Chapter M: A Y O R Will (1)

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RESIGN, SAID
WILSON WON'T
REPLY, RUMOR

Avoid beginning a head with quotation marks because the white space destroys the balance of the head. When it is unavoidable, use single quotation marks.

Avoid heads in which a dash takes the place of _says_, as,

SHIPPING BOARD
MUST GO--WILSON

When this style is necessary, use quotation marks.

It is permissible to make the first deck of a head a quotation without quotation marks, writing the name of the person quoted in full-face caps immediately below the deck. One need seldom resort to this expedient.

Be careful of the present tense in writing of historical events. The head on a story about the legality of Christ's trial should not read,

JESUS CHRIST IS
ILLEGALLY SLAIN

nor should it read

JESUS CHRIST WAS
ILLEGALLY SLAIN

but it should read

SAYS CHRIST WAS
ILLEGALLY SLAIN

Remember always in writing heads that although a newspaper man seldom reads more than the first deck, deciding by that whether to read the story, many readers of the paper read no more than the head, and for them it should summarize the story, embodying all its salient features.

GRAMMAR

The most common errors in grammar to be found in copy are in:

The agreement of a verb with its subject.

The relation of pronouns to their antecedents.

The position of participles in relation to the words they modify.

The use of co-ordinate conjunctions to connect elements of the same kind.

The position of correlative conjunctions with relation to the elements they connect.

To gain grace in writing one must either be born with a natural aptitude in the use of words--and such men: Stevenson, Poe, Walter Pater and others, are geniuses--or one must study the writings of these masters of prose and attempt to discover the secret of their success. It is not necessary that a good writer should know rules of grammar, but he must know enough to observe them. A writer may be unable to tell why a dangling participle is faulty English by testing it with a rule, but he may nevertheless avoid such a construction because his ear tells him it is not the best style.

Copies of the best grammars may be found in the office library and should be consulted when reporters and copy readers are in doubt.

SIMPLICITY

In character, in manners, in style and in all things the supreme excellence is simplicity.--Longfellow.

NOTES

DICTION

The newspaper writer must beware of two pitfalls in writing: Fine writing and dialect. Stilted English, pompous and high-sounding, is in just as bad taste as garish clothing or pungent perfume. Reporters often give to their stories a wordy and turgid flavor by their refusal to repeat a word, preferring a synonym. One often sees such sentences as this: "The policeman took his pistol away as he was about to shoot at the bluecoat's partner, another officer of the law." This is a quite unnecessary avoidance of the repetition of the word policeman.

Fine writing is quite out of place at all times in a newspaper and is particularly obnoxious when a reporter quotes a person of inferior mentality in polished--or what the reporter thinks are polished--phrases. Things like this shouldn't get into the paper: _"It is with poignant grief that I gaze on the torn frame of my dear spouse," said Mrs. Sowikicki, as she stood beside a slab in the morgue._

On the other hand reporters should not try to be funny at the expense of someone inexpert in the use of the language. If a person interviewed uses bad grammar, correct him when you write the story. To make a person say _Hadn't ought to of_ or _Hain't got no_ is not only insulting to that person and to your readers, but is poor comedy.

Dialect must be absolutely accurate if it is used. Finley Peter Dunne can write Irish dialect and not many other persons in America can write as good. Probably no reporter on The News can write it. Dialect that might hurt the feelings of others who speak the same way should not be used. In fact as a general rule: DON'T WRITE DIALECT. The greatest masters of humor, such as Moliere, Cervantes, Shakespeare, Mark Twain, have obtained their best effects by writing their language straightforwardly.

THE GRIT OF COMPACT, CLEAR TRUTH

I began to compose by imitating other authors. I admired, and I worked hard to get, a smooth, rich, classic style. The passion I afterwards formed for Heine's prose forced me from this slavery, and taught me to aim at naturalness. I seek now to get back to the utmost simplicity of expression, to disuse the verbosity I tried so hard to acquire, to get the grit of compact, clear truth, if possible, informal and direct. It is very difficult. I should advise any beginner to study the raciest, strongest, best spoken speech and let the printed speech alone; that is to say, to write straight from the thought without bothering about the manner, except to conform to the spirit or genius of the language. I once thought Latinized diction was to be invited; I now think Latinized expression is to be guarded against.--W. D. Howells.

A. P. STYLE

What M. E. Stone says to his correspondents on story writing may be read with profit by any newspaper man. The following is clipped from the monthly bulletin issued by the Associated Press to its correspondents:

A plain statement of fact is the best introduction to a news story. A simple, direct style--which does not mean a wooden style--is always desirable. In the opening sentence it is of particular value.

The news which a story contains is the one thing which entitles it to place in the Associated Press report. It is the news, not the manner of telling the news, on which the story must stand. It is therefore essential to present the vital point at the outset, in such form as will enable the reader to grasp it quickly, clearly and easily. For this purpose there is no acceptable substitute for plain English.

In an effort to make the most vivid and emphatic impression at the opening, objectionable forms of construction often are employed. A highly-colored or strained introduction almost always fails of its purpose of enlisting interest at once, since it tends to divert the attention of the reader from the subject-matter of the story to the writer's manner of telling it. This renders the introduction cloudy and lessens interest instead of stimulating it. Once the main point is established, the well known rules of news writing should be observed.

To say that "'William Brown may obtain a fair trial in Greene County,' Judge Smith so ruled today," is to misstate the facts. It places the Associated Press on record as making a statement made by the court. Use of this and similar introductory sentences which require subsequent qualification is objectionable.

Opening sentences frequently lose directness and clearness because of the effort to crowd too much into them. All that is essential is to cover the vital point, leaving details for subsequent narration.

Introductions must be impartial. It is possible to take almost any given set of statements and present them in such a way as to convey any one of several shades of meaning. This may depend merely on the order of presentation. Associated Press stories must be accurate and accuracy involves not only the truthfulness of individual statements but the co-relation of these statements in such a way as to convey to the reader a fair and unbiased impression of the story as a whole. An account of a court proceeding, a political debate, or any other event which involves conflicting claims or interests, should not be introduced by singling out a particular phase of the story which is limited to one side of the controversy, simply because that is the most striking feature. Such a form of introduction tends to place the emphasis on one side of the case, giving bias to the entire story.

Stereotyped introductions should be avoided. One of the most common is the "When" introduction, as: "Two men were killed when a train struck ..." etc. "If" and "After" often are used similarly. Inverted sentences are also frequent; as "That the prisoner was guilty was the opinion expressed by ..." etc. Constant employment of these fixed styles becomes monotonous. Moreover, it is possible to state the facts more simply, directly and effectively without them.

BROADEN THE VOCABULARY

Edward Harlan Webster gives this excellent advice on how to broaden the vocabulary:

Practice is the first aid. Actually get hold of new words and then use them. You will perceive that you will not startle others so much as yourself. Gradually the words will begin to assume a standing in your vocabulary, and before long, they will seem like old friends.

To obtain these words, various practical methods are possible. Here are a few:

1. Find synonyms for words which you have a tendency to overuse.

2. Record words with which you are familiar but you never use--and then "work" them.

3. Make a list of important, unfamiliar words which you hear, or discover in your reading.

4. Listen carefully to the conversations or addresses of educated people.

5. If possible, try to translate from a foreign language. In this way a fine perception of shades of meaning, almost unattainable by any other method, is acquired.

6. Get interested in the dictionary, where you can trace the life history of words.

THE PICTORIAL POWER OF WORDS

"Words have a considerable share in exciting ideas of beauty--they affect the mind by raising in it ideas of those things for which custom has appointed them to stand. Words, by their original and pictorial power have great influence over the passions; if we combine them properly, we may give new life and beauty to the simplest object. In painting, we may represent any fine figure we please, but we never can give it those enlivening touches which it may receive from words. For example, we can represent an angel in a picture by drawing a young man winged: but what painting can furnish out anything so grand as the addition of one word--'the angel of the Lord'? Is there any painting more grand and beautiful?"--Edmund Burke.

CAPITALIZATION

Capitalize titles preceding names, as, Chief of Detectives Fox, Gen. Bell. Lower-case titles following names, as John Downey, superintendent of police, except these which are capitalized always:

President }
Vice-President }
Cabinet } of the United States.
Government }
Administration }
Supreme Court }
Governor (of Michigan).
Lieutenant-Governor (of Michigan).
Mayor (of Detroit).
Supreme Court (of Michigan).
Judges and Justices of all courts of record.
The names of all courts of record.
King, Emperor, Czar, Kaiser, Sultan, Viceroy, etc.
The Crown Prince.
The Duke of Blank.
The Prince of Dash.

Do not capitalize _former_ preceding a title, as _former Senator Wilson_. _Former_ is preferred to _ex-_.

Capitalize the full names of associations, clubs, societies, companies, etc., as Michigan Equal Suffrage Association, Detroit Club, Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, Star Publishing Company. _The_ preceding such a name is not to be capitalized. Do not capitalize _association_, _club_, etc., when not attached to a specific name.

Capitalize _university_, _college_, _academy_, etc., when part of a title, as University of Detroit, Olivet College. But do not capitalize when the plural is used, as the state universities of Michigan, Kansas and Ohio.

Capitalize the first word after a colon in giving a list, as, _The following were elected: President, William Jones; vice-president, Sam Smith_, etc. _Try this menu: Rice, milk and fruit._ When the colon is used merely to indicate a longer pause than a semicolon, it is not followed by a capital, as, _A tire blew out: the car skidded: we were in the ditch_.

Capitalize _building_, _hall_, _house_, _hotel_, _theater_, _hospital_, etc., when used with a distinguishing name, as Book Building, Hull House, Cadillac Hotel, Garrick Theater, Harper Hospital.

Capitalize the names of federal and state departments and bureaus, as Department of Agriculture, State Insurance Department, Bureau of Vital Statistics. But lower-case municipal departments, as fire department, water and light department, street department.

Capitalize the names of national legislative bodies, as Congress, House of Representatives or House, Senate, Parliament, Reichstag, Duma, Chamber (France).

Capitalize _state legislature_ and synonymous terms (_legislature_, _assembly_, _general assembly_) only when the Michigan Legislature is meant.

Capitalize the names of all political parties, in this and other countries, as Democratic, Republican, Progressive, Socialist, Liberal, Tory, Union. But do not capitalize these or similar words, or their derivatives, when used in a general sense, as republican form of government, democratic tendencies, socialistic views.

Capitalize _pole_, _island_, _isthmus_, _cape_, _ocean_, _bay_, _river_, and in general all such geographical terms when used in specific names, as North Pole, South Sea Islands, Cape Hatteras, Hudson Bay, Pacific Ocean, Mississippi River, Isthmus of Panama.

Capitalize _county_ when used in a specific name, as Wayne County.

Capitalize the _East_, the _West_, the _Middle West_, the _Orient_ and other terms used for definite regions; but do not capitalize _east_, _west_, etc., when used merely to designate direction or point of compass, as "west of here." Do not capitalize _westerner_, _southerner_, _western states_ and other such derivatives.

Capitalize sections of a state, as Upper Peninsula, Western Michigan, etc., but not the _northern part of Michigan_, etc.

Capitalize, when used with a distinguishing name, _ward_, _precinct_, _square_, _garden_, _park_, etc., as First Ward, Eighth Precinct, Cadillac Square, Madison Square Garden, Palmer Park.

Capitalize _Jr._ and _Sr._ after a name.

Capitalize _room_, etc., when followed by a number or letter, as Room 18, Dime Bank Building; Parlor C, Normandie Hotel.

Capitalize distinctive names of localities in cities, as North End, Nob Hill, Back Bay, Happy Hollow.

Capitalize the names of holidays and days observed as holidays by churches, as Fourth of July, Dominion Day, Good Friday, Yom Kippur, Columbus Day, Washington's Birthday.

Capitalize the names of notable events and things, as the Declaration of Independence, the War of 1812, the Revolution, the Reformation, the Civil War, the Battle of the Marne.

Capitalize _church_ when used as a specific name, as North Woodward Methodist Church, First Christian Church. But write: a Methodist church, a Christian church.

Capitalize the names of all religious denominations, as Baptist, Quaker, Mormon, Methodist.

Capitalize names for the Bible, as the Holy Scriptures, the Book of Books. But do not capitalize adjectives derived from such names, as biblical, scriptural.

Capitalize all names and pronouns used for the Deity.

Capitalize the Last Supper, Lord's Prayer, Ten Commandments, Book of Ruth, etc.

Capitalize the names of races and nationalities, as Italian, American, Indian, Gypsy, Caucasian and Negro.

Capitalize titles of specific treaties, laws, bills, etc., as Treaty of Ghent, Eleventh Amendment, Workmen's Compensation Act, Good Roads Bill. But when the reference is general use lower-case, as the good roads legislation of the last congress.

Capitalize such terms as Stars and Stripes, Old Glory, Union Jack, Stars and Bars, etc.

Capitalize U. S. Army and Navy.

Capitalize names of military organizations, as First Regiment, B Company (do not quote letter), National Guard, Grand Army of the Republic, Michigan State Militia, University Cadet Corps (but University cadets).

Capitalize such names as Triple Alliance, Triple Entente, Quadruple Entente, Allies (in the European war).

Capitalize the fanciful titles of cities and states, as the City of the Straits, the Buckeye State.

Capitalize the nicknames of base ball, foot ball and other athletic teams, as Chicago Cubs, Boston Braves, Tigers.

Capitalize epithets affixed to or standing for proper names, as Alexander the Great, the Pretender.

Capitalize the names of stocks in money markets, as Federal Steel, City Railway.

Capitalize college degrees, whether written in full or abbreviated, as Bachelor of Arts, Doctor of Laws, Bachelor of Science in Education: A.B., LL.D., B.S. in Ed.

Capitalize _high school_ when used thus: Central High School (but the high school at Port Huron).

Capitalize, but do not quote, the titles of newspapers and other periodicals, the New York World, the Outlook, the Saturday Evening Post. Do not capitalize _the_, except The Detroit News.

Capitalize and quote the titles of books, plays, poems, songs, speeches, etc., as "The Scarlet Letter," "Within the Law," "The Man With the Hoe." _The_ beginning a title must be capitalized and included in the quotation. All the principal words--that is, nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and interjections--are to be capitalized, no matter how short; thus: "The Man Who Would Be King." Other parts of speech--that is, prepositions, conjunctions and articles--are to be capitalized only when they contain four or more letters; thus: at, in, a, for, Between, Through, Into. The same rules apply to capitalization in headlines.

Capitalize adjectives derived from proper nouns, as English, Elizabethan, Germanic, Teutonic. But do not capitalize proper names and derivatives whose original significance has been obscured by long and common usage. Under this head fall such words as india rubber, oriental colors, street arab, pasteurize, macadam, axminster, gatling, paris green, plaster of paris, philippic, socratic, herculean, guillotine, utopia, bohemian, philistine, platonic. When, however, a name is comparatively recent, use capitals, as in Alice blue, Taft roses, Burbank cactus.

Capitalize the particles in French names, as _le_, _la_, _de_, _du_, when used without a Christian name or title preceding, as Du Maurier. But lower-case when preceded by a name or title, as George du Maurier. The same rule applies to the German _von_: Field Marshal von Mackensen, but, without Christian name or title, Von Mackensen. Always capitalize _Van_ in Dutch names unless personal preference dictates an exception, as Henry van Dyke.

Capitalize the names of French streets and places, as Rue de la Paix, Place de la Concorde.

Do not capitalize _street_, _avenue_, _boulevard_, _place_, _lane_, _terrace_, _way_, _road_, _highway_, etc., as Ninth street, Boston boulevard, Maryland place, Rosemary lane, Seven Mile road.

Do not capitalize _addition_, _depot_, _elevator_, _mine_, _station_, _stockyards_, etc., as Wabash freight depot, Yellow Dog mine, Union station, Chicago stockyards.

Do not capitalize _postoffice_, _courthouse_, _poorhouse_, _council chamber_, _armory_, _cadets_, _police court_, _women's parlors_.

White House, referring to President's residence, should be capitalized.

Capitalize only the distinguishing words if two or more names are connected, as the Wabash and Missouri Pacific railroad companies. (In singular form, Wabash Railroad Co.)

Do not capitalize the seasons of the year unless they are personified.

Do not capitalize _a. m._ and _p. m._ except in headlines.

Capitalize O. K., write it with periods, and form present tense, O. K.'s and past tense, O. K.'d.

Capitalize _Boy Scouts_ (referring to organization). Make _Campfire_ (referring to the girls' organization) one word, capitalized.

Capitalize _Constitution_ referring to that of the United States. But state constitution (lower-case).

NOTES

PUNCTUATION

A series of three or more words takes commas except before conjunctions, as: _There were boxes of guns, bayonets, cartridges and bandages_. Separate members of the series with semicolons if there are commas within the phrase, as: __There were boxes of guns, bayonets and cartridges; casks of powder, high explosives and chemicals; and many other prohibited articles_._

Use asterisks to indicate that part of quoted matter has been omitted, as, _He said: "I favor all measures that * * * will help the people."_

Use leaders to indicate a pause in the thought.

_He said he would never return . . . . . ._

_When the news reached his mother, she fainted._

Commas set off an explanatory phrase but not a restrictive phrase of inclusive qualification. One writes: Poe, a poet of America, wrote "The Raven." But one writes: Poe the poet is a finer craftsman than Poe the fiction writer.

Use commas before conjunctions in a sentence made up of separate clauses, each with its own subject nominative, as, _The horse is old, but it is still willing_. If the same subject, write it: _The horse is old but willing_.

Use no period after letters used in place of numbers, as, =B Company=. (Companies of soldiers are designated as _B Company_, not _Company B_.)

Use hyphen and no apostrophe when dates are joined, as, _1861-65_.

Write the _caliber_ of a revolver or rifle with a period, as _.22_.

Use no commas in years and street numbers, as, _1904_, not _1,904_; and _2452 High street_. But write: _2,156 persons_ and _$1,560_.

Follow this style in date lines:

CHICAGO, May 10.--
BROWNSVILLE, Mich., May 10.--

Avoid this form as hackneyed: _His wealth (?) has disappeared._

Place a comma or a colon after _said_, _remarked_ and similar words when quoted matter follows.

THREE RULES

Writes the Duke of Argyll: I have always held that clear thinking will find its own expression in clear writing. As to mere technical rules, there are very few that occur to me, except such as these--first, to aim at short sentences, without involution or parenthetical matter; second, to follow a logical order in construction of sentences, and in the sequence of them; third, to avoid absolutely such phrases as "the former" and "the latter," always preferring repetition to the use of such tiresome references. The last rule, and in some measure the other, I learned from Macaulay, and have found it of immense use. There is some mannerism in his style, but it is always clear as crystal, and this rule of repetition contributed much to this.

QUOTATIONS

Quotation marks are not needed when matter is indented, thus: _The speaker said in part_:

_I do not believe that, etc._

Sometimes marks of punctuation belong inside quotation marks and sometimes outside, as: "_Did you hear him say, 'I am here'?_" But in this case: "_I heard him say, 'Are you here?'_" Continental usage permits this form: "_Are you shot!?_" but it is not in good use on this side.

Use no quotation marks with slang of your own writing.

Use no quotes in writing testimony with question and answer. This is the style:

Q.--What is your name?
A.--John Jones.

Observe the style on quotes within quotes: _The witness said: "I asked him, 'Where is my copy of "Paradise Lost"?'"_

OBSERVATION

Writes Arnold Bennett: One is curious about one's fellow-creatures: therefore one watches them. And generally the more intelligent one is, the more curious one is, and the more one observes. The mere satisfaction of this curiosity is in itself a worthy end, and would alone justify the business of systemized observation. But the aim of observation may, and should, be expressed in terms more grandiose. Human curiosity counts among the highest social virtues (as indifference counts among the basest defects), because it leads to a disclosure of the causes of character and temperament and thereby to a better understanding of the springs of human conduct. Observation is not practiced directly with this high end in view (save by prigs and other futile souls); nevertheless it is a moral act and must inevitably promote kindliness--whether we like it or not. It also sharpens the sense of beauty. An ugly deed--such as a deed of cruelty--takes on artistic beauty when its origin and hence its fitness in the general scheme begin to be comprehended. In the perspective of history we can derive esthetic pleasure from the tranquil scrutiny of all kinds of conduct--as well, for example, of a Renaissance Pope as of a Savonarola. Observation endows our day and our street with the romantic charm of history, and stimulates charity--not the charity which signs cheques, but the more precious charity which puts itself to the trouble of understanding. The condition is that the observer must never lose sight of the fact that what he is to see is life, is the woman next door, is the man in the train--and not a concourse of abstractions. To appreciate all this is the first inspiring preliminary to sound observation.

NOUNS

Watch for nouns ending in _-ics_. Many of them are singular, such as _politics_, _mathematics_, _ethics_.

Make sums of money singular: _Five dollars was spent_, unless individual pieces of money are meant, as: _Five silver dollars were placed on the table_. Write _moneys_, not _monies_.

Remember that _data_, _memoranda_, _phenomena_, _paraphernalia_, _bacteria_ and _strata_ are plural.

Distinguish between _majority_ and _plurality_. _Majority_ means the lead of a candidate over _all other_ candidates. _Plurality_ means the lead of a candidate over _one other_ candidate.

_Event_, _incident_, _affair_, _occurrence_, _happening_, _circumstance_ do not mean the same things. Look them up.

Use _preventive_, not _preventative_.

Distinguish between _ambassador_, _minister_, _consul_, _envoy_.

Avoid feminine forms of such words as _author_, _artist_, _dancer_, _violinist_, _pianist_, _poet_. It may be necessary occasionally to change more than the spelling. For example, _the world's greatest pianiste_ may not mean _the world's greatest pianist_.

Prefer motorist to automobilist and autoist.

_Sewer_ is a drain. _Sewage_ is what goes through it. _Sewerage_ is a system of drains.

Don't use _divine_ as a noun.

Don't write _couple_ unless you mean two things joined and not merely two.

Don't write _party_ for _person_, nor _people_ for _persons_.

Don't use _citizens_ when you mean simply _persons_.

Don't write _a large per cent of_ when speaking of persons when you mean _a large proportion_.

When nouns are attended by participles, two constructions are possible. One may say either _I know of John's being there_, or _I know of John being there_; _The fact of the battle's having been lost_, or _The fact of the battle having been lost_. The possessive is to be preferred with proper names and in most simple constructions; it is _altogether to be preferred with pronouns_ when the principal idea is in the participle. One says: _I saw him going_, _I heard them singing_; but _I heard of his going_; _I urged his going_; _I advised their attending_; _I objected to his staying_; _I opposed their going_; _the fact of his being there made a difference_; _On his saying this the people shouted_; _With their consenting the thing was settled_; _He spoke of my setting out as already agreed to_; _He found fault with our accepting the place_, etc.

Collective nouns are usually singular, as, _The club has increased its membership_. However, a collective noun, when it is used to refer more particularly to individuals than to the mass, is plural, as _The crowd was orderly_, but, _The crowd threw up their hats_. In using collective nouns beware of mixing the number. Do not write, _The audience was in their seats_, but _The audience was seated_, or _The audience were in their seats_.

PREFER

_Station to depot_
_House or home to residence_
_Woman to lady_
_Man to gentleman_
_Telephone to phone_
_Automobile to auto_
_Motor car to motor_
_Bridegroom to groom_
_Rest to balance_

THE JOURNALIST'S CREED

_By WALTER WILLIAMS_

I believe in the profession of journalism.

I believe that the public journal is a public trust; that all connected with it are, to the full measure of their responsibility, trustees for the public; that acceptance of lesser service than the public service is betrayal of this trust.

I believe that clear thinking and clear statement, accuracy and fairness are fundamental to good journalism.

I believe that a journalist should write only what he holds in his heart to be true.

I believe that suppression of the news for any consideration other than the welfare of society is indefensible.

I believe that no one should write as a journalist what he would not say as a gentleman; that bribery by one's own pocketbook is as much to be avoided as bribery by the pocketbook of another; that individual responsibility may not be escaped by pleading another's instruction or another's dividends.

I believe that advertising, news and editorial columns should alike serve the best interests of the readers; that a single standard of helpful truth and clearness should prevail for all; that the supreme test of good journalism is the measure of its public service.

I believe that the journalism which succeeds best--and best deserves success--fears God and honors man; is stoutly independent, unmoved by pride of opinion or greed of power; constructive, tolerant, but never careless; self controlled, patient; always respectful of its readers, but always unafraid; is quickly indignant at injustice; is unswayed by the appeal of privilege or the clamor of the mob; seeks to give every man a chance and, as far as law and honest wages and recognition of human brotherhood can make it so, an equal chance; is profoundly patriotic, while sincerely promoting international good will and cementing world comradeship; is a journalism of humanity, of and for today's world.

NOTES

PRONOUNS

Never use _I_ in referring to yourself except in a signed article.

Avoid the use of _he or she_ and _his or her_. The use of either phrase is seldom required for clearness' sake. When a noun is used which may refer indifferently to both sexes, the accepted practice is to use the masculine pronoun. For example, say: _Let the teacher do his duty and he need not fear criticism_, not _Let the teacher do his or her duty and he or she need not fear criticism_.

Similarly after indefinite singulars like _each_, _every_, _somebody_, _anybody_, use the masculine singular pronoun. Thus, _Everyone should do his duty and he should do it every day_. Here one is not only to avoid the use of _he or she_ and _his or her_, but also particularly and constantly to be on guard against _they_ and _their_. Sentences like _Nobody knows what they can do till they try_; _Everyone is urged to come and bring their pocketbooks with them_, are frequently heard and often get into print.

Do not use _the same_ for a third personal or a demonstrative pronoun. _The farmer brought a load of wheat to town and sold it_ (not _the same_) _at the mill_.

Do not make _such_ a pronoun, except in the phrase _such as_. _He has fruits of all sorts and his prices for such are unreasonable_, is the sort of use to be avoided.

Distinguish between _its_, possessive pronoun, and _it's_, contraction of _it is_.

Use _either_ or _neither_ only of two, _any one_ or _none_ of more than two, as: _In one group are Russia, Germany and Austria, in another France and England. Any one of the first group acting with either of the second could determine the question_. (As conjunctions, _either_ and _neither_ may introduce the first of a series of particulars consisting of three or more. It is correct to say _Neither this nor that nor the other thing_; but when used as pronouns, _either_ and _neither_ should be rigidly confined to use with reference to two only.)

Prefer always _no one_ and _nobody_ to _not any one_ or _not anybody_, as _It is no one's_ (or _nobody's_) _business_, not, _It is not any one's_ (or _not anybody's_) _business_.

Do not use _apiece_ for _each_ of persons. Say: _The men each took an apple_ or _took an apple each_, not _The men took an apple apiece_. But they might have bought the apples at so much _apiece_.

Be careful not to say _these sort of things_, _these kind of men_, for _this sort of things_ or _this kind of men_.

In questions direct or indirect be careful to use _whom_ when the objective case is required. Do not say, _Who did you see there?_ or, _I do not know who he meant_.

The relative _who_ should be used only of persons (or of beasts or things personified). Do not say: _The dog whom you saw_ or _He drove the horse who made the best record_. The relative _which_ should be used only of beasts and inanimate objects. Do not say: _The women and children which were numerous then came trooping in_.

The relative _that_ may be used regardless of gender and the antecedent.

_That_ should be used after a compound antecedent mentioning both persons and animals or things, as, _The soldiers, the ambulances and the pack mules that were recaptured, were sent to the rear_.

Be careful of the case of _who_ if a parenthetical sentence intervenes between it and its verb. _He said that Gen. Harrison, whom, everybody well knew, had long been interested in the case, would make the closing argument._ Such faulty objective is often heard in daily speech and not infrequently gets into the papers. Of course _who_ should be used. But _whom_ should be used when the infinitive follows: _He said that Gen. Harrison, whom everybody admitted to be profoundly versed in the law, would discuss the point_.

It is proper to omit the relative pronoun on occasion when it is the object of the following verb, as _He was among the men (whom) I saw_.

CONJUNCTIONS

Never use _like_ as a conjunction. John may look _like_ James or act _like_ James or speak _like_ James, but he never looks, acts or speaks _like_ James looks, acts or speaks; he never looks _like_ he wanted to do something, nor conducts himself _like_ he thought he owned the earth, or _like_ he was crazy. _Like_ (as in the first example) may be followed by an objective case of a substantive, with which the construction is completed: _You are like me in this_; _You, like me, believe this_; _He conducted himself like a crazy man_. When a clause is demanded, _as if_ should be used: _He looks as if he wanted something_; _he acts as if he were crazy_.

Do not use _if_ for _whether_ in introducing indirect questions: _I doubt whether_ (not _if_) _this is true_; _I asked whether_ (not _if_) _he would go_.

Do not use _as_ for _that_. Not _I do not know as this is so_, but _I do not know that this is so_.

Do not use _without_ for _unless_. _We cannot go unless_ (not _without_) _he comes_.

Do not use _but what_ for _but that_ or _that_. _I do not doubt that_ (or _but that_) _he will come_, not _but what he will come_; _They did not know but that_ (not _but what_) _they might accept it_.

Do not use _while_ for _although_, as, _while it is probable_. _While_ refers to time.

VERBS

The verb should agree with its subject in person and number. It ought not to be necessary to give this obvious rule, but hardly a day passes without violation of it in almost every paper. Its violation is especially common in the inverted sentence, introduced with _there_. _There is likely to be some changes_; _There is, at the present writing, some hopes of peace_; _There seems to be, in view of all the conditions, many objections to this plan_, are examples of the faulty usage.

The _to_ should not be separated from the infinitive by word or phrase. The modifier should precede the _to_ or follow the verb. Do not say _to promptly act_, but _to act promptly_ or _promptly to act_. Such use as in the example just given is bad enough, but it is not so offensive as the intrusion of time adverbs and negatives as, for example, _He decided to now go_, or _He expected to not only go but to stay_, or _He preferred to not stay_.

Do not end a sentence with the _to_ of an omitted infinitive; as: _He could not speak but tried to_; but _He refused to go but he ought to go_, or _He ought to go but he refuses_.

Subordinate infinitives and participles take their time from the verb in the principal clause. They should therefore be the simple so-called present forms. Do not say: _I intended to have gone_, or _I intended having gone_, but _I intended to go_, _I intended going_; not _He had expected to have been present_, but _He had expected to be present_; not _He would have liked to have seen you_; but _He would have liked to see you_; not _I was desirous to have gone_, but _I was desirous to go_.

With the verbs _appear_ (in the sense of _seem to be_) and _feel_, _look_, _smell_ and _sound_ (used intransitively) use an adjective and not an adverb, i. e., _The rose smells sweet_; _Miss Coghlan as Lady Teazle looked charming_; _She appeared happy_. But _appear_ in the same sense of _behave_ is followed by an adverb, as _He appears well_; and the other verbs used transitively of course take an adverb, as _He looked sharply at the man_.

When one wishes to imply doubt or denial in a condition of present or indefinite time, the imperfect subjunctive should be used, as _If the book were here, I should show you_--but the book is not here; _If it were true, you would long ago have heard it_--but it is not true. But if one is referring to past time, the imperfect indicative must be used, as, _If he was here yesterday, I did not know it_.

Be careful to distinguish between _lay_ and _lie_, _raise_ and _rise_, _set_ and _sit_. The first of each pair is transitive, and always requires an object; the second is intransitive and never takes an object. (The only exception is _sit_ used of a rider, as, _He sits his horse well_.) One _lays_ or _sets_ a thing down and _raises_ it up. One _lies_ or _sits_ down and _rises_ from one's place. Land _lies_ this way or that. (But we speak of the _lay_ of the land.)

Especially pains must be taken to keep straight the past tenses and past participles of _lay_ and _lie_. Of _lay_ past tense and participle are alike _laid_. _He laid_ or _he has laid the case before the authorities_. The past tense of _lie_ is _lay_ (the same as the present tense of the transitive verb), the past participle is _lain_. These forms are seldom if ever used for parts of _lay_; but for them _laid_ is very often used, as, _He laid_ or _he has laid down to take a nap_, where the correct usage is _He lay_ or _he has lain down_, etc.

Prices _rise_, wages _rise_, bread _rises_, bread is _set_ to _rise_; men _raise_ prices or wages; _He rose and raised his hand_. Clothing of every sort _sits_ well or ill, it does not _set_. The corresponding noun, however, is _set_; _He admired the set of the garment_. You _set_ a hen, but the hen _sits_ and is a _sitting_ hen. The heavenly bodies _set_, but that is another word, which means to _sink_ or to _settle_.

Inanimate objects are not _injured_ but _damaged_.

Use _wish_ to mean simple desire, as, _I wish to see him_. Use _want_ to mean acute need, as, _I want food_.

Only moving objects _collide_. Two automobiles may _collide_, but an automobile does not _collide_ with a fence.

PREFER:

_lend_ to _loan_
_lives_ to _resides_
_leaves_ to _departs_
_obtain_ or _procure_ to _secure_
_turn over_ to _turn turtle_
_bought_ to _purchased_
_live at hotel_ to _stop at hotel_
_robbed of_ to _relieved of_

Things of a general class are compared _with_ each other to bring out points of similarity or dissimilarity. One thing is compared _to_ another of a different class. He compared Detroit _with_ Cleveland. He compared Detroit _to_ a busy hive of bees.

Things _occur_ or _happen_ by chance and _take place_ by design. An accident _happens_ or _occurs_; a pre-arranged act _takes place_.

Except in legal papers use _proved_ instead of _proven_.

_Transpire_ does not mean to take place but to leak out, as, _They tried to keep their deliberations secret, but it transpired that * * *_

_Enthuse_ is not a good word. Say _become enthusiastic_.

Medicine, laws and oaths are _administered_; blows and punishment are _dealt_.

_Allege_ is used only in referring to formal charges and not as a synonym for _say_ or _assert_.

The past tense and past participle of _dive_ are _dived_. Don't use _dove_.

The past tense and past participle of _forecast_ are _forecast_. Don't use _forecasted_.

The past tense and past participle of _hang_ are _hung_, except in reference to an execution; then write, _He was hanged_.

The past tense and past participle of _plead_ are _pleaded_ and not _plead_ or _pled_. Don't write, _He plead guilty_, but _He pleaded guilty_.

The past tense of _swim_ is _swam_, and the past participle is _swum_.

BARRED BY THE SUN

Newspaper men can read with profit this list of words and phrases to be avoided, compiled by Charles A. Dana for his associates on the New York Sun:

_above_ or _over_ for _more than_
_aggregate_ for _total_
_balance_ for _remainder_
_call attention_ for _direct attention_
_claim_ for _assert_
_commence_ for _begin_
_comprise_ for _compose_
_conscious_ for _aware_
_couple_ for _two_
_cultured_ for _cultivated_
_date back to_ for _date from_
_donate_ for _give_
_fall_ for _autumn_
_from whence_ for _whence_
_indorse_ for _approve_
_inaugurate_ for _establish_, _institute_
_individual_ for _person_
_infinite_ for _great_, _vast_
_last_ for _latest_
_less_ for _fewer_
_materially_ for _largely_
_named after_ for _named for_
_notice_ for _observe_
_onto_ for _on_ or _upon_
_partially_ for _partly_
_past two years_ for _last two years_
_practically_ for _virtually_
_party_ for _person_

DOUBLING UP HAVE'S

Mark Twain in "A Tramp Abroad" wrote: "Harris said that if the best writer in the world once got the slovenly habit of 'doubling up his have's,' he could never get rid of it; that is to say, if a man gets the habit of saying 'I should have liked to have known more about it' instead of saying 'I should have liked to know more about it,' his disease is incurable."

NOTES

ADVERBS

Great liberty may be exercised in placing the adverb according to the emphasis desired. In general it should be placed near the word or phrase it modifies to express the thought most clearly. One should not say, _Not only he spoke forcefully but eloquently_; nor _He was rather forceful than eloquent_, but _He was forceful rather than eloquent_.

Note particularly that when the adverb is placed within the verb, it should regularly follow the first auxiliary. For example: _This can truthfully be said_, not _This can be truthfully said_; _He will probably have set out by noon_, not _He will have probably_, etc.; _It has long been expected_, not _It has been long expected_.

If the adverb is intended to modify the whole sentence, it very properly stands first, as, _Decidedly, this is not true_; _Assuredly, he does not mean that_. In such sentences the adverb really modifies some verb understood, as, _I say decidedly this is not true_.

Do not use _this_, _that_ and _some_ as adverbs. Never say _this high_, _this long_, _that broad_, _that good_, _this much_, _that much_, _some better_, _some earlier_. Say _thus_ or _so_ whenever tempted to use _this_ or _that_ in such connections, and use _somewhat_ instead of _some_.

Do not say a man is _dangerously ill_; say _alarmingly_ or _critically_. Never use _illy_; you might as well say _welly_.

After a negative use _so_ in a comparison. _This is as good as that_, but _This is not so good as that_.

Say _as far as_, _as long as_, etc.; not _so far as_, _so long as_. Thus, _As far as I know, this is true_; _As long as I stay here, you may use my book_.

Use _previously to_, _agreeably to_, _consistently with_, etc., instead of the adjective forms, in such expressions as _Previously to my arrival, he had been informed_; _We acted agreeably to the instructions_.

Beware of _only_. Better not use it unless you are sure it is correctly placed. Observe the difference in the meaning here: I have _only_ spoken to him. I have spoken _only_ to him.

Don't use _liable_ when you mean _likely_. A man is _likely_ to park his automobile so he will be _liable_ to arrest.

Don't use _painfully cut_ and similar expressions. One is not _pleasantly cut_.

_Occasionally_ means _on occasion_. So don't write _very occasionally_, but _very seldom_ or _infrequently_.

_Farther_ is used to denote distance; _further_ in other senses, as, _I told him further that I walked farther than he_.

ADJECTIVES

Be sparing in the use of epithets and of adjectives and adverbs generally. Especially avoid the use of superlatives. Superlatives are seldom true. Rarely is a man the most remarkable man in the country in any particular; rarely is an accident the worst in the history of the city. Better understate than overstate; better err on the side of moderation than excess. William Cobbett says: "Some writers deal in expletives to a degree that tires the ear and offends the understanding. With them everything is excessively, or immensely, or extremely, or vastly, or surprisingly, or wonderfully, or abundantly, or the like. The notion of such writers is that these words give strength to what they are saying. This is a great error. Strength must be found in the thought or it will never be found in the words. Big sounding words, without thoughts corresponding, are effort without effect."

Be sure to remember that _nee_ means born. It is of course impossible then to speak of _Mrs. Doe, nee Mary Roe_, as one is never born with a Christian name, but _Mrs. Doe, nee Roe_. And, of all things when a widow has remarried, do not write _Mrs. Richard Roe, nee Mrs. John Doe_.

Adjectives, if wisely used, give desirable color to a story. A thesaurus will brighten up a reporter's adjectival vocabulary. These are suggestions for possible substitutions of fresh words for more or less hackneyed words:

_fast_--_fleet_, _swift_
_good_--_meritorious_, _laudable_
_repentant_--_penitent_, _contrite_
_temperate_--_abstemious_
_intemperate_--_inabstinent_
_modest_--_decorous_
_distressing_--_piteous_, _pitiable_, _rueful_
_witty_--_jocose_, _nimble-witted_
_fearful_--_timid_, _apprehensive_, _tremulous_
_crafty_--_cunning_, _artful_
_frank_--_ingenuous_, _guileless_

Prefer _agreeable_ to _nice_, which means accurate; and _long_ to _lengthy_.

Words like _perfect_ and _unique_ cannot be compared. Never write, _more perfect_, _most perfect_, _most unique_.

Eschew the word _very_. It seldom strengthens a sentence.

It is better to use such words as _feline_, _bovine_, _canine_, _human_ as adjectives only.

Prefer _several_ or _many_ to _a number of_.

_Healthy_ means possessing health, as, _a healthy man_. _Healthful_ means conducive to health, as, _healthful climate_, _surroundings_, _employment_. Do not use _healthful_ in speaking of food, but _wholesome_.

_Parlous_ is archaic. Don't use the phrase _in these parlous times_. The word in good usage is _perilous_.

Nobody has explained the difference between _actual photographs_ and _photographs_.

_Awful_ means inspiring _awe_, _fearful_ inspiring _fear_, and _terrible_ inspiring _terror_.

_Anxious_ implies _anxiety_. Say _eager_ if you mean it.

The first meaning of _hectic_ is habitual. The second meaning is _fevered_. It connotes _heat_ more particularly than _red_.

Great care is needed in using these three words: _livid_, _lurid_ and _weird_. _Livid_ means primarily black and blue. It also means a grayish blue or lead color, as flesh by contusion. It doesn't mean anything else. _Lurid_ means a pale yellow, ghastly pale, wan; figuratively it means gloomy or dismal, grimly terrible or sensational. When used in its first sense it is properly applicable to the yellow flames seen through smoke. It does not mean fiery red. In its figurative sense it can be used to describe a series of incidents calculated to shock or to stun by the enormity of them. _Weird_ means primarily pertaining to witchcraft and is used in reference to the witches in "Macbeth." It also means unearthly, uncanny, eerie. A green light might be called _weird_. It must not be used to mean peculiar, as, _She wore a weird hat_.

YOUR AUDIENCE

Says Irvin S. Cobb: I'd rather have my work read by thousands of people throughout the country than be the author of the greatest classic that ever mouldered on a shelf.

In my opinion, the masses are worth our art. If we believe in a democratic form of government we should believe in a democratic attitude toward the art of the short story, and I, for one, frankly admit that I write for the shop girl and business man rather than for the high-brow critic. That does not mean you must necessarily choose between them, but if I had to choose I would let the critic go.

NOTES

PREPOSITIONS

Be careful to use the proper prepositions in all connections.

Say _different from_, not _different to_.

We say a man lives _on_, not _in_, a street, an avenue, etc. Children play _in_ the street, but _on_ the pavement.

One writes _under_, not _over_, a signature. The preposition has no reference to the place of the signature.

Do not overwork _on the part of_. This phrase is often used where _by_ or _among_ is to be preferred, as, _Much patriotism is displayed on the part of the Greeks_.

Say _off_, not _off from_ or _off of_. _He fell off his horse_, or _He fell from his horse_.

Discriminate carefully between _beside_ and _besides_. The first is always a preposition and means either _by the side of_, as, _He stood beside me_, or _aside from_, or _out of_, as, _This is beside our present purpose_; _He was beside himself for joy_. _Besides_ is either preposition or adverb: as the former it means _in addition to_, as _Several others were present besides those you saw_; as adverb it means _moreover_ or _more than that_, as _There were, besides, many pompous volumes_.

Be careful with _between_ and _among_; _between_ is used with reference to two persons, parties or things; _among_ with reference to many: _In this city Democrats and Republicans divide the offices between them; in some cities they are distributed among all the parties_.

Distinguish between _in_ and _into_. _Into_ implies action. A man goes _into_ his house and then he is _in_ the house.

A person dies _of_ typhoid fever rather than _from_ typhoid fever.

Distinguish between _consist in_ and _consist of_. Virtue consists _in_ right living. The family consists _of_ seven persons.

A book is illustrated _with_ sketches and it is illustrated _by_ the artist who made the sketches.

Omit _from_ from the phrases _from hence_, _from thence_, _from whence_.

ARTICLES

Use an article with every noun of a series unless the nouns are so closely related that one concept is implied. Say, _The bread and jam was good_, but _The bread and the jam were good_. Say, _A horse and buggy_, but _A man and a woman_.

Do not repeat an article before each adjective of a series when all modify the same noun. Say, _A red, white and blue flag_. If you mean three flags, say, _A red, a white, and a blue flag_.

Do not write _a_ or _an_ after _sort of_ and _kind of_. Make it: _He is the right sort of man for mayor_.

The definite article is used too often when it might better be omitted, as in this sentence: _The study of the dictionary is helpful_. Write it: _Study of the dictionary_.

NUMBERS

The general rule on The News is that all numbers above nine shall be written in figures, and that all numbers below 10 shall be spelled out. There are, of course, many exceptions to this rule. Figures are always used for degrees of latitude and longitude, degrees of temperature, per cent, prices, racing time, scores, definite sums of money, time, votes, dates (as Sept. 27), ages, street numbers and tabulated statistics.

Spell out indefinite figures, as _about a dollar's worth_.

Use Roman numerals in writing of kings, as _George V_, and then without a period. Do not use Roman numerals in designating centuries. Write it _fourteenth century_, not _XIVth century_.

Write _Monday at 8 a. m._, not _at 8 o'clock on Monday morning_.

Spell out such expressions as _the early seventies_.

Use figures in dimensions when written thus: _a lot 4x6 feet_.

All ages shall be written thus: _John Smith, 8 years old_. Do not write it: _John Smith, aged 8_, or _aged eight_. It will be easy to remember the rule if you observe that in writing it thus: _John Smith, aged 18, 48 Jones street_, you are opening an opportunity for an error easily made. It may appear: _John Smith, aged 184, 8 Jones street_.

All ordinals are spelled out. Write it _thirtieth_, not _30th_. Write a date: _Feb. 6_, not _February 6th_, or _February sixth_.

Do not use both numerals and figures spelled out in one phrase. Write it: _Eight feet eleven inches_. If in a phrase a number over 10 precedes a number under 10, express both in figures, thus _18 hours 4 minutes_. If vice versa, express it thus: _two hours eighteen minutes_.

ROMAN NUMERALS

I 1
II 2
III 3
IV 4
V 5
VI 6
VII 7
VIII 8
IX 9
X 10
XIX 19
XX 20
XXX 30
XL 40
L 50
LX 60
LXX 70
LXXX 80
XC 90
C 100
CL 150
CC 200
CCC 300
CCCC 400
D 500
DC 600
DCC 700
DCCC 800
DCCCC 900
M 1,000

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

7.92 inches make 1 link.

25 links make 1 rod.

16.50 feet make 1 rod.

4 rods make 1 chain.

10 chains make 1 furlong.

8 furlongs make 1 mile.

320 rods make 1 mile.

5,280 feet make 1 mile.

10 square chains make 1 acre.

160 square rods make 1 acre.

640 acres make 1 square mile.

43,560 square feet make 1 acre.

69 geographical miles make 1 degree of latitude.

1,728 cubic inches make 1 cubic foot.

27 cubic feet make 1 cubic yard.

Gunter's chain, 22 yards of 100 links.

A section is 640 acres.

A township is 36 sections, each 1 square mile.

A span is 9 inches.

A hand--horse measurement--is 4 inches.

A knot--nautical--is 6,086 feet.

A fathom--nautical--is 6 feet.

A stone is 14 pounds.

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