Chapter XVIII: Part II (2)

[5] The horizontal lines of the diagram here indicate, as in Fig. 1, the divisions of the several geologic systems; the vertical lines represent the leading divisions and classes of animals, and, as shown by the formations in which their earliest known remains occur, the probable period of their first appearance in creation; while the double line of text below exhibits the complete correspondence which obtains between their occurrence, in nature and the Cuvierian arrangement. The line representative of the Radiata ought perhaps to have been elevated a little higher than either of its two neighbors.

[6] Fig. 14, Neuropteris Loshii. Fig. 15, Neuropteris gigantea. Fig. 16, Neuropteris acuminata. Fig. 17, Sphenopteris affinis. Fig. 18, Pecopteris heterophylla. Fig. 19, Sphenopteris dilitata.

[7] Fig. 21, _r a_, Rachis, greatly thickened towards its base by numerous ærial roots, shot downwards to the soil, and which closely cover the stem.

[8] Fig. 22, _m_, Cellular tissue of the centre of rachis; _d_, similar tissue of the circumference; _f_, _v_, darkly-colored woody fibres of great strength, the "internal buttresses" of the illustration; _e_, the outer cortical portion formed by the bases of the leaves.

[9] Fig. 23, Branching stem, with bark and leaves. Fig. 24. Extremity of branch. Fig. 25, Extremity of another branch, with indication of cone-like receptacle of spores or seed.

[10] No true fossil palms have yet been detected in the great Oolitic and Wealden systems, though they certainly occur in the Carboniferous and Permian rocks, and are comparatively common in the earlier and middle Tertiary formations. Much cannot be founded on merely negative evidence; but it would be certainly a curious circumstance should it be found that this graceful family, first ushered into being some time in the later Palæozoic periods, was withdrawn from creation during the Middle ages of the earth's history, to be again introduced in greatly more than the earlier proportions during the Tertiary and recent periods.

[11] Leaf of a tree allied to the maple.

[12] Leaf of a tree allied to the elm.

[13] Here, as in the former diagrams (Figs. 1 and 4), the horizontal lines represent the divisions of the great geologic systems; while the vertical lines indicate the sweep of the several orders of fishes across the scale, and the periods, so far as has yet been determined, of their first occurrence in creation.

[14] Some of these _dragons_ of the Secondary ages were of very considerable size. The wings of a Pterodactyle of the Chalk, in the possession of Mr. Bowerbank, must have had a spread of about eighteen feet; those of a recently discovered Pterodactyle of the Greensand, a spread of not less than twenty-seven feet. The _Lammer-geyer_ of the Alps has an extent of wing of but from ten to eleven feet; while that of the great Condor of the Andes, the largest of flying birds, does not exceed twelve feet.

[15] _a_, Palæotherium magnum. _b_, Palæotherium minus. _c_, Anoplotherium commune.

[16] It will be seen that there is no attempt made in this lecture to represent the great Palæozoic division as characterized _throughout its entire extent_ by a luxuriant flora. It is, on the contrary, expressly stated here, that the "plants of its earlier and terminal formations (_i.e._ those of the Silurian, Old Red, and Permian Systems) were _few and small_," and that "it was _only during the protracted eons of the carboniferous period that they received their amazing development, unequalled in any previous or succeeding time_." Being thus express in my limitation, I think I have just cause of complaint against any one who represents me us unfairly laboring, in this very composition, to make it be believed that the _whole_ Palæozoic period was characterized by a gorgeous flora; and as thus sophistically generalizing in the first instance, in order to make a fallacious use of the generalization in the second, with the intention of misleading non-geologic readers. Such, however, as may be seen from the following extracts from the "Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Science at Philadelphia," is the charge preferred against me by a citizen of the United States.

"Mr. William Parker Foulke asked the attention of the Society to a lecture by Mr. Hugh Miller, recently republished in the United States under the title of 'The Two Records, Mosaic and Geological,' and made some remarks upon the importance of maintaining a careful scrutiny of the logic of the natural sciences.... Mr. Miller teaches that, in the attempt to reconcile the two 'records,' there are only three periods to be accounted for by the geologist, viz. 'the period of _plants_; the period of _great sea monsters and creeping things_; and the period of _cattle and beasts of the earth_;' and that the first of these periods is represented by the rocks grouped under the term _Palæozoic_, and is distinguished from the _Secondary_ and _Tertiary_ chiefly by its gorgeous flora; and that the geological evidence is so complete as to be patent to all, that the first great period of organized being was, as described in the Mosaic record, peculiarly a period of herbs and trees, yielding seed after their kind. The general reader, not familiar with the details of geological arrangement, could not fail to infer from such a statement, used for such a purpose, that the Palæozoic rocks are regarded by geologists as forming one group representative of one period, which can properly be said to be distinguished as a _whole_ by its gorgeous flora; and that it is properly so distinguished _for the argument in question_. It was familiar to the Academy, as well as to Mr. Miller, that from the _carboniferous_ rocks downward (backward in order of time), there have been discriminated a large number of periods, differing from one another in mineral and in organic remains; and that the proportion of the _carboniferous_ era to the whole series is small, whether we regard the thickness of its deposits or its conjectural chronology. It in only of this _carboniferous_ era, _the latest of this series_, that the author's remarks could be true; and even of this, if taken for the entire surface of the earth, it could not be truly asserted that 'the evidence is so complete as to be patent to all,' that the quantity of its vegetable products distinguishes it from the earth's surface during the era in which we live. To confound by implication all this periods termed Palæozoic, so as to apply to them as a whole what could be true, if at all, only of the _carboniferous_ period, is a fallacious use of a generalization _made for a purpose_, and upon a principle not properly available for the writer's argument," &c. So far the "Proceedings" of the Academy.

This, surely, is very much the reverse of fair. I, however, refer the matter, without note or comment (so far at least as it involves the question whether Mr. Foulke has not, in the face of the most express statement on my part, wholly misrepresented me), to the judgment of candid and intelligent readers on both sides of the Atlantic.

I know not that I should recognize Mr. Foulke as entitled, after such a display, to be dealt with simply as the member of a learned society who differs from me on a scientific question; nor does his reference to the "carboniferous era" as "the _latest_ of the" Palæozoic "series," and his apparent unacquaintance with that Permian period, in reality the terminal one of the division during which the Palæozoic forms seem to have gradually died away, in order to give place to those of the Secondary division, inspire any very high respect for his acquirements as a geologist. Waiving, however, the legitimacy of his claim, I may be permitted to repeat, for the further information of the non-geological reader, that the _carboniferous_ formations, _wherever they have yet been detected_, justify, in the amazing abundance of their carbonized vegetable organisms, the name which they bear. Mr. Foulke, in three short sentences, uses the terms "carboniferous era," "carboniferous rocks," "carboniferous period," four several times; and these terms are derived from the predominating amount of carbon (elaborated of old by the plants of the period) which occurs in its several formations. The very language which he has to employ is of itself a confirmation of the statement which he challenges. For so "patent" is this _carboniferous_ character of the system, that it has given to it its universally accepted designation,--the verbal sign by which it is represented wherever it is known. Mr. F. states, that "if taken for the entire surface of the earth," it cannot be truly asserted that the carboniferous flora preponderated over that of the present time, or, at least, that its preponderance could not be regarded as "patent to all," The statement admits of so many different meanings, that I know not whether I shall succeed in replying to the special meaning intended by Mr. Foulke. There are no doubt carboniferous deposits on the earth's surface still unknown to the geologist, the evidence of which on the point must be regarded, in consequence, not as "patent to all," but as _nil_. They are witnesses absent from court, whose testimony has not yet been tendered. But equally certain it is, I repeat, that wherever carboniferous formations _have_ been discovered and examined, they have been found to bear the unique characteristic to which the system owes its name,--they have been found charged with the carbon, existing usually as great beds of coal, which was elaborated of old by its unrivalled flora from the elements. And as this evidence is certain and positive, no one would be entitled to set off against it, as of equal weight, the merely negative evidence of some one or two deposits of the carboniferous age that did not bear the carboniferous character, even were such known to exist; far less is anyone entitled to set off against it the _possibly_ negative evidence of deposits of the carboniferous age not yet discovered nor examined; for that would be simply to set off against good positive evidence, what is no evidence at all. It would be to set off the _possible_ evidence of the absent witnesses, not yet precognosced in the case, against the express declarations of the witnesses already examined, and strong on the positive side.

Surely an American, before appealing, in a question of this kind, to the bare possibility of the existence somewhere or other of barely negative evidence, ought to have bethought him of the very extraordinary positive evidence furnished by the carboniferous deposits of his own great country. The coal fields of Britain and the European continent had been wrought for ages ere those of North America were known, and for ages more after it had been but ascertained that the New, like the Old World, has its Coal Measures. And during the latter period the _argument_ of Mr. Foulke might have been employed, just as now, and some member of a learned society might have urged that, though the coal fields of Europe bore evidence to the former existence of a singularly luxuriant flora, beyond comparison more vast than the European one of the present day, the same could not be predicated of the American coal fields, whose carbonized remains _might_ be found representative of a flora which had been at least not more largely developed than that existing American flora to which the great western forests belong. Now, however, the time for any such argument has gone by; the American coal fields have been carefully explored; and what is the result? The geologist has come to know, that even the mighty forests of America are inconsiderable, compared with its deposits of coal; nay, that all its forests gathered into one heap would fail to furnish the materials of a single coal seam equal to that of Pittsburg; and that centuries after all its thick woods shall have disappeared before the axe, and it shall have come to present the comparatively bare, unwooded aspect of the long civilized countries of Southern Europe, it will continue to derive the elements of its commercial greatness, and the cheerful blaze of its many millions of domestic hearths, from the unprecedentedly luxurious flora of the old carboniferous ages. Truly, very wonderful are the coal fields of Northern America! If geologists inferred, as they well might, that the extinct flora which had originated the European coal vastly outrivalled in luxuriance that of the existing time, what shall be said of that flora of the same age which originated the coal deposits of Nova Scotia and the United States,--deposits _twenty times as great_ as all those of all Europe put together!

[17] Such is also the view taken by the author of a recently published work, "The Genesis of the Earth and of Man." "Christian philosophers have been compelled to acknowledge," says this writer, "that the Mosaic account of creation is only reconcileable with demonstrated facts, by its being regarded as a record of _appearances_; and if so, to vindicate the truth of God, we must consider it, so far as the acts are concerned, as the relation of a revelation to the _sight_, which was sufficient for all its purposes, rather than as one in words; though the words are perfectly true as describing the revelation itself, and the revelation is equally true as showing man the principal phenomena which he would have seen had it been possible for him to be a witness of the events. Further, if we view the narrative as the description of a series of visions, while we find it to be perfectly reconcileable with the statement in other parts of Scripture, that in six days the Lord made heaven and earth, we remove, with other difficulties, the only strong objection to the opinion of those who regard the 'six days' as periods of undeflnable duration, and who may even believe that we are now in the 'seventh day,'--the day of rest or of cessation from the work of creation. Certainly, 'the day of God,' and 'the day of the Lord,' and the 'thousand two hundred and threescore days,' of the Revelation of St. John, and the 'seventy weeks' in the Prophecy of Daniel, are not to be understood in their primary and natural senses," &c., &c.

[18] "For in six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that in them is, and rested the seventh day: wherefore the Lord blessed the Sabbath day, and hallowed it."

[19] Forbes and Hanley enumerate one hundred and sixty bivalves, and two hundred and thirty-two univalves,--in all three hundred and ninety-two species, as the only known shell-bearing molluscs of the existing British seas.

[20] Principles of Zoology: touching the Structure, Development, Distribution, and Natural Arrangement of the Races of Animals, living and extinct. With numerous Illustrations. For the Use of Schools and Colleges. Part I., "Comparative Physiology." By Louis Agassiz and Augustus A. Gould. Boston: Gould & Lincoln.

[21] _a_, Articulating surface of joint. _b_, Fragment of column, exhibiting laterally the tooth processes, so fitted into each other as to admit of flexure without risk of dislocation. The uppermost joint shows two lateral cavities for the articulation of auxiliary arms.

[22] Perhaps one strengthening principle more might be enumerated as occurring in this curious piece of mechanism. In the layer of the nether plate, the fibres, instead of being laid in parallel lines, like the threads in the moleskin of my illustration, seem to be _felted_ together,--an arrangement which must have added considerably to their coherency and powers of resistance.

[23] Fig. 102, Clymenia Sedwicki; Fig. 103, Gyroceras Eifelensis; Fig. 104, Cirrus Goldfussii.

[24] Berosus, Hieronymus, Mnaseas, Nicolaus, Manetho, Mochus, and Hestæus.

[25] See Cory's "Ancient Fragments."

[26] As was common in Bible illustrations published in our own country a century and a half ago, the old Greek artist has introduced into his medal two points of time. Two of the figures represent _Noe_ and his wife quitting the ark; while the other two exhibit them as seated within it. An English print of the death of Abel, now before me, which dates a little after the times of the Revolution, shows, on the same principle, the two brothers, represented by four figures,--two of these quietly offering up their respective sacrifices in the background, and the other two grappling in deadly warfare in front.

[27] "In preparing the 'Horæ Biblicæ Quotidianæ,' he [Dr. Chalmers] had beside him, for use and reference, the Concordance, the Pictorial Bible, Poole's Synopsis, Henry's Commentary, and Robertson's Researches in Palestine. These constituted what he called his Biblical Library. 'There,' said he to a friend, pointing, as he spoke, to the above named volumes as they lay together on his library table, with a volume of the 'Quotidianæ,' in which he had just been writing, lying open beside them,--'these are the books I use: all that is Biblical is there.'"--_Dr. Hanna's Preface to "Daily Scripture Readings."_

[28] The raven is said to live for more than a hundred years. I am, however, not prepared to say that it was the same pair of birds that used, year after year, to build on the same rock-shelf among the precipices of Navity, from the times of my great-grandfather's boyhood to those of my own.

[29] The following estimate of the air-breathing vertebrates (that of the "Physical Atlas," second edition, 1856) may be regarded as the latest. It will he seen that it does not include the cetacea or the seals:--

SPECIES. Quadrumana 170 Marsupialia 123 Edentata 28 Pachydermata 39 Terrestrial Carnivora 514 Rodentia 604 Ruminantia 180 ---- 1658 Birds 6266 Reptiles 657 Turtles 8} Sea Snakes 7} 15 ---- 642

Great as is this number of animals, compared with those known a century ago, there are indications that the list is to be increased rather than diminished. Even by the latest European authorities the reindeer is represented as consisting of but a single species, common to the sub-arctic regions of both the Old and New Worlds; whereas in the "Canadian Naturalist" for 1856 I find it stated, on what seems to be competent authority, that America has its two species of reindeer, and that they both differ from the European species.

[30] If I do not introduce here the argument founded on the great age of certain gigantic trees, such as the Baobab of intertropical Africa, or the Taxodium of South America, it is not because I have any reason to challenge the estimates of Adamson or Candolle. The one tree may have lived its five thousand, the other its six thousand, years; but as the grounds have been disputed on which the calculations respecting their vast age have been founded, and as they cannot be reëxamined anew by the reader, I wholly omit the evidence, in the general question, which they have been supposed to furnish.

[31] The following excellent remarks on the economy of miracle, by Chalmers, bear very directly on this subject:--"It is remarkable that God is sparing of miracles, and seems to prefer the ordinary processes of nature, if equally effectual for the accomplishment of his purposes. He might have saved Noah and his family by miracles; but he is not prodigal of these, and so he appointed that an ark should be made to bear up the living cargo which was to be kept alive on the surface of the waters; and not only so, but he respects the laws of the animal physiology, as he did those of hydrostatics, in that he put them by pairs into the ark, male and female, to secure their transmission to after ages, and food was stored up to sustain them during their long confinement. In short, he dispenses with miracles when these are not requisite for the fulfilment of his ends; and he never dispenses with the ordinary means when these are fitted, and at the same time sufficient, for the occasion."--_Daily Scripture Readings_, vol. i. p. 10.

[32] For a brief but masterly view of these ancient cosmogonies, see the Rev. D. Macdonald's "Creation and the Fall." Edinburgh: Constable & Co.

[33]

1. The great surrounding oceans.
2. Caspian Sea.
3. River Phison.
4-4. Points of the Compass.
5. Mediterranean Sea.
6. Red Sea.
7-8. Persian Gulf, with the rivers Tigris and Euphrates.
9. River Gihon.

[34]

1. The sun Occident.
2. The sun orient.
3. The Heavens.
4. Great mountain behind which the sun is hidden when it is night.
5. The Mediterranean Sea.
6. Red Sea.
7. Persian Gulf.
8. Garden of Eden.
9. Great surrounding ocean
10. The Creator looking down upon his work, and seeing that all was good.

[35] The very different terms which Mr. Powell employs in characterizing the anti-geologists, from those which he makes use of in denouncing the men honestly bent on reconciling the enunciations of revelation with the findings of geologic science,--a class which included in the past, divines such as Chalmers, Buckland, and Pye Smith, and comprises divines such as Hitchcock and the Archbishop of Canterbury now,--is worthy of being noted. In two sermons, "Christianity without Judaism," written by this clergyman of the Church of England, to show that all days of the week are alike, and the Christian Sabbath a mere blunder, I find the following passage:--"Some divines have consistently rejected all geology and all science as profane and carnal; and some even, when pretending to call themselves men of science, have stooped to the miserable policy, of tampering with the truth, investing the real facts in false disguises, to cringe to the prejudices of the many, and to pervert science into a seeming accordance with popular prepossessions." I cannot believe that this will be regarded as justifiable language: it seems scarce worthy of a man of science; and will, I fear, only be accepted as good in evidence that the _odium theologicum_ is not restricted to what is termed the orthodox side of the Church.

[36] The gentleman here referred to lectured no later than October, 1853, against the doctrines of the geologists; and modestly chose as the scene of his labors the city of Hutton and Playfair. What he set himself specially to "demonstrate" was, as he said, that the geologic "theories as to antiquity of the earth, successive eras, &c., were not only fallacious and unphilosophical, but rendered nugatory the authority of the sacred Scriptures." Not only, however, did he exert himself in demolishing the geologists as infidel, but he denounced also as unsound the theology of good old Isaac Watts. The lines taught us in our infancy,--

"Let dogs delight to bark and bite, For God hath made them so,"

were, he remarked, decidedly heterodox. They ought to have run instead,--

"Let dogs delight to bark and bite, _Satan_ hath made them so"!!!

[37] "A Brief and Complete Refutation of the Anti-Scriptural Theory of Geologists." By a Clergyman of the Church of England. London: Wertheim & Macintosh. 1853.

[38] Newspaper Report of Meeting of the British Association held at York in September, 1844.

[39] See "Primary and Present State of the Solar System, particularly of our own Planet;" and "Exposure of the Principles of Modern Geology." By P. M'Farlane, Author of the "Primary and Present State of the Solar System." Edinburgh: Thomas Grant.

[40] One of the more brilliant writers of the present day,--a native of the picturesque village in which this anti-geologist resides,--describes in a recent work, with the enthusiasm of the poet, the noble mountains which rise around it. I know not, however, whether my admiration of the passage was not in some degree dashed by a few comic notions suggestive of an "imaginary conversation," in the style of Landor, between this popular author and his anti-geologic townsman, on the merits of hills in general, and in especial on the claims of those which encircle Comrie "as the mountains are round about Jerusalem." The two gentlemen would, I suspect, experience considerable difficulty in laying down, in such a discussion, their common principles.

[41] "Comparative Estimate of the Mineral and Mosaical Geologies." By Granville Penn, Esq. London, 1825.

[42] "Statesman and Record," October 6th, 1846.

[43] Sir Charles Lyell's statement is by no means so express or definite as it is represented to be in this passage, in which I have taken the evidence of his opponents regarding it. What he really says (see his "Principles," second edition, 1832) is what follows:--"_If_ the ratio of recession had never exceeded fifty yards in forty years, it must have required nearly ten thousand years for the excavation of the whole ravine; but no probable conjecture can be offered as to the quantity of time consumed in such an operation, because the retrograde movement may have been much more rapid when the whole current was confined within a space not exceeding a fourth or fifth of that which the Falls now occupy." In the eighth edition of the same work, however, published in 1850, after he had examined the Falls, there occurs the following re-statement of the case:--"After the most careful inquiries I was able to make during my visit to the spot in 1841-42, I came to the conclusion that the average [recession] of one foot a year would be a much more probable conjecture than that of one and a quarter yards. In that case it would have required _thirty-five thousand years_ for the retreat of the Falls from the escarpment of Queenston to their present site. It seems by no means improbable that such a result would be no exaggeration of the truth, although we cannot assume that the retrograde movement has been uniform. At some points it may have receded much faster than at present; but in general its progress was probably slower, because the cataract, when it began to recede, must have been nearly twice its present height."

[44] "Scottish Christian Herald," 1838, vol. iii., p. 766.

[45] The substance of this and the following lecture was originally given in a single paper, before the Geological Section of the British Association, held at Glasgow in September 1855. So considerable have been the additions, however, that the one paper has swelled into two lectures. Most of the added matter was at first thrown into the form of Notes; but it was found, that from their length and frequency, they would have embarrassed the printer, mayhap the reader also; and so most of the larger ones have been introduced into the text within brackets.

[46] A curious set of these, with specimens of the smooth-stemmed fucoid collected by Mr. John Miller of Thurso,--a meritorious laborer in the geologic field,--were exhibited at Glasgow to the Association. The larger stems were thickly traversed in Mr. J. Miller's specimens by diagonal lines, which seemed, however, to be merely lines of rhomboidal fracture in the glassy coal into which the plants were converted, and not one of their original characters.

[47] I must, however, add, that there was found in the neighborhood of Stromness about fifteen years ago, by Dr. John Fleming, a curious nondescript vegetable organism, which, though equivocal in character and appearance, was in all probability a plant of the sea. It consisted of a flattened cylinder, in some of the specimens exceeding a foot in length by an inch in breadth, and traversed on both the upper and under sides by a mesial groove extending to the extremities. It bore no external markings, and the section exhibited but an indistinct fibrous structure, sufficient, however, to indicate its vegetable origin. I have not hitherto succeeded in finding for myself specimens of this organism, which has been named provisionally, by Dr. Fleming, _Stroma obscura_; but it seems not improbable that certain supposed fragments of wood, detected by Mr. Charles Peach in the Caithness Flagstones, but which do not exhibit the woody structure, may have belonged to it.

[48] I figured this species from an imperfect Cromarty specimen fifteen years ago. (See "Old Red Sandstone," first edition, 1841, Plate VII. Fig. 4). Of the greatly better specimens now figured I owe the larger one (Fig. 120) to Mrs. Mill, Thurso, who detected it in the richly fossiliferous flagstones of the locality in which she resides, and kindly made it over to me; and the specimen of which I have given a magnificent representation (Fig. 12, p. 55) to my friend Mr. Robert Dick. I have, besides, seen several specimens of the same organism, in a better or worse state of keeping, in the interesting collection of the Rev. Charles Clouston, Sandwick, near Stromness.

[49] "Frogspawn is full of eyes [that is, black eye-like points], and every eye is a tadpole."

[50] Mr. Page figures, in his "Advanced Text Book of Geology" (p. 127), a few circular markings from the Forfarshire beds, which he still regards as spawn, probably that of a Crustacean, and which certainly differ greatly in appearance from the markings found enclosed in the apparent spathes.

[51] Since these sentences were written I have seen a description of both the plants of the Upper Old Red to which they refer, in an interesting sketch of the geology of Roxburgshire by the Rev. James Duncan, which forms part of a recent publication devoted to the history and antiquities of the shire. "In the red quarry of Denholm Hill there occurs," says Mr. Duncan, "a stratum of soft yellowish sandstone, which contains impressions of an apparent fucoid in considerable quantity. One or several linear stems diverge from a point, and throw off at acute angles, as they grow upwards, branches or leaves very similar to the stem, which are in turn subdivided into others. The width of the stalks is generally about a quarter of an inch, the length often a foot. The color is brown, blackish-brown, or grayish. The same plant also occurs in the whitestone quarry [an overlying bed] in the form of Carbonaceous impressions. There can be little doubt that it is a fucoid. The general mode of growth greatly resembles that of certain seaweeds; and in some specimens we have seen the branches dilated a little at the extremities, like those of such of the living fuci as expand in order to afford space for the fructification. It is deserving of remark, that the plant is seldom observed lying horizontally on the rock in a direction parallel to its stratification, but rising up through the layers, so as only to be seen when the stone is broken across; as if it had been standing erect, or kept buoyant in water, while the stony matter to which it owes its preservation was deposited around it." Mr. Duncan, after next referring to the remains of what he deems a land plant, derived from the same deposit, and which, though sadly mutilated, presents not a little of the appearance of the naked framework of a frond of Cyclopterus Hibernicus divested of the leaflets, goes on to describe the apparent calamite of the formation. "The best preserved vegetable remain yet found in Denholm Hill quarry," he says, "is the radical portion of what we cannot hesitate to call a species of calamite. The lower part is regularly and beautifully rounded, bulging and prominent, nearly four inches in diameter. About an inch from the bottom it contracts somewhat suddenly in two separate stages, and, from the uppermost sends up a stem about an inch in diameter, and nearly of the same length, where it is broken across. At the origin of this stem the small longitudinal ridges are distinctly marked; and the whole outline of the figure, though converted into stone, is as well defined as it could have been in the living plant." Mr. Duncan accompanies his description with a figure of the organism described, which, however, rather resembles the bulb of a liliaceous plant than the root of a calamite, which in all the better preserved, specimens contracts, instead of expanding, as it descends. The apparent expansion, however, in the Old Red specimen may be simply a result of compression in its upper part: the under part certainly much resembles, in the dome-like symmetry of its outline, the radical termination of a solitary calamite.

[52] "Though the coal of Sabero is apparently included in Devonian rocks," says Sir Roderick Murchison, "M. Casiano de Prado thinks that this appearance may be do to inverted folds of the strata." On the other hand, M. Alcide D'Orbigny regards it us decidedly Old Red; and certainly its Sphenopteris and Lepidodendron bent much more the aspect of Devonian than of Carboniferous plants.

[53] Now, alas! no more. In Mr. Gourlay the energy and shrewd business habits of the accomplished merchant were added to an enlightened zeal for general science, and no inconsiderable knowledge in both the geologic and botanic provinces. The marked success, in several respects, of the brilliant meeting of the British Association which held in Glasgow in September 1855, was owing in no small measure to the indefatigable exertions and well calculated arrangements of Mr. Gourlay.

[54] Trees must have been very abundant in what is now Scotland in these Secondary ages. Trunks of the common Scotch fir are of scarce more frequent occurrence in our mosses than the trunks of somewhat resembling trees among the shales of the Lower Oolite of Helmsdale. On examining in that neighborhood, about ten years since, a huge heap of materials which had been collected along the sea shore for burning into lime in a temporary kiln, I found that more than three fourths of the whole consisted of fragments of coniferous wood washed out of the shale beds by the surf, and the remainder of a massive Isastrea. And only two years ago, after many kilnfuls had been gathered and burnt, his grace the Duke of Argyll found that fossil wood could still he collected by cartloads along the shore of Helmsdale. The same woods also occur at Port Gower, Kintradwell, Shandwick, and Eathie. In the Island of Eigg, too, in an Oolite deposit, locked up in trap, and whose stratigraphical relations cannot in consequence be exactly traced, great fragments of _Pinites Eiggensis_ are so abundant, that, armed with a mattock, I have dug out of the rock, in a few minutes, specimens enough to supply a dozen of museums. In short, judging from its fossiliferous remains, it seems not improbable that old Oolitic Scotland was as densely covered with coniferous trees as the Scotland of Roman times, when the great Caledonian forest stretched northwards from the wall of Antoninus to the furthest Thule.

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New Edition. With a SUPPLEMENTARY DIALOGUE, in which the author's reviewers are reviewed. 12mo. cloth, $1.00

This masterly production, which has excited so much Interest in
this country and in Europe, will now have increased attraction in
the SUPPLEMENT, in which the author's reviewers are triumphantly
reviewed.

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

By Prof. C. TH. VON SIEBOLD and H. STANNIUS. Translated, with Notes, Additions, &c., By WALDO J. BURNETT, M.D. One vol., octavo, cloth, $3.00.

This is unquestionably the best and most complete work of its class
ever yet published.

WORKS BY HUGH MILLER.

THE FOOTPRINTS OF THE CREATOR; or, The Asterolepis of Stromness. With Illustrations. Memoir of the Author by LOUIS AGASSIZ. 12mo. cloth, $1.00.

MY SCHOOLS and SCHOOLMASTERS; or, The Story of my Education. With an elegant Likeness. 12mo, cloth, $1.25.

This is a personal narrative of a deeply interesting and
instructive character, concerning one of the most remarkable men of
the age.

THE OLD RED SANDSTONE; Or, New With Walks in an Old Field. Illustrated with Plates and Geological Sections. 12 mo, cloth, $1.00.

FIRST IMPRESSIONS OF ENGLAND AND ITS PEOPLE. With a fine Engraving of the Author. 12mo, cl., $1.00.

A thrillingly interesting and very instructive book of travels;
presenting the most perfectly life-like views of England and its
people, to be found in the language.

DR. BUCKLAND said, "He would give his left hand to possess such powers of description as this man."

THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HUMAN SPECIES.

Its Typical Forms and Primeval Distribution. By CHARLES HAMILTON SMITH, With an Introduction, containing an Abstract of the Views of Blumenbach, Prichard, Bachman, Agassiz, and other writers of repute. By SAMUEL KNEELAND, Jr., M.D. With elegant Illustrations. 12mo, cloth, $1.25.

It is a book of learning, and full of interest, and may be regarded
as among the comparatively few real contributions to
science--[Christian Witness.]

THESAURUS OF ENGLISH WORDS AND PHRASES.

So classified and arranged as to facilitate the expression of ideas, and assist in literary composition. By PETER MARK ROGET. Revised and Edited, with a List of Foreign Words Defined in English, and other additions, by BARNAS SEARS, D.D., President of Brown University. A New American, from the late stereotype London edition, with ADDITIONS AND IMPROVEMENTS. 12mo, cloth, $1.50.

This edition contains Important additions of words and phrases NOT
IN THE ENGLISH EDITION, making it in all respects MORE FULL AND
PERFECT THAN THE AUTHOR'S EDITION. The work has already become one
of standard authority, both in this country and in Great Britain.

THE ELEMENTS OF GEOLOGY.

Adapted to Schools and Colleges. With numerous Illustrations. By J.R. LOOMIS. Lewisburg University, Pa. 12mo, cloth, 75 cts.

It is surpassed by no work before the American public. We hope that
every teacher among our readers will examine the work and put the
justness of our remarks to the test of his judgment and
experience.--M.B. ANDERSON, LL. D.--[Pres. of Rochester University,
N.Y.]

This is just such a work as is needed for all our schools. It
should take its place as a text-book in all the schools of the
land.--[N.Y. Observer.]

THE EARTH AND MAN.

By Prof. ARNOLD GUYOT. With Illustrations. 12mo, cloth, $1.25.

INFLUENCE OF THE HISTORY OT SCIENCE UPON INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION.

By WILLIAM WHEWELL, D.D. 16mo, cloth, 25 cents.

PRINCIPLES OF ZOÖLOGY.

With illustrations. By LOUIS AGASSIZ and AUGUSTUS A. GOULD. 12mo, cloth, $1.

This work places us in possession of information half a century in
advance of all our elementary works on this subject.--PROF. JAMES
HALL.

A work emanating from so high a source hardly requires commendation
to give it currency. Simple and elementary in its style, full in
its illustrations, comprehensive in its range.--[Silliman's
Journal.]

The best book of the kind in our language.--[Christian Examiner.]

Zoology is an interesting science, and is here treated with a
masterly hand.--[Scientific American.]

THE LANDING AT CAPE ANNE;

Or, The Charter of the First Permanent Colony on the Territory of the Massachusetts Company. Now discovered and first published from the _original manuscript_. By JOHN WINGATE THORNTON. Octavo, Cloth, $1.50.

GEOLOGICAL MAP OF THE UNITED STATES AND BRITISH PROVINCES.

With an Explanatory Text, Geological Sections, and Plates of the Fossils which characterize the Formations. By JULES MARCOU. Two volumes. Octavo, cloth, $3.00.

--> The Map is elegantly colored, and done up with
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covers.

KNOWLEDGE IS POWER.

A view of the Productive Forces of Modern Society, and the Results of Labor, Capital and Skill. By CHARLES KNIGHT. With numerous Illustrations. American edition. Revised, with Additions, by DAVID A. WELLS, editor of the "Annual of Scientific Discovery." 12mo, cloth, $1.25.

CYCLOPÆDIA OF ANECDOTES OF LITERATURE AND THE FINE ARTS.

A choice selection of Anecdotes of the various forms of Literature, of the Arts, of Architecture, Engravings, Music, Poetry, Painting and Sculpture, and of the most celebrated Literary Characters and Artists of different Countries and Ages, &c. By KAZLITT ARVINE, A.M. With numerous Illustrations. 725 pages, octavo, cloth, $3.00.

This is unquestionably the choicest collection of ANECDOTES ever
published. It contains THREE THOUSAND AND FORTY ANECDOTES, and more
than ONE HUNDRED AND FIFTY ILLUSTRATIONS. It is admirably adapted
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as a DICTIONARY FOR REFERENCE, in relation to facts on the
numberless subjects and characters introduced.

KITTO'S POPULAR CYCLOPÆDIA OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.

Condensed from the larger work, by the author, JOHN KITTO, D.D. Assisted by JAMES TAYLOR, D.D. With _over_ 500 _Illustrations_. Octavo, 812 pp., cloth, $3.00.

This work answers the purpose of a commentary, while at the same
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products of the best and most recent researches in biblical
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public.

HISTORY OF PALESTINE.

With the Geography and Natural History of the Country, the Customs and Institutions of the Hebrews, etc. By JOHN KITTO, D.D. With upwards of 200 Illustrations. 12mo, cloth. $1.25.

Beyond all dispute this is the best historical compendium of the
Holy Land, from the days of Abraham, to those of the late Pasha of
Egypt, Mehemet Ali.--[Edinburgh Review.]

--> In the numerous notices and reviews, the work has been strongly
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CHAMBERS'S CYCLOPÆDIA OF ENGLISH LITERATURE.

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CHAMBERS'S MISCELLANY OF USEFUL AND ENTERTAINING KNOWLEDGE.

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CHAMBERS'S HOME BOOK AND POCKET MISCELLANY.

A choice Selection of Interesting and Instructive Reading for the Old and the Young. Six vols. 16mo, cloth, $3.00.

This work is fully equal, if not superior, to either of the
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CHAMBERS'S REPOSITORY OF INSTRUCTIVE AND AMUSING PAPERS.

With Illustrations. 16mo, cloth, bound. 4 vols. in two, $1.75; and 4 vols. in one, $1.50.

THE CRUISE OF THE NORTH STAR;

A Narrative of the Excursion of Mr. Vanderbilt's Party, in her Voyage to England, Russia, Denmark, France, Spain, Italy, Malta, Turkey, Madeira, etc. By Rev. JOHN OVERTON CHOULES, D.D. With elegant Illustrations, etc. 12mo, cloth, gilt back and sides, $1.50.

VISITS TO EUROPEAN CELEBRITIES.

By the Rev. WILLIAM B. SPRAGUE, D.D. 12mo, cloth, $1.00.

A series of graphic and life-like Personal Sketches of many of the
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an account of the individual's appearance and manners; in short,
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PILGRIMAGE TO EGYPT; EXPLORATIONS OF THE NILE.

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THE STORY OF THE CAMPAIGN.

A complete Narrative of the War in Southern Russia. Written in a Tent in the Crimea. By Major E. BRUCE HAMLEY, author of "Lady Lee's Widowhood." With a new and complete Map of the Seat of War. 12mo. paper covers, 37-1/2 cts.

POETICAL WORKS.

MILTON'S POETICAL WORKS. With Life and Elegant Illustrations. 16mo, cloth, $1.00; fine cloth, gilt, $1.25.

POETICAL WORKS OF SIR WALTER SCOTT. With Life, and Illustrations on Steel. 16mo, cl., $1; fine cl., gilt, $1.25.

COMPLETE POETICAL WORKS OF WILLIAM COWPER. With a Life, and Critical Notices of his Writings. With new and elegant Illustrations on Steel. 16mo. cloth, $1.00; fine cloth, gilt, $1.25.

--> The above Poetical Works, by standard authors, are all of uniform
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LIFE AND CORRESPONDENCE OF JOHN FOSTER.

Edited by J.E. RYLAND, with Notices of Mr. Foster as a Preacher and a Companion. By JOHN SHEPPARD. Two volumes in one, 700 pages. 12mo, cloth, $1.25.

In simplicity of language, in majesty of conception, in the
eloquence of that conciseness which conveys in a short sentence
more meaning than the mind dares at once admit,--his writings are
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GUIDO AND JULIUS.

Tho Doctrine of Sin and the Propitiator; or, the True Consecration of the Doubter. Exhibited in the Correspondence of two Friends. By FREDERICK AUGUSTUS O. THOLUCH, D.D. Translated by JONATHAN EDWARDS RYLAND. With an Introduction by JOHN PYE SMITH, D.D. 16mo, cloth, 60 cents.

NEW AND COMPLETE CONDENSED CONCORDANCE

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VALUABLE WORKS

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THE CHRISTIAN'S DAILY TREASURY.

A Religious Exercise for Every Day in the Year. By E. TEMPLE. A new and improved edition. 12mo. cloth, $1.00.

A work for every Christian. It is indeed a "Treasury" of good
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THE SCHOOL OF CHRIST;

Or, Christianity Viewed in its Leading Aspects. By the Rev. A.L.R. FOOTE, author of "Incidents in the Life of our Saviour," etc. 16mo, cloth, 50 cents.

THE CHRISTIAN LIFE.

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GOD REVEALED IN THE PROCESS OF CREATION.

And by the Manifestation of Jesus Christ. Including an Examination of the Development Theory contained in the "Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation," By JAMES B. WALKER, author of "Philosophy of the Plan of Salvation." 12mo, cloth, $1.00.

PHILOSOPHY OF THE PLAN OF SALVATION.

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A WREATH AROUND THE CROSS;

Or, Scripture Truths Illustrated. By A. MORTON BROWN, D.D. Recommendatory Preface, by JOHN ANGELL JAMES. Beautiful Frontispiece. 16mo, cloth, 60 cents.

THE BETTER LAND;

Or, The Believer's Journey and Future Home. By REV. A.C. THOMPSON. 12mo, cloth, 85 cents.

A most charming and instructive book for all now journeying to the
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THE MISSION OF THE COMFORTER.

With copious Notes. By JULIUS CHARLES HARE. With the Notes translated for the American edition. 12mo, cloth, $1.25.

DR. WAYLAND'S UNIVERSITY SERMON

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THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD.

And their Relations to Christianity. By FREDERICK DENISON MAURICE, A.M., Professor of Divinity, King's College, London. 16mo, cloth, 60 cts.

SACRED RHETORIC;

Or, Composition and Delivery of Sermons. By HENRY. J. RIPLEY, Professor in Newton Theological Institution, Including Professor Ware's Hints on Extemporaneous Preaching. 12mo, 75 cts.

THE PREACHER AND THE KING;

Or, Bourdalone in the Court of Louis XIV. An Account of that distinguished Era, Translated from the French of L.F. BUNGENER. With an Introduction by the Rev. GEORGE POTTS, D.D. New edition, with a fine Likeness, and a Sketch of the Author's Life. 12mo, cloth, $1.25.

It combines substantial history with the highest charm of romance.
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THE PRIEST AND THE HUGUENOT;

Or, Persecution in the Age of Louis XV. Translated from the French of L.F. BUNGENER. 2 vols., 12mo, cloth, $2.25.

--> This is truly a masterly production, full of interest, and may be
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FOOTSTEPS OF OUR FOREFATHERS.

What they Suffered and what they Sought. Describing Localities and portraying Personages and Events conspicuous in the Struggles for Religious Liberty. By JAMES G. MIALL. Thirty-six fine Illustrations. 12mo, $1.00.

An exceedingly entertaining work. The reader soon becomes so deeply
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A work absorbingly interesting, and very instructive.--[Western
Lit. Magazine.]

MEMORIALS OF EARLY CHRISTIANITY.

Presenting, in a graphic, compact, and popular form, Memorable Events of Early Ecclesiastical History, etc. By JAMES G. MIALL. With numerous elegant Illustrations. 12mo, cloth, $1.00.

--> This, like the "Footsteps of our Forefathers," will be found a
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WORKS BY JOHN HARRIS, D.D.

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH. Contributions to Theological Science. 12mo, cloth, $1.00.

MAN PRIMEVAL; or, the Constitution and Primitive Condition of the Human Being. With a fine Portrait of the Author. 12mo. cloth, $1.25

PATRIARCHY; or, THE FAMILY. Its Constitution and Probation; being the _third_ volume of "Contributions to Theological Science." $1.25.

THE GREAT TEACHER; or, Characteristics of our Lord's Ministry. With an Introductory Essay. By H. HUMPHREY, D.D. 12mo, cloth, 85 cts.

THE GREAT COMMISSION; or, the Christian Church constituted and charged to convey the Gospel to the World. Introductory Essay by W.R. WILLIAMS, D.D. 12mo, cloth, $1.00.

ZEBULON; Or, the Moral Claims of Seamen. 18mo, cloth, 25 cts.

PHILIP DODDRIDGE.

His Life and Labors. By JOHN STOUGHTON, D.D., with beautiful Illuminated Title-page and Frontispiece, 16mo, cloth, 60 cents.

THE EVIDENCES OF CHRISTIANITY.

As exhibited in the writings of its apologists, down to Augustine. By W.J. BOLTON, of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. 12mo. cloth, 80 cents.

WORKS BY DR. TWEEDIE.

GLAD TIDINGS; or, The Gospel of Peace. A series of Daily Meditations for Christian Disciples. By Rev. W.K. TWEEDIE, D.D. With elegant Illustrated Title-page. 16mo, cloth, 63 cts.

THE MORN OF LIFE; or, Examples of Female Excellence. A Book for Young Ladies. 16mo, cloth. _In press._

A LAMP TO THE PATH; or, the Bible in the Heart, the Home, and the Market Place. With an elegant Illustrated Title-page. 16mo, cloth. 63 cts.

SEED TIME AND HARVEST; or, Sow Well and Reap Well. A Book for the Young. With an elegant Illustrated Title-page. 16mo, cloth, 63 cts.

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WORKS BY JOHN ANGELL JAMES.

THE CHURCH MEMBER'S GUIDE; Edited by J.O. CHOULES, D.D. New edition. With an Introductory Essay by Rev. HUBBARD WINSLOW. Cloth, 33c.

CHRISTIAN PROGRESS. A Sequel to the Anxious Inquirer. 18mo, cloth, 31c.

--> One of the best and most useful works of this popular author.

THE CHURCH IN EARNEST. Seventh thousand. 18mo, cloth, 40 cents

MOTHERS OF THE WISE AND GOOD.

By JABEZ BURNS, D.D. 16mo, cloth, 75 cents.

We wish it were in every family, and read by every mother in the
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MY MOTHER;

Or, Recollections of Maternal Influence. By a New England Clergyman, With a beautiful Frontispiece. 12mo, cloth, 75 cents.

This is one of the most charming books that have issued from the
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THE EXCELLENT WOMAN.

With an Introduction by Rev. W.B. SPRAGUE, D.D. Containing twenty-four splendid Illustrations. 12mo. cloth, $1.00; cloth, gilt, $1.75; extra Turkey, $2.50.

--> This elegant volume is an appropriate and valuable "gift book"
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MEMORIES OF A GRANDMOTHER. By a Lady of Massachusetts. l6mo, cloth, 50 cents.

THE MARRIAGE RING;

Or, How to make Home Happy. By JOHN ANGELL JAMES. Beautiful illustrated edition 16mo, cloth, gilt, 75 cents.

A beautiful volume, and a very suitable present to a newly-married
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WORKS BY WILLIAM R. WILLIAMS, D.D.

RELIGIOUS PROGRESS; Discourses on the Development of the Christian Character. 12mo, cloth, 85 cts.

This work is from the pen of one of the brightest lights of the
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LECTURES ON THE LORD'S PRAYER Third edition. 12mo, cloth, 85 cts.