darker side of his character. Seianus also is extolled (ii. 127-8), as he was in high favour at the time when Velleius wrote.

VALERIUS MAXIMUS.

Nothing is known of the life of Valerius Maximus beyond the fact that he visited Asia in company with Sex. Pompeius, the friend of Ovid and of Germanicus. Pompeius was consul A.D. 14, and between A.D. 27 and 30 became proconsul of Asia.

Val. Max. ii. 6, 8, 'Consuetudinem ... illam etiam in insula Cea servari animadverti, quo tempore Asiam cum Sex. Pompeio petens Iulidem oppidum intravi.'

Valerius dwells on his obligations to Pompeius in his chapter on friendship (iv. 7, _ext._ 2).

His sole work, _Facta et Dicta Memorabilia_, in nine books, is a collection of notable incidents and sayings, classified under appropriate headings, for the convenience of speakers seeking illustrations for their subject-matter. Cf. the preface, 'Urbis Romae exterarumque gentium facta simul ac dicta memoratu digna, quae apud alios latius diffusa sunt quam ut breviter cognosci possint, ab illustribus electa auctoribus digerere constitui, ut documenta sumere volentibus longae inquisitionis labor absit.'

The _illustres auctores_ from whom he draws most of his material are Livy, Cicero (each mentioned only once), Sallust, and Trogus; but thirteen Latin and twenty Greek authors are mentioned by name. He frequently misrepresents his authorities.

Each book is divided into chapters on separate topics (_e.g._ _De Pudicitia_), under each of which he gives (1) illustrations from Roman history, (2) those from the history of other nations. The latter of course are few in comparison.

Although Iulius Paris, the epitomizer of Valerius, speaks of ten books, only nine are extant, and it may be doubted whether there ever was a tenth. Book i. is mutilated.

There are only two passages which throw any light on the date of composition--viii. 11, _ext._ 4, a denunciation of Seianus, obviously written after his fall in A.D. 31; and vi. 1 praef., before the death of Livia, A.D. 29. The work was published at latest in A.D. 37, for it is dedicated to Tiberius, who is the object of the most servile flattery (_e.g._ ii. 9, 6); similar language is used of Iulius Caesar (iv. 5, 6), and Augustus (i. 7, 1), while Brutus and Cassius are denounced as parricides (i. 5, 7; i. 8, 8).

Two abridgments of Valerius Maximus are extant.

CELSUS.

Of the life of Celsus nothing is known; but he was an older contemporary of Columella. Colum. iii. 17, 4, 'Iulius Atticus et Cornelius Celsus, aetatis nostrae celeberrimi auctores, patrem atque filium Sasernam secuti.'

He wrote an encyclopaedic work on agriculture, medicine, war, rhetoric, and philosophy, but only the section on medicine is extant.

Quint. xi. 12, 24, 'Cum etiam Cornelius Celsus, mediocri vir ingenio, non solum de his omnibus conscripserit artibus sed amplius rei militaris et rusticae et medicinae praecepta reliquerit.'

The first part consisted of five books on agriculture: cf. Colum. i. 1, 14, 'Cornelius totum corpus disciplinae quinque libris complexus est.' This section of the work was probably written in the reign of Tiberius, for it was known to Iulius Graecinus, whose execution took place under Caligula. Plin. _N.H._ xiv. 33, 'Graecinus, qui alioqui Cornelium Celsum transcripsit.'

There are eight books _De Re Medica_. The only indication of their date is in iv. 7, where Celsus mentions a prescription as not found 'in monumentis medicorum.' As this prescription is given by Scribonius Largus, who wrote about A.D. 47, Celsus must have written before that year.

The section on war was used by Vegetius (_De Re Mil._ i. 8).

Rhetoric was also treated in the encyclopaedia. Quintilian, who mentions him as one of the more careful writers on that subject (iii. 1, 21, 'accuratius scripsit Celsus'), frequently combats his opinions and speaks of him rather contemptuously: _e.g._ ix. 1, 18, 'Cornelius Celsus nimia profecto novitatis cupidine ductus. Nam quis ignorasse eruditum alioqui virum credat,' etc. He may be the Celsus of Juv. 6, 245, who (according to the Scholiast) wrote a manual of rhetoric in seven books.

There were also six books on the history of philosophy. Augustine _de haeres. prol._, 'Opiniones omnium philosophorum qui sectas varias condiderunt usque ad tempora sua vi. non parvis voluminibus quidam Celsus absolvit; nec redarguit aliquem, sed tantum quid sentirent aperuit. Cum ferme centum philosophos nominasset,' etc.

Celsus also wrote separate treatises (1) on philosophy, Quint. x. 1, 24, 'Scripsit non parum multa Cornelius Celsus, Sextios secutus, non sine cultu ac nitore'; (2) on strategy (Lydus _de mag._ i. 47).

PHAEDRUS.

The title of Phaedrus' work, 'Phaedri Augusti liberti fabularum Aesopiarum libri,' probably means that he was a freedman of Augustus. Tiberius is called 'Caesar Tiberius' in ii. 6, 7; contrast the reference to Augustus, iii. 10, 39, 'a divo Augusto.' Phaedrus was born in Thrace, possibly in the district of Pieria; but the date is unknown; iii. prol. 17,

'Ego, quem Pierio mater enixa est iugo,
in quo tonanti sancta Mnemosyne Iovi
fecunda novies artium peperit chorum';

_ibid._ 54,

'Ego, litteratae qui sum propior Graeciae,
cur somno inerti deseram patriae decus?
Threissa cum gens numeret auctores suos,
Linoque Apollo sit parens, Musa Orpheo.'

Some wrongly take these allusions to mean that he belongs to the realm of poesy. That he came to Rome early is shown by the knowledge of Latin literature he acquired in his boyhood. Cf. iii. epil. 33, where he quotes Ennius,

'Ego, quondam legi quam puer sententiam,
"Palam mutire plebeio piaculum est,"
dum sanitas constabit, pulchre meminero.'

After publishing two books of fables, Phaedrus was persecuted by Seianus, in some way unknown; iii. prol. 38,

'Ego porro illius [Aesopi] semita feci viam,
et cogitavi plura quam reliquerat,
in calamitatem deligens quaedam meam.
Quod si accusator alius Seiano foret,
si testis alius, index alius denique,
dignum faterer esse me tantis malis.'

This persecution may have arisen from references in his fables, such as i. 1 (Lupus et agnus), l. 14,

'Haec propter illos scripta est homines fabula,
qui fictis causis innocentes opprimunt';

i. 6 (Ranae ad solem), which Nisard[73] thinks refers to the ambitious marriage which Seianus projected with Livia, daughter of Germanicus, 'The sun dries up the ponds; what will happen if the sun marries and has children?' l. 9,

'Quidnam futurum est, si crearit liberos?'

Phaedrus survived the attacks made on him, and Book v. was written in his old age (see below).

Several personal points are clear from his writings:

(1) He had to meet the attacks of critics; ii. epil. 10,

'Si livor obtrectare curam voluerit,
non tamen eripiet laudis conscientiam.'

(2) His desire for fame and his self-consciousness; iii. prol. 60,

'Ergo hinc abesto livor, ne frustra gemas,
quoniam sollemnis mihi debetur gloria.'

(3) His contempt for money; iii. prol. 21,

'Curamque habendi penitus corde eraserim';

v. 4, 7,

'Huius respectu fabulae deterritus
periculosum semper vitavi lucrum.'

Phaedrus wrote five Books of fables. Many have certainly been lost. Cf. his reference to tree-fables, none of which we have; i. prol. 6,

'quod arbores loquantur, non tantum ferae.'

There are, besides the five Books, thirty fables usually printed as an appendix, and probably composed by Phaedrus. The fables are all in 'impure' iambic senarii, like those of Terence and Publius Syrus. Phaedrus followed Aesop, but, as he affirms, not slavishly; i. prol. 1,

'Aesopus auctor quam materiam repperit,
hanc ego polivi versibus senariis';

iv. prol. 10,

'fabulis
quas Aesopias, non Aesopi, nomino.'

We have the Greek originals for about a third of the fables; but Phaedrus speaks of his additions to Aesop; ii. prol. 8,

'Equidem omni cura morem servabo senis;
sed si libuerit aliquid interponere,
dictorum sensus ut delectet varietas,
bonas in partes, lector, accipias velim.'

Stories from contemporary or recent history are given in ii. 6, 7; iii. 10; v. 7.

Books i. and ii. were published under Tiberius; Book iii. was published after Tiberius' death (cf. iii. prol. 33), and is dedicated to Eutychus, who has been identified with a favourite slave of Caligula. Book iv. followed, addressed to Particulo (iv. prol. 10). Book v., addressed to Philetes, was written in the poet's old age; v. 10, 7,

'Cui senex contra Lacon:
"Non te destituit animus, sed vires meae.
Quod fuimus, lauda, si iam damnas, quod sumus."
Hoc cur, Philete, scripserim, pulchre vides.'

Martial is the only classical writer who refers to Phaedrus; iii. 20, 5,

'An aemulatur improbi iocos Phaedri?'

SENECA THE YOUNGER.

(1) LIFE.

L. Annaeus Seneca, the son of Annaeus Seneca, the rhetor, was born at Corduba in Spain. For information about his family see under 'Seneca the elder,' pp. 226-7. He was probably born about the beginning of our era, as he seems to have remembered Asinius Pollio, who died A.D. 5, and had passed his boyhood in A.D. 19, when the Jewish and Egyptian rites were expelled from Rome.

Sen. _de tranquill. animi_, 17, 7, 'Qualem Pollionem Asinium meminimus, quem nulla res ultra decimam [horam] retinuit.'

_Ep._ 108, 22, 'In Tiberii Caesaris principatum iuventae tempus inciderat: alienigena tum sacra movebantur.'

At an early age Seneca was brought to Rome by his mother's sister, who was probably the wife of Vitrasius Pollio, prefect of Egypt for sixteen years.

_Ad Helv._ 19, 2, 'Illius manibus in urbem perlatus sum.'

Seneca's mother took a great interest in his education, which was conducted under Fabianus Papirius (cf. _Ep._ 100, 9, etc.) and Sotion the Pythagorean, of Alexandria, pupils of Sextius (for Seneca's study of whom see _Ep._ 64).

_Ad Helv._ 15, 1, 'Vera vis materni doloris oritur ... "ubi studia, quibus libentius quam femina, familiarius quam mater intereram?"'

_Ep._ 108, 17, 'Dicebat [Sotion] quare ille animalibus abstinuisset, quare postea Sextius ... § 22. His ego instinctus abstinere animalibus coepi et anno peracto non tantum facilis erat mihi consuetudo, sed dulcis.'

The elder Seneca put an end to this abstinence, which was associated in the popular view with foreign superstitions (see _Ep._ 108, 17-23). This must have happened about A.D. 19. The influence of Sotion is seen in passages imitated from his book _de ira cohibenda_ by Seneca. Seneca also studied under Attalus, a Greek Stoic, possibly about A.D. 20.

_Ep._ 108, 13-15, 'Ego certe cum Attalum audirem in vitia, in errores, in mala vitae perorantem, saepe misertus sum generis humani et illum sublimem altioremque humano fastigio credidi ... Inde mihi quaedam permansere, Lucili. Magno enim in omnia inceptu veneram. Deinde ad civitatis vitam reductus ex bene coeptis pauca servavi: inde ostreis boletisque in omnem vitam renuntiatum est.'

Seneca speaks of his change of studies and occupations in _Ep._ 49, 2, 'Modo apud Sotionem philosophum puer sedi. Modo causas agere coepi. Modo desii velle agere, modo desii posse.'

In A.D. 31 Seneca was probably still at Rome; cf. _N.Q._ i. 1, 3, 'Vidimus [prodigium] eo tempore, quo de Seiano actum est.' Lipsius' inference[74] that Seneca made a voyage to Egypt about this time is probable, though Seneca himself gives no direct information about it. According to this theory his host was Vitrasius Pollio, prefect of Egypt. While in Egypt, Seneca was attacked by illness, and escaped death by his aunt's care. Cf. _ad Helv._ 19, 2, 'Illius pio maternoque nutricio per longum tempus aeger convalui.' Seneca accompanied Vitrasius when he resigned his office and returned with his wife to Italy A.D. 32 (Dio, lviii. 19, 6). They suffered shipwreck, and Vitrasius perished.

_Ad Helv._ 19, 4, 'Sed si prudentiam perfectissimae feminae novi, non patietur te nihil profuturo maerore consumi et exemplum tibi suum, cuius ego etiam spectator fui, narrabit. Carissimum virum amiserat, avunculum nostrum, cui virgo nupserat, in ipsa quidem navigatione: tulit tamen eodem tempore et luctum et metum evictisque tempestatibus corpus eius naufraga evexit.'

This theory is supported by the fact that Seneca wrote a work 'de ritu (al., situ) et sacris Aegyptiorum' (Serv. _ad Aen._ vi. 154).

Through his aunt's influence Seneca obtained the quaestorship.

_Ad Helv._ 19, 2, 'Illa pro quaestura mea gratiam suam extendit, et quae ne sermonis quidem aut clarae salutationis sustinuit audaciam, pro me vicit indulgentia verecundiam.'

Seneca's quaestorship must have been after the death of his aunt's husband, in A.D. 32, as the above passage shows, and before the death of Tiberius in A.D. 37, as it was with Tiberius that his aunt's influence lay, on account of her husband's services. After his quaestorship Seneca appears to have married (cf. _de ira_, iii. 36, 3, etc.). His wife must have died before A.D. 57, as in that year Seneca married Pompeia Paulina; cf. Dio, lxi. 10, 3, +gamon epiphanestaton egême+. By his first wife he had three sons (_ad Helv._ 2, 5).

While senator, Seneca incurred the jealousy of Caligula, and in A.D. 39 narrowly escaped death.

Dio, lix. 19, 7, +ho de dê Senekas ... diephtharê par' oligon, mêt' adikêsas ti, mête doxas, hoti dikên tina en tô synedriô parontos autou kalôs eipe+. For Seneca's attacks on Caligula cf. _ad Helv._ 10, 4; _Apocol._ 15, etc.

Sueton. _Cal._ 53, 'Peroraturus "stricturum se lucubrationis suae telum" minabatur; lenius comtiusque scribendi genus adeo contemnens, ut Senecam, tum maxime placentem, "commissiones meras" componere, et "harenam esse sine calce" diceret.'

In A.D. 41 Seneca was banished to Corsica, through the agency of Messalina, on the charge of adultery with Iulia Livilla, sister of Caligula, but really because he was suspected of belonging to the faction of Agrippina.

Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 42, 'Nec Suillius questu aut exprobratione abstinebat ... et Senecam increpans infensum amicis Claudii, sub quo iustissimum exilium pertulisset ... Se quaestorem Germanici, illum domus eius adulterum fuisse.'

Seneca was tried before the Senate, and Claudius prevented his execution.

_Ad Polyb._ 13, 2, 'Deprecatus est pro me senatum, et vitam mihi non tantum dedit, sed etiam petiit.'

While in Corsica he devoted himself to literature and science. Cf. _ad Helv._ 20, 1 (written in exile), 'Animus omnis occupationis expers operibus suis vacat et modo se levioribus studiis oblectat, modo ad considerandam suam universique naturam veri avidus insurgit: terras primum situmque earum quaerit.'

The _Consolatio ad Polybium_, written during this time, is full of flattery of Claudius.

Dio, lxi. 10, 2, +tên Messalinan kai tous tou Klaudiou exeleutherous ethôpeuen hôste kai biblion sphisin ek tês nêsou pempsai epainous autôn echon, ho meta tauta hyp' aischynês apêleipse+.

Seneca was recalled at the beginning of A.D. 49, became Nero's tutor (although he wished to visit Athens), and obtained the praetorship through the influence of Agrippina, with whom his name was coupled by popular rumour.

Tac. _Ann._ xii. 8, 'At Agrippina, ne malis tantum facinoribus notesceret, veniam exilii pro Annaeo Seneca, simul praeturam inpetrat, laetum in publicum rata ob claritudinem studiorum eius, utque Domitii pueritia tali magistro adulesceret et consiliis eiusdem ad spem dominationis uterentur, quia Seneca fidus in Agrippinam memoria beneficii et infensus Claudio dolore iniuriae credebatur.'

Schol. on _Iuv._ 5, 105, 'Revocatus ... etsi magno desiderio Athenas intenderet ab Agrippina tamen in palatium adductus.'

Dio, lxi. 10, 1, +ou gar apechrêsen autô tên Ioulian moicheusai, oude beltiôn ek tês phygês egeneto, alla kai tê Agrippinê eplêsiazen.+

For Seneca's tutorship cf. also Sueton. _Nero_, 52, 'Liberales disciplinas omnes fere puer attigit. Sed a philosophia eum mater avertit, monens imperaturo contrariam esse: a cognitione veterum oratorum Seneca praeceptor, quo diutius in admiratione sui detineret.'

It is probable that Seneca was, like Nero, privy to the murder of Claudius in A.D. 54. Cf. his sarcasms against Claudius in his _Apocolocyntosis_.

Sueton. _Nero_ 33 (of Nero), 'Cuius [Claudi] necis etsi non auctor, at conscius fuit: neque dissimulanter, ut qui boletos, in quo cibi genere venenum is acceperat, quasi deorum cibum, posthac proverbio Graeco conlaudare sit solitus.'

Seneca wrote for Nero a speech which he delivered on the occasion of Claudius' death.

Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 3, 'Die funeris laudationem eius princeps exorsus est; dum antiquitatem generis, consulatus ac triumphos maiorum enumerabat, intentus ipse et ceteri; liberalium quoque artium commemoratio, et nihil regente eo triste rei publicae ab externis accidisse, pronis animis audita. Postquam ad providentiam sapientiamque flexit, nemo risui temperare, quamquam oratio a Seneca composita multum cultus praeferret, ut fuit illi viro ingenium amoenum et temporis eius auribus accommodatum.'

He acted as a check on Nero (Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 6; 11), and baffled Agrippina's vengeance and ambition.

Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 2, 'Ibaturque in caedes, nisi Afranius Burrus et Annaeus Seneca obviam issent. (Ch. 5) Quin et legatis Armeniorum causam gentis apud Neronem orantibus escendere suggestum imperatoris et praesidere simul parabat, nisi ceteris pavore defixis Seneca admonuisset, venienti matri occurreret.'

Seneca interfered to shelter Nero in his amour with Acte, A.D. 55, and used the occasion to stir up feud between Agrippina and Nero (Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 13). Hence followed an attack by Agrippina on Seneca.

Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 14, 'Audiretur hinc Germanici filia, inde debilis rursus Burrus et exsul Seneca, trunca scilicet manu et professoria lingua generis humani regimen expostulantes.'

It is unlikely that Seneca opposed the murder of Britannicus (Feb. A.D. 55). Cf. Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 17, 'Facinus cui plerique iam hominum ignoscebant, antiquas fratrum discordias et insociabile regnum aestimantes.'[75]

Seneca took part shortly afterwards in the trial in which Agrippina was found not guilty (Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 20-21). There are many references to Seneca's great power and wealth at this time.[76]

Cf. Dio, lxi. 4, 1, +autoi+ (Seneca and Burrus) +tên archên hapasan parelabon kai diôkêsan eph' hoson êdynêthêsan arista kai dikaiotata.+

Tac. _Ann._ xiv. 53 (Seneca addressing Nero in A.D. 62), 'Quartus decimus annus est, Caesar, ex quo spei tuae admotus sum, octavus, ut imperium obtines: medio temporis tantum honorum atque opum in me cumulasti, ut nihil felicitati meae desit nisi moderatio eius... At tu gratiam immensam, innumeram pecuniam circumdedisti, adeo ut plerumque intra me ipse volvam, "Egone, equestri et provinciali loco ortus, proceribus civitatis adnumeror? ... Talis hortos extruit, et per haec suburbana incedit, et tantis agrorum spatiis, tam lato faenore exuberat?"'

Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 42 (speech of Suillius, A.D. 58), 'Qua sapientia, quibus philosophorum praeceptis, intra quadriennium regiae amicitiae ter miliens sestertium paravisset?' (Dio, lxi. 10, 2, gives his wealth as 75,000,000 denarii).

Seneca had many estates both in Italy (_Ep._ 123, 1, etc.) and abroad, and lent money abroad, even in Britain. His attraction to finance is seen in the number of metaphors he draws from that subject.

Sen. _vit. beat._ 17, 2, 'Cur trans mare possides? cur plura quam nosti?'

Dio, lxii. 2, 1 (of the rising of the Britons under Boudicca), +ho Senekas chilias sphisi myriadas akousin epi chrêstais elpisi tokôn daneisas, epeit' athroas te hama autas kai biaiôs eiseprassen.+

His attack on usury (_de ben._ vii. 10, 3) is a piece of theoretic philosophy.

In A.D. 57 Seneca was consul suffectus (Ulpian, _Dig._ xxxvi. 1). In A.D. 58 he brought about the downfall of the former delator, P. Suillius. Cf. Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 42, 'Variis deinde casibus iactatus et multorum odia meritus reus, haud tamen sine invidia Senecae damnatur. Is fuit P. Suillius.' Seneca is thought to have been implicated in Agrippina's murder in A.D. 59. He wrote to the Senate for Nero an account of her death.

Tac. _Ann._ xiv. 7 (Nero says after the fruitless attempt of Anicetus to kill Agrippina), 'Quod contra subsidium sibi nisi quid Burrus et Seneca expedirent? Quos statim acciverat, incertum an aperiens, et ante ignaros. Igitur longum utriusque silentium, ne inriti dissuaderent; an eo descensum credebant, ut, nisi praeveniretur Agrippina, pereundum Neroni esset? Post Seneca, hactenus promptius, ut respiceret Burrum, ac sciscitaretur an militi imperanda caedes esset. (Ch. 11) Ergo non iam Nero, cuius immanitas omnium questus anteibat, sed Seneca adverso rumore erat, quod oratione tali confessionem scripsisset.'

The death of Burrus in A.D. 62 weakened the power of Seneca, who resolved to retire. His request, however, was not granted by Nero (Tac. _Ann._ xiv. 55-6), but he reduced his establishment, and lived in semi-privacy.

Tac. _Ann._ xiv. 52, 'Mors Burri infregit Senecae potentiam, quia nec bonis artibus idem virium erat altero velut duce amoto, et Nero ad deteriores inclinabat. Hi variis criminationibus Senecam adoriuntur ... Certe finitam Neronis pueritiam, et robur iuventae adesse. Exueret magistrum, satis amplis doctoribus instructus maioribus suis. (Ch. 56) Instituta prioris potentiae commutat, prohibet coetus salutantium, vitat comitantis, rarus per urbem, quasi valetudine infensa aut sapientiae studiis domi attineretur.'

Later in A.D. 62, came an unsuccessful attempt to ruin Seneca. Tac. _Ann._ xiv. 65, 'Romanus secretis criminationibus incusaverat Senecam ut Gai Pisonis socium; sed validius a Seneca eodem crimine perculsus est.'

In A.D. 64, on the occasion of the burning of Rome by Nero, Seneca wished to retire. He is said to have offered money to repair the disasters of the fire.

Tac. _Ann._ xv. 45, 'Ferebatur Seneca, quo invidiam sacrilegii a semet averteret, longinqui ruris secessum oravisse, et postquam non concedebatur, ficta valetudine, quasi aeger nervis, cubiculum non egressus.'

Dio, lxii. 25, 3, +pasan autô tên ousian epi tê tôn oikodomoumenôn prophasei kecharismenos.+

The story given in Tac. _Ann._ xv. 45 of the attempt to poison Seneca probably arose from his abstemious habits.

'Tradidere quidam venenum ei per libertum ipsius cui nomen Cleonicus paratum iussu Neronis, vitatumque a Seneca proditione liberti seu propria formidine, dum persimplici victu et agrestibus pomis, ac si sitis admoneret, profluente aqua vitam tolerat.'

In A.D. 65 Seneca was implicated in the conspiracy of Piso, and was forced to commit suicide. His wife wished to die with him, but was prevented by Nero's orders.

Tac. _Ann._ xv. 60, 'Sequitur caedes Annaei Senecae, laetissima principi, non quia coniurationis manifestum compererat, sed ut ferro grassaretur, quando veneno non processerat ... (Ch. 63) Post quae eodem ictu brachia ferro exsolvunt. Seneca, quoniam senile corpus et parco victu tenuatum lenta effugia sanguini praebebat, crurum quoque et poplitum venas abrumpit. Saevisque cruciatibus defessus, ne dolore suo animum uxoris infringeret atque ipse visendo eius tormenta ad impatientiam delaberetur, suadet in aliud cubiculum abscedere. Et novissimo quoque momento suppeditante eloquentia advocatis scriptoribus pleraque tradidit ... (Ch. 64) At Nero nullo in Paulinam proprio odio, ac ne glisceret invidia crudelitatis, inhibere mortem. ... Seneca interim, durante tractu et lentitudine mortis, Statium Annaeum, diu sibi amicitiae fide et arte medicinae probatum, orat, provisum pridem venenum, quo damnati publico Atheniensium iudicio exstinguerentur, promeret; adlatumque hausit frustra, frigidus iam artus, et cluso corpore adversum vim veneni. Postremo stagnum calidae aquae introiit, respergens proximos servorum, addita voce, libare se liquorem illum Iovi liberatori. Exin balneo inlatus, et vapore eius exanimatus, sine ullo funeris sollemni crematur.'

There was a rumour that some of the conspirators intended to make Seneca emperor.

Tac. _Ann._ xv. 65, 'Fama fuit Subrium Flavum cum centurionibus occulto consilio, neque tamen ignorante Seneca, destinavisse, ut post occisum opera Pisonis Neronem Piso quoque interficeretur, tradereturque imperium Senecae, quasi insontibus claritudine virtutum ad summum fastigium delecto.'

(2) WORKS.

The following prose works are extant:

1. _Dialogorum libri_ xii.

(1) _ad Lucilium: quare aliqua incommoda bonis viris accidant cum providentia sit; sive de providentia_. This was probably a late work.

(2) _ad Serenum: nec iniuriam nec contumeliam accipere sapientem; sive de constantia sapientis_: written in the first years of Nero's reign.

(3-5) _ad Novatum de ira libri_ iii., probably written in the first year of Claudius' reign.

(6) _ad Marciam de consolatione_: written to console Marcia, the daughter of Cremutius Cordus, for the death of her son Metilius. The work may have been written in A.D. 41, as Caligula's name is studiously avoided.

(7) _ad Gallionem de vita beata_. This book, addressed to Seneca's brother Gallio (Novatus), was probably written shortly after A.D. 58, and justifies his having wealth though a philosopher.

(8) _ad Serenum de otio_. This work, like the next, was addressed to Annaeus Serenus, and was written probably about A.D. 62. Only a part of it is extant. The book discusses whether a wise man should engage in state affairs.

(9) _ad Serenum de tranquillitate animi_, probably written soon after Seneca's recall.

(10) _ad Paulinum de brevitate vitae_. For the date cf. 13, 8, 'Sullam ultimum Romanorum protulisse pomoerium.' Now, Claudius extended the pomoerium in A.D. 50, so this must have been written in A.D. 49, as the book was brought out after Seneca's return from exile.

(11) _ad Polybium de consolatione_. This book was addressed in A.D. 43 or 44 to Polybius, a favourite of Claudius, on the occasion of his brother's death. The date is fixed by the reference to Claudius' expedition to Britain in 12, 2-3. Cf. § 3, 'Non desinam totiens tibi offerre Caesarem. Illo moderante terras et ostendente, quanto melius beneficiis imperium custodiatur quam armis, illo rebus humanis praeside non est periculum, ne quid perdidisse te sentias.' For similar flattery of Claudius, cf. 7,4; 12,5.

(12) _ad Helviam matrem de consolatione_, written during his banishment.

2. _ad Neronem Caesarem de clementia_, in three Books, two of which are extant. The work was written in A.D. 55-6, doubtless to show the public what sort of instruction Seneca had given Nero, and what sort of emperor they had to expect (cf. i, 1, 1). The date is settled by i. 9, 1, '[divus Augustus] cum hoc aetatis esset quod tu nunc es, duodevicesimum egressus annum,' Nero having been born 15th December, A.D. 37. The flattery contained in ii. 1, 1-2, and elsewhere, can be justified to some extent by Nero's conduct at that time. Cf. Sueton. _Nero_, 10, 'Neque liberalitatis, neque clementiae, ne comitatis quidem exhibendae ullam occasionem omisit.'

3. _De Beneficiis_ in seven Books, addressed to Aebutius Liberalis of Lugdunum. It is probable that Books i.-iv. were published first, shortly after the death of Claudius (who is sneered at in i. 15, 6). Books v.-vii. are probably a later addition. Cf. v. 1, 1, 'In prioribus libris videbar consummasse propositum ... Quidquid ultra moror, non servio materiae, sed indulgeo ... Verum quia ita vis, perseveremus peractis.' The eulogy of Demetrius the Cynic in vii. 8-12, makes it probable that Book vii. at least was written in Seneca's last years.

4. _Apocolocyntosis_, a political satire on Claudius, written shortly after his death in A.D. 54. The explanation of the title is given by Dio, lx. 35, 2, +Agrippina kai ho Neron ... es ton ouranon anêgagon hon ek tou symposiou phoradên exenênochesan. hotheuper Loukios Iounios Galliôn ho tou Seneka adelphos asteiotaton ti apephthenxato; synethêke men gar kai ho Senekas syngramma, apokolokyntôsin auto hôsper tina apathanatisin onomasas, ekeinos de en brachytatô polla eipôn apomnêmoneuetai ... ephê ton Klaudion ankistrô es ton ouranon anenechthênai+. The work does not bear this title in the MSS., and there is no hint of the witticism in the book itself; the St. Gall MS., however, has 'Divi Claudii +APOTHÊOSIS+ Annei Senecae per Saturam,' which may be a corruption of the proper title. The title is derived from +kolokyntê+, 'a gourd,' which was used to denote a fool. Seneca (_Apocol._ 6) takes the official view that Claudius died of a fever. The work may have been published at the Saturnalia, and written shortly before, as Narcissus is represented as having just arrived in Orcus. The personal animosity of Seneca against Caligula and Claudius is everywhere apparent.

5. _Naturales Quaestiones_ in seven Books, addressed to Lucilius. Book ii. was written after A.D. 57, as in ii. 9, 2 an amphitheatre is mentioned which was built by Nero in that year. The work was finished before the end of A.D. 64, for in Book vii. there is no mention among other prodigies of the comet which appeared again at the end of that year.

6. _Epistulae morales ad Lucilium_. These were addressed to Lucilius Iunior, the author of 'Aetna' (see p. 277). There are extant one hundred and twenty four letters, in twenty Books, but some Books have been lost, as Gell. xii. 2, 3 quotes from Book xxii. Books i.-iii. were probably published by Seneca, the rest after his death, generally in chronological order.

The following poetical works are extant:

1. _Epigrams._--Nine on his exile are given in the editions; probably only Nos. 1, 2, and 7 are genuine.

2. _Tragedies._--Some of these may have been composed during Seneca's exile in Corsica. See _ad Helv._ 20 (quoted p. 243). The metrical treatment is strict, especially in the senarii. Anapaestic, glyconic, sapphic lines, etc., are used in the choral odes. There are only three actors, except in the spurious _Octavia_. The plays are: (1) _Hercules Furens_ and (2) _Troades_ or _Hecuba_, founded on Euripides. (3) _Phoenissae_ or _Thebais_. The two parts do not correspond. In ll. 1-362, Oedipus and Antigone are on their way to Cithaeron; from l. 363 to the end we find Iocasta and Antigone in Thebes while it is besieged by the Seven. (4) _Medea_, founded on Euripides. Ovid has also been imitated; so ll. 56 _sqq._ from Ovid, _Heroides_, 12, 137. (5) _Phaedra_ or _Hippolytus_. (6) _Oedipus_, after Sophocles. (7) _Agamemnon_, after Aeschylus. (8) _Thyestes_. (9) _Hercules Oetaeus_, of which the second part, at least, is spurious. (10) _Octavia_, a praetexta, describing the death of Octavia, Nero's wife (A.D. 62). Seneca himself appears in it. It cannot be by Seneca, as Nero's downfall (A.D. 68) is mentioned in ll. 628-36.

The following works are lost or exist only in fragments:

i. Poems of a light nature (Pliny, _Ep._ v. 3). 2. _De motu terrarum_, afterwards incorporated in _N.Q._ vi. (see _N.Q._ vi. 4, 2). 3. _De lapidum natura_. 4. _De piscium natura_. 5. _De ritu et sacris Aegyptiorum_ (see p. 242). 6. _De situ Indiae_. 7. _De forma mundi_. 8. _Exhortationes_. 9. _De officiis_. 10. _De immatura morte_. 11. _De superstitione dialogus_. 12. _De matrimonio_. 13. _De amicitia_. 14. _De vita patris_, along with an edition of his works. 15. Speeches by himself or by Nero. 16. _Epistulae_ (a) _ad Novatum_, probably written from Corsica, (b) _ad Caesonium Maximum_. 17. A book in praise of Messalina, afterwards withdrawn (see p. 243). 18. _Moralis philosophiae libri_ (see _Ep._ 106, 2). 19. _De remediis fortuitorum_, addressed to Gallio. A synopsis with additions is extant. 20. _De paupertate_. 21. _De formula honestae vitae_, probably founded on one of Seneca's works. 22. _Notae_ (see Sueton. pp. 135-6 R.).

The following are spurious works:

1. 'Epistulae Senecae, Neronis imperatoris magistri, ad Paulum Apostolum et Pauli Apostoli ad Senecam.' These letters, fourteen in all, are accepted as genuine by Jerome, _de vir. illustr._ 12. 'Seneca ... quem non ponerem in catalogo sanctorum, nisi me epistulae illae provocarent, quae leguntur a plurimis, Pauli ad Senecam et Senecae ad Paulum.'

2. A work extant under the title of _Sententiae Rufi_ has been wrongly thought to correspond to Seneca's dying words mentioned in Tac. _Ann._ xv. 63.

3. The book _De moribus_ or _Monita_ contains maxims by Christian writers.

_Views and Character._--For Seneca's training in Stoic doctrines see _Ep._ 108, 13 (quoted p. 241). With these views he generally associates himself (cf. _Ep._ 113, 1; 117, 1), but does not bind himself to one school.

Cf. _Ep._ 45, 4, 'Non enim me cuiquam emancipavi, nullius nomen fero. Multum magnorum virorum iudicio credo, aliquid et meo vindico.'

Especially towards the end of his life, he came under the influence of Demetrius the Cynic.

_Ep._ 62, 3, 'Demetrium, virorum optimum, mecum circumfero et relictis conchyliatis cum illo seminudo loquor, ilium admiror. Quidni admirer? vidi nihil ei deesse.'

In _de provid._ 5, 7, after quoting Demetrius' fatalistic views, Seneca adds, 'Fata nos ducunt, et quantum cuique temporis restat, prima nascentium hora disposuit.'

Seneca was one of the few Romans who condemned the butcheries practised in the arena, and his views doubtless influenced Nero's conduct in A.D. 58.

_Ep._ 95, 33, 'Homo, sacra res homini, iam per lusum ac iocum occiditur et quem erudiri ad inferenda accipiendaque volnera nefas erat, is iam nudus inermisque producitur satisque spectaculi ex homine mors est.'

Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 31, 'Edixit Caesar ne quis magistratus aut procurator, qui provinciam obtineret, spectaculum gladiatorum aut ferarum aut quod aliud ludicrum ederet.'

For Seneca's love of wealth see p. 246. For his estimate of riches cf. _De vita beata_, 22, 5. 'Apud me divitiae aliquem locum habent, apud te summum ac postremum. Divitiae meae sunt, tu divitiarum es.'

His simplicity of life has been already dealt with.

Dio, lxi. 10, 2, gives a most unjust account of Seneca's character:

+panta ta enantiôtata hois ephilosophei poiôn êlenchthê. kai gar tyrannidos katêgorôn tyrannodidaskalos egineto, kai tôn synontôn tois dynastais katatrechôn ouk aphistato tou palatiou ... tois te plousiois enkalôn ousian heptakischiliôn kai pentakosiôn myriadôn ektêsato.+

Seneca followed no traditional style. Cf. _Ep._ 100, 6, 'De compositione non constat'; _Ep._ 114, 13, 'Oratio certam regulam non habet.' Quintilian, x. 1, 125-131, attacks his style, though admitting his great powers.

CURTIUS RUFUS.

The full name is Q. Curtius Rufus, given in the MSS. of his work, 'Historiarum Alexandri Magni Macedonis Libri x.', the first two Books of which are lost. Curtius is not referred to by name by any ancient writer, but is probably identical with the Q. Curtius Rufus mentioned in the list prefixed to Sueton. _de claris oratoribus_ between M. Porcius Latro and L. Valerius Primanus. This order favours the view that he belonged to the reign of Claudius, a view supported by the two contemporary references in Curtius:

iv. 4, 21 (of Tyre), 'nunc tandem longa pace cuncta refovente sub tutela Romanae mansuetudinis adquiescit.'

x. 9, 3-6, 'Quod imperium sub uno stare potuisset, dum a pluribus sustinetur, ruit. Proinde iure meritoque populus Romanus salutem se principi suo debere profitetur, qui noctis, quam paene supremam habuimus, novum sidus inluxit. Huius hercule, non solis ortus lucem caliganti reddidit mundo, cum sine suo capite discordia membra trepidarent,' etc.

This passage probably refers to the tumultuous scene on the night between 24th and 25th Jan., A.D. 41, before Claudius' accession, after the murder of Caligula (cf. the pun in _caliganti_), when rival claimants to the throne were put forward, and the Senate wished to restore the republic (cf. _discordia membra trepidarent_). Sen. _ad Polyb._ 13, 1, uses similar language of Claudius, 'Sidus hoc, quod praecipitato in profundum et demerso in tenebras orbi refulsit, semper luceat.'

As Curtius says nothing but good about the reign of Claudius, he probably wrote shortly after his accession. The passage in iv. 4, 21 (above) also fits in with this view, as there was little fighting in the Roman world from 17 to 43 A.D. His bold tone with regard to rulers would also suit this time, while it would have been dangerous under Caligula, or from 43 to 54 A.D.

Cf. viii. 5, 6, 'Non deerat talia concupiscenti perniciosa adulatio, perpetuum malum regum, quorum opes saepius adsentatio quam hostis evertit.'

This tone also renders it impossible to identify him with Curtius Rufus, mentioned in Tac. _Ann._ xi. 21, as governor of Africa, and as 'adversus superiores tristi adulatione, adrogans minoribus, inter pares difficilis.'

Seneca is supposed to have quoted his contemporary Curtius once or twice. Cf. Sen. _Ep._ 56, 9, 'Nihil tam certum est quam otii vitia negotio discuti'; and Curt. vii. 1, 4, 'Satis prudens, otii vitia negotio discuti.' Cf. also viii. 10, 29 with Sen. _Ep._ 59, 12.

Curtius claims to transcribe his authorities carefully. Cf. ix. 1, 34, 'Equidem plura transscribo quam credo: nam nec adfirmare sustineo, de quibus dubito, nec subducere quae accepi.'

Curtius' statements are usually parallel to those of one or other of the historians of Alexander, but he appeals only twice to other authorities by name.

ix. 8, 15, 'Clitarchus (c. 300 B.C.) est auctor.'

ix. 5, 21, 'Ptolemaeum (c. 300 B.C.), qui postea regnavit, huic pugnae adfuisse auctor est Clitarchus et Timagenes (c. 55 B.C.). Sed ipse ... afuisse se missum in expeditionem memoriae tradidit.'

The rhetorical tone of the work is seen in the speeches and letters. For the latter cf. iv. 1, 10-74. Curtius has little technical knowledge of war or politics. Thus Alexander's assumption of oriental pomp to conciliate the Asiatics is looked on as +hybris+. Cf. iii. 12, 18. Like Livy, he attempts to depreciate Alexander's abilities by unduly accentuating his good fortune.

Cf. viii. 3, 1, 'Sed hanc quoque expeditionem, ut pleraque alia, fortuna indulgendo ei numquam fatigata pro absente transegit.'

COLUMELLA.

L. Iunius Moderatus Columella was a native of Gades: x. 185, 'mea [lactuca] quam generant Tartessi littore Gades.' On an inscription he is styled 'trib. mil. leg. vi. ferratae' (_C.I.L._ ix. 325), and it was probably in the course of his military service that he visited Cilicia and Syria: ii. 10, 18, 'hoc semen Ciliciae Syriaeque regionibus ipse vidi.'

His uncle, M. Columella, was a leading man in the province of Baetica (v. 5, 15); and he himself possessed land in Italy: iii. 9, 2, 'cum et in Ardeatino agro, quem multis temporibus ipsi ante possedimus, et in Carseolano itemque in Albano generis Aminei vites huius modi notae habuerimus.'

He was a contemporary of the younger Seneca, who is spoken of as alive (iii. 3, 3).

His chief work is _De Re Rustica_ in twelve Books, dedicated to P. Silvinus--a practical treatise on husbandry for 'negotiosi agricolae' (ix. 2, 5). Book x., on gardening, is in hexameter verse, and was written at the suggestion of Silvinus and another friend, to fill the gap which Virgil had left in the Georgics (iv. 147-8); cf. the preface, 'Cultus hortorum ... sicut institueram, prosa oratione prioribus subnecteretur exordiis, nisi propositum expugnasset frequens postulatio tua, quae pervicit, ut poeticis numeris explerem Georgici carminis omissas partes, quas tamen et ipse Vergilius significaverat, posteris se memorandas relinquere.'

The last two Books were added as an afterthought; xi. 1, 2, 'numerum quem iam quasi consummaveram voluminum excessi.'

Columella wrote before A.D. 65 (see above); later than Celsus, but earlier than the elder Pliny.

There is also extant a book _De Arboribus_, which formed Book ii. of an earlier treatise on agriculture: cf. i. 1, 'Quoniam de cultu agrorum abunde primo volumine praecepisse videmur, non intempestiva erit arborum virgultorumque cura.' It covers the same ground as _De R.R._ iii.-v.

Columella also wrote 'adversus astrologos' (xi. 1, 31), and projected a treatise on the religious rites connected with agriculture (ii. 22, 5, 'lustrationum ceterorumque sacrificiorum, quae pro frugibus fiunt, morem priscis usurpatum').

POMPONIUS MELA.

The geographer Pomponius Mela was a native of Tingentera in Spain (ii. 96). His date can be inferred from iii. 49; the 'principum maximus' mentioned there as triumphing over Britain might be either Claudius (in A.D. 40) or Caligula (in 44); but the earlier date is favoured by Mela's division of Africa according to the system abolished by Caligula in 42 (i. 25-30). The title of his work is _De Chorographia_, in three Books: the dryness of its details (i. 1, 'opus impeditum et facundiae minime capax') is relieved by word-painting, _e.g._ the description of Britain, iii. 49. The only authors to whom he acknowledges obligations are Nepos (iii. 45) and Hanno (iii. 90).

PERSIUS.

(1) LIFE.

We possess a very full account of the life of Persius, which, according to the MSS., is taken from Probus' commentary on the poet, and may therefore be looked upon as trustworthy. According to Probus (from whom are taken the quotations throughout), he lived from 34 to 62 A.D.: 'Aulus Persius Flaccus natus est pridie Non. Decembr. Fabio Persico L. Vitellio coss., decessit viii. Kal. Decembr. Rubrio Mario Asinio Gallo coss.' These dates are confirmed by Jerome.

He was born at Volaterrae in Etruria, and was the son of a Roman knight who died when Persius was quite young:

'Natus in Etruria Volaterris, eques Romanus, sanguine et affinitate primi ordinis viris coniunctus. Pater eum Flaccus pupillum reliquit moriens annorum fere sex.'

'Fulvia Sisennia (his mother) nupsit postea Fuscio equiti Romano.'

After the completion of his early education (for which see _Sat._ 3, 44-51) he studied at Rome, where he came under the influence of the Stoic Annaeus Cornutus:

'Studuit Flaccus usque ad annum xii. aetatis suae Volaterris, inde Romae apud grammaticum Remmium Palaemonem et apud rhetorem Verginium Flavum. Cum esset annorum xvi., amicitia coepit uti Annaei Cornuti, ita ut nusquam ab eo discederet; inductus aliquatenus in philosophiam est.'

In _Sat._ 5, 21-24 and 30-51, he speaks in the highest terms of Cornutus as his guide in life and close friend: cf. esp. ll. 36-7,

'teneros tu suspicis annos,
Socratico, Cornute, sinu.'

Among his other friends were Caesius Bassus (to whom _Sat._ 6 is addressed), Lucan, Seneca, and his own relative, Paetus Thrasea:

'Cognovit per Cornutum etiam Annaeum Lucanum, aequaevum auditorem Cornuti. Lucanus adeo mirabatur scripta Flacci ut vix retineret se recitante eo cum clamore quin illa esse vera poemata diceret, sua ipse ludos faceret. Sero cognovit et Senecam, sed non ut caperetur eius ingenio ... Idem decem fere annis summe dilectus a Paeto Thrasea est, ita ut peregrinaretur quoque cum eo aliquando, cognatam eius Arriam uxorem habente.'

Persius was a man of considerable means, as is shown by his will and his landed property:

'Reliquit circa HS vicies matri et sorori; scriptis tamen ad matrem codicillis Cornuto rogavit ut daret sestertia ut quidam centum, ut alii volunt ..., et argenti facti pondo viginti, et libros circa septingentos sive bibliothecam suam omnem. Verum a Cornuto sublatis libris, pecuniam sororibus, quas heredes frater fecerat, reliquit.'

'Decessit ad octavum miliarium via Appia in praediis suis ... vitio stomachi anno aetatis xxviii.'

His character was lofty and disinterested:

'Fuit morum lenissimorum, verecundiae virginalis, formae pulchrae, pietatis erga matrem et sororem et amitam exemplo sufficientis. Fuit frugi, pudicus.'

(2) WORKS.

1. His early works, which Cornutus caused to be destroyed at his death, were:

(_a_) A praetexta, called _Vescia_ (?).

(_b_) One Book of +hodoiporika+, no doubt referring to his travels with Thrasea.

(_c_) Some verses on Arria, the wife of Paetus.

'Scripserat in pueritia Flaccus etiam praetextam Vesciam, et +hodoiporikôn+ librum unum, et paucos in socrum Thraseae in Arriam matrem versus ... Omnia ea auctor fuit Cornutus matri eius ut aboleret.'

2. _Satires._ There are six of these (in hexameters), with a prologue (in scazons). Persius wrote slowly, and the Book was left unfinished:

'Et raro et tarde scripsit. Hunc ipsum librum imperfectum reliquit. Versus aliqui dempti sunt ultimo libro, ut quasi finitus esset. Leviter retractavit Cornutus, et Caesio Basso petenti, ut ipsi cederet, tradidit edendum.'

The prologue, and the first satire (on literary criticism)--the only real satire he wrote--are said to be imitated from Lucilius. The other five are largely Stoic dissertations in verse, and show throughout the influence of Cornutus and Persius' other Stoic friends. Probus says he attacked Nero's poetry in _Sat._ 1.

'Lecto Lucilii libro x. vehementer satiras componere instituit, cuius libri principium imitatus est ... cum tanta recentium poetarum et oratorum insectatione, ut etiam Neronem ... culpaverit, cuius versus in Neronem cum ita se haberet:

'Auriculas asini Mida rex habet,'

in eum modum a Cornuto, ipso iam tum mortuo, est emendatus:

'Auriculas asini quis non habet?' [1, 121]

ne hoc Nero in se dictum arbitraretur.'

_Sat._ 1, 99-102 is said to be a travesty of Nero's poetry.

Very few passages, however, are quoted by the Scholiasts as modelled on Lucilius.

Persius refers to Lucilius and Horace in 1, 114-8:

'Secuit Lucilius urbem,
te, Lupe, te, Muci, et genuinum fregit in illis;
omne vafer vitium ridenti Flaccus amico
tangit, et admissus circum praecordia ludit,
callidus excusso populum suspendere naso.'

His obligations to Horace are paramount, imitations--often unintentional burlesques--occurring everywhere. Examples are: 1, 42,

'cedro digna locutus,
linquere nec scombros metuentia carmina nec tus.'

from Hor. _A.P._ 331,

'carmina ... linenda cedro';

and Hor. _Ep._ ii. 1, 269,

'Deferar in vicum vendentem tus et odores
et piper et quidquid chartis amicitur ineptis.'

Again, 5, 103,

'exclamet Melicerta perisse
frontem de rebus';

from Hor. _Ep._ ii. 1, 80,

'clament periise pudorem
cuncti paene patres.'

He even borrows Horace's names: Pedius (1, 85), Natta (3, 31), Nerius (2, 14), Craterus (3, 65), Bestius (6, 37).

The statement of Joannes Lydus (i. 41) that Persius imitated the mimic writer, Sophron, has little to support it.

Probus says the work became immediately popular: 'Editum librum continuo mirari homines et diripere coeperunt.'

Cf. also Quint. x. 1, 94, 'multum et verae gloriae quamvis uno libro Persius meruit'; Mart. iv. 29, 7,

'Saepius in libro memoratur Persius uno
quam levis in tota Marsus Amazonide.'

LUCAN.

(1) LIFE.

Besides references to Lucan in other writers, especially Statius, Martial, and Tacitus, we have three biographies of him: (1) a short and defective life, probably by Suetonius, and showing his well-known hatred of the Annaei; (2) one by Vacca, a commentator on Lucan, who lived probably in the sixth century, complete and favourable; (3) one in Codex Vossianus ii. The last two are in part derived from the first.

M. Annaeus Lucanus was born at Corduba in Hispania Baetica, and was the son of M. Annaeus Mela, a Roman knight, and nephew of M. Annaeus Novatus (the Gallio of Acts 18, 12-17) and L. Annaeus Seneca the philosopher.

Vacca, _vit. Luc._, 'M. Annaeus Lucanus patrem habuit M. Annaeum Melam ex provincia Baetica Hispaniae interioris Cordubensem equitem Romanum, illustrem inter suos, notum Romae et propter Senecam fratrem, clarum per omnes virtutes virum, et propter studium vitae quietioris ... Matrem habuit et regionis eiusdem et urbis Aciliam nomine, Acilii Lucani filiam ... cuius cognomen huic inditum apparet.'

Tac. _Ann._ xvi. 17, 'Mela, quibus Gallio et Seneca, parentibus natus ... Idem Annaeum Lucanum genuerat, grande adiumentum claritudinis.'

Lucan was born Nov. 3, A.D. 39, and was removed to Rome when eight months old.

Vacca, _ibid._, 'Natus est iii. Non. Novembr. C. Caesare Germanico ii. L. Apronio Caesiano coss. Octavum mensem agens Romam translatus est.'

He had a successful school and college career. One of his teachers was Cornutus, through whom he knew Persius (see p. 261).

Vacca, _ibid._, 'A praeceptoribus tunc eminentissimis est eruditus eosque intra breve temporis spatium ingenio adaequavit ... Declamavit et graece et latine cum magna admiratione audientium.'

His first literary success was the _laudes Neronis_ in A.D. 60; this led to his political advancement.

Sueton. _vit. Luc._, 'Prima ingenii experimenta in Neronis laudibus dedit quinquennali certamine.'

Vacca, _ibid._, 'Ob quod puerili mutato in senatorium cultum et in notitiam Caesaris Neronis facile pervenit et honore vixdum aetati debito dignus iudicatus est. Gessit autem quaesturam, in qua cum collegis more tunc usitato munus gladiatorium edidit secundo populi favore; sacerdotium etiam accepit auguratus.'

Similarly Suetonius, who also tells us that Lucan had been in Athens.

Sueton. _ibid._, 'Revocatus Athenis a Nerone cohortique amicorum additus atque etiam quaestura honoratus, non tamen permansit in gratia.'

The reason of the strained relations between Lucan and the emperor was, according to Suetonius, that Lucan had behaved rudely when reciting in public. Vacca says the reason lay in the jealousy felt by Nero, who forbade Lucan to write poetry or to plead causes.

Vacca, _ibid._, 'Quippe et certamine pentaeterico acto in Pompei theatro laudibus recitatis in Neronem fuerat coronatus et ex tempore Orphea scriptum in experimentum adversum conplures ediderat poetas et tres libros, quales videmus. Quare inimicum sibi fecerat imperatorem. Quo ambitiosa vanitate, non hominum tantum, sed et artium sibi principatum vindicante interdictum est ei poetica, interdictum est etiam causarum actionibus.'

Cf. Tac. _Ann._ xv. 49, 'Famam carminum eius premebat Nero prohibueratque ostentare, vanus adsimulatione.'

Lucan replied by a poem satirizing Nero and his court.

Sueton. _ibid._, 'Sed et famoso carmine cum ipsum tum potentissimos amicorum gravissime proscidit.'

Lucan joined the conspiracy of Piso which was started A.D. 62, but was discovered, and compelled to commit suicide, 30th April, A.D. 65.

Sueton. _ibid._, 'Paene signifer Pisonianae coniurationis extitit.'

Vacca, _ibid._, 'A coniuratis in caedem Neronis socius adsumptus est, sed parum fauste. Deceptus est a Pisone ... Sua sponte coactus vita excedere venas sibi praecidit periitque pridie Kal. Maias Attico Vestino et Nerva Siliano coss., xxvi. aetatis annum agens.'

Tac. _Ann._ xv. 70, 'Exin Annaei Lucani caedem imperat. Is, profluente sanguine, ubi frigescere pedes manusque et paulatim ab extremis cedere spiritum fervido adhuc et compote mentis pectore intellegit, recordatus carmen a se compositum, quo volneratum militem per eius modi mortis imaginem obisse tradiderat, versus ipsos rettulit, eaque illi suprema vox fuit.'

Suetonius (corroborated by Tac. _Ann._ xv. 56) says that Lucan named his mother as a fellow-conspirator.

'Verum detecta coniuratione nequaquam parem animi constantiam praestitit. Facile enim confessus et ad humillimas devolutus preces matrem quoque innoxiam inter socios nominavit, sperans impietatem sibi apud parricidam principem profuturam.... Epulatus largiter brachia ad secandas venas praebuit medico.'

Lucan married Polla Argentaria. Statius and Martial were her friends, and seem to have kept up an observance of Lucan's birthday.

Cf. especially Statius, _Silvae_, ii. 7, on which the author, in his preface to the book, says, 'Cludit volumen genethliacon Lucani, quod Polla Argentaria, clarissima uxorum, cum hunc diem forte consecraremus, imputari sibi voluit.'

Martial vii. 21, 22, and 23 are written on the subject of Lucan's birthday.

(2) WORKS.

1. The only extant work of Lucan is _De Bello Civili_. This is the title in the MSS., and in Petron. 118. The usual title comes from ix. 985, 'Pharsalia nostra vivet,' words which come after a list of places in Greece and Asia immortalized by the poets, and which mean 'My story of Pharsalus shall live.' There is no evidence that Lucan gave the poem this title.

2. _Lost works._ Vacca mentions the following:

(_a_) In verse: Orpheus; Iliacon; Saturnalia; Catachthonion; Silvarum x.; tragoedia Medea (imperfecta): Salticae Fabulae, xiv.; epigrammata.

(_b_) In prose: Oratio in Octavium Sagittam et pro eo; de incendio urbis; epistulae ex Campania.

Suetonius also mentions 'Neronis laudes; famosum carmen in Neronem.' Stat. _Silv._ ii. 7, 62, mentions another work--'allocutio ad Pollam' (his wife).

Lucan's works became immediately popular.