Chapter XXVI: Part 26

Members of the Lingayat and Kabirpanthi sects bury their dead and the others cremate them. With the Tirmendar Koshtis on the fifth day the Ayawar priest goes to the cremation-ground accompanied by the deceased's family and worships the image of Vishnu and the Tulsi or basil upon the grave; and after this the whole party take their food at the place. Mourning is observed during five days for married and three for unmarried persons; and when a woman has lost her husband she is taken on the fifth day to the bank of some river or tank and her bangles are broken, her bead necklace is taken off, the vermilion is rubbed off her forehead, and her foot ornaments are removed; and these things she must not wear again while she is a widow. On the fourth day the Panch or caste elders come and place a new turban on the head of the chief mourner or deceased's heir; they then take him round the bazar and seat him at his loom, where he weaves a little. After this he goes and sits with the Panch and they take food together. This ceremony indicates that the impurity caused by the death is removed, and the mourners return to common life. The caste do not perform the shraddh ceremony, but on the Akhatij day or commencement of the agricultural year a family which has lost a male member will invite a man from some other family of the caste, and one which has lost a female member a woman, and will feed the guest with good food in the name of the dead. In Chhindwara during the fortnight of Pitripaksh or the worship of ancestors, a Koshti family will have a feast and invite guests of the caste. Then the host stands in the doorway with a pestle and as the guest comes he bars his entrance, saying: 'Are you one of my ancestors; this feast is for my ancestors?' To which the guest will reply: 'Yes, I am your great-grandfather; take away the pestle.' By this ingenious device the resourceful Koshti combines the difficult filial duty of the feeding of his ancestors with the entertainment of his friends.

5. Religion.

The principal deity of the Koshtis is Gajanand or Ganpati, whom they revere on the festival of Ganesh Chathurthi or the fourth day of the month of Bhadon (August). They clean all their weaving implements and worship them and make an image of Ganpati in cowdung to which they make offerings of flowers, rice and turmeric. On this day they do not work and fast till evening, when the image of Ganpati is thrown into a tank and they return home and eat delicacies. Some of them observe the Tij or third day of every month as a fast for Ganpati, and when the moon of the fourth day rises they eat cakes of dough roasted on a cowdung fire and mixed with butter and sugar, and offer these to Ganpati. Some of the Salewars are Vaishnavas and others Lingayats: the former employ Ayawars for their gurus or spiritual preceptors and are sometimes known as Tirmendar; while the Lingayats, who are also called Woheda, have Jangams as their priests. In Balaghat and Chhattisgarh many of the Koshtis belong to the Kabirpanthi sect, and these revere the special priests of the sect and abstain from the use of flesh and liquor. They are also known as Ghatibandhia, from the ghat or string of beads of basil-wool (tulsi) which they tie round their necks. In Mandla the Kabirpanthi Koshtis eat flesh and will intermarry with the others, who are known distinctively as Saktaha. The Gurmukhis are a special sect of the Nagpur country and are the followers of a saint named Koliba Baba, who lived at Dhapewara near Kalmeshwar. He is said to have fed five hundred persons with food which was sufficient for ten and to have raised a Brahman from the dead in Umrer. Some Brahmans wished to test him and told him to perform a miracle, so he had a lot of brass pots filled with water and put a cloth over them, and when he withdrew it the water had changed into curded milk. The Gurmukhis have a descendant of Koliba Baba for their preceptor, and each of them keeps a cocoanut in his house, which may represent Koliba Baba or else the unseen deity. To this he makes offerings of sandalwood, rice and flowers. The Gurmukhis are forbidden to venerate any of the ordinary Hindu deities, but they cannot refrain from making offerings to Mata Mai when smallpox breaks out, and if any person has the disease in his house they refrain from worshipping the cocoanut so long as it lasts, because they think that this would be to offer a slight to the smallpox goddess who is sojourning with them. Another sect is that of the Matwales who worship Vishnu as Narayan, as well as Siva and Sakti. They are so called because they drink liquor at their religious feasts. They have a small platform on which fresh cowdung is spread every day, and they bow to this before taking their food. Once in four or five years after a wedding offerings are made to Narayan Deo on the bank of a tank outside the village; chickens and goats are killed and the more extreme of them sacrifice a pig, but the majority will not join with these. Offerings of liquor are also made and must be drunk by the worshippers. Mehras and other low castes also belong to this sect, but the Koshtis will not eat with them. But in Chhindwara it is said that on the day after the Pola festival in August, when insects are prevalent and the season of disease begins, the Koshtis and Mangs go out together to look for the narbod shrub, [619] and here they break a small piece of bread and eat it together. In Bhandara the Koshtis worship the spirit of one Kadu, patel or headman of the village of Mohali, who was imprisoned in the fort of Ambagarh under an accusation of sorcery in Maratha times and died there. He is known as Ambagarhia Deo, and the people offer goats and fowls to him in order to be cured of diseases. The above notice indicates that the caste are somewhat especially inclined to religious feeling and readily welcome reformers striving against Hindu polytheism and Brahman supremacy. This is probably due in part to the social stigma which attaches to the weaving industry among the Hindus and is resented as an injustice by the Koshtis, and in part also to the nature of their calling, which leaves the mind free for thought during long hours while the fingers are playing on the loom; and with the uneducated serious reflection must almost necessarily be of a religious character. In this respect the Koshti may be said to resemble his fellow-weavers of Thrums. In Nagpur District the Koshtis observe the Muharram festival, and many of them go out begging on the first day with a green thread tied round their body and a beggar's wallet. They cook the grain which is given to them on the tenth day of the festival, giving a little to the Muhammadan priest and eating the rest. This observance of a Muhammadan rite is no doubt due to their long association with followers of that religion in Berar.

6. Superstitions.

Before beginning work for the day the Salewar makes obeisance to his loom and implements, nor may he touch them without having washed his face and hands. A woman must not approach the loom during her periodical impurity, and if anybody sneezes as work is about to be begun, they wait a little time to let the ill luck pass off. In Nagpur they believe that the posts to which the ends of the loom are fastened have magical powers, and if any one touches them with his leg he will get ulcers up to the knee. If a woman steps on the kuchi or loom-brush she is put out of caste and a feast has to be given to the community before she is readmitted. To cure inflammation in the eyes they take a piece of plaited grass and wrap it round with cotton soaked in oil. Then it is held before the sufferer's eyes and set on fire and the drops of oil are allowed to fall into water, and as they get cold and congeal the inflammation is believed to abate. Among some classes of Koshtis the killing of a cat is a very serious offence, almost equivalent to killing a cow. Even if a man touches a dead cat he has to give two feasts and be fully purified. The sanctity of the cat among Hindus is sometimes explained on the ground that it kills rats, which attract snakes into the house. But the real reason is probably that primitive people regard all domestic animals as sacred. The Koshti also reveres the dog and jackal.

7. Clothes, etc.

The Salewars of the Godavari tract wrap a short rectangular piece of cloth round their head as a turban. Formerly, Mr. Raghunath Waman states, the caste had a distinctive form of turban by which it could be recognised, but under British administration these rules of dress are falling into abeyance. A few of the Salewars put on the sacred thread, but it is not generally worn. Salewar women have a device representing a half-moon tattooed on the forehead between the ends of the eyebrows; the cheeks are marked with a small dot and the arms adorned with a representation of the sacred tulsi or basil.

8. Social rules and status.

The caste eat flesh and fish and drink liquor, and in the Maratha Districts they will eat chickens like most castes of this country. In Mandla they have recently prohibited the keeping of fowls, under pain of temporary expulsion. Those who took food in charity-kitchens during the famine of 1900 were readmitted to the community with the penalty of shaving the beard and moustaches in the case of a man, and cutting a few hairs from the head in that of a woman. In Berar the Lad, Jain and Katghar Koshtis are all strict vegetarians. The Koshtis employ Brahmans for their ceremonies, but their social status is about on a level with the village menials, below the cultivating castes. This, however, is a very good position for weavers, as most of the weaving castes are stigmatised as impure. But the Koshtis live in towns and not in villages and weave the finer kinds of cloth for which considerable skill is required, while in former times their work also yielded a good remuneration. These facts probably account for their higher status; similarly the Tantis or weavers of Bengal who produce the fine muslins of Dacca, so famous in Mughal times, have obtained such a high rank there that Brahmans will take water from their hands; [620] while the few Tantis who are found in the Central Provinces are regarded as impure and are not touched. The caste are of a turbulent disposition, perhaps on account of their comparatively light work, which does not tire their bodies like cultivation and other manual labour. One or two serious riots have been caused by the Koshtis in recent years.

9. Occupation.

The standard occupation of the caste is the weaving of the fine silk-bordered cloths which are universally worn on the body by Brahmans and other well-to-do persons of the Maratha country. The cloth is usually white with borders of red silk. They dye their own thread with lac or the flowers of the palas tree (Butea frondosa). The price of a pair of loin-cloths of this kind is Rs. 14, and of a pair of dupattas or shoulder-cloths Rs. 10, while women's saris also are made. Each colony of Koshtis in a separate town usually only weave one kind of cloth of the size for which their looms are made. The silk-bordered loin-cloths of Umrer and Pauni are well known and are sent all over India. The export of hand-woven cloth from all towns of the Nagpur plain has been estimated at Rs. 5 lakhs a year. The rich sometimes have the cloths made with gold lace borders. The following account of the caste is given in Sir R. Craddock's Nagpur Settlement Report: "The Koshti is an inveterate grumbler, and indeed from his point of view he has a great deal to complain of. On the one hand the price of raw cotton and the cost of his living have increased very largely; on the other hand, the product of his loom commands no higher price than it did before, and he cannot rely on selling it when the market is slack. He cannot adapt himself to the altered environment and clings to his loom. He dislikes rough manual labour and alleges, no doubt with truth, that it deprives him of the delicacy of touch needed in weaving the finer cloths. If prices rise he is the first to be distressed, and on relief works he cannot perform the requisite task and has to be treated with special indulgence. The mills have been established many years in Nagpur, but very few of the older weavers have sought employment there. They have begun to send their children, but work at home themselves, though they really all use machine-spun yarn. The Koshtis are quarrelsome and addicted to drink, and they have generally been the chief instigators of grain riots when prices rise. They often marry several wives and their houses swarm with a proportionate number of children. But although the poorer members of the community are in struggling circumstances and are put to great straits when prices of food rise, those who turn out the fine silk-bordered work are fairly prosperous in ordinary times."

END OF VOL. III

NOTES

[1] This article is based on information collected by Mr. Hira Lal in Jubbulpore, and the author in Mandla.

[2] The word Dishai really means direction or cardinal point, but as the goddess dwells in the sheep-pen it is probable that she was originally the sheep itself.

[3] The following particulars are taken from the Central Provinces Monograph on Woollen Industries, by Mr. J. T. Marten.

[4] A Naturalist on the Prowl, 3rd ed., p. 219. In the quotation the Hindustani word kammal, commonly used in the Central Provinces, is substituted for the Marathi word kambli.

[5] This article is compiled from an excellent monograph contributed by Surgeon-Major Mitchell of Bastar State, with extracts from Colonel Glasfurd's Report on Bastar (Selections from the Records of the Government of India in the Foreign Department, No. 39 of 1863).

[6] India Census Report (1901), p. 283.

[7] Madras Census Report (1891), p. 253.

[8] Ethnographic Notes in Southern India, p. 22.

[9] Madras Census Report (1891), p. 253.

[10] Report on the Dependency of Bastar, p. 37.

[11] Report on the Dependency of Bastar, p. 37.

[12] Ethnographic Notes in Southern India, p. 270.

[13] Risley, Tribes and Castes of Bengal, art. Pan.

[14] The human sacrifices of the Khonds were suppressed about 1860. See the article on that tribe.

[15] This article is compiled from papers by Mr. Jhanjhan Rai, Tahsildar, Sarangarh, and Satyabadi Misra of the Sambalpur Census office.

[16] Mund-jhulana, to swing the head.

[17] Based on notes taken by Mr. Hira Lal at Chanda and the notices of the Garpagari in the District Gazetteers.

[18] Village watchman.

[19] Dr. Jevons, Introduction to the History of Religion, p. 171.

[20] The Golden Bough, 2nd ed. vol. i. p. 68, quoting from French authorities.

[21] This article is based on papers by Mr. Jeorakhan Lal, Deputy Inspector of Schools, Bilaspur, and Bhagwan Singh, Court of Wards Clerk, Bilaspur.

[22] The Celestial Physician.

[23] This article is compiled partly from papers by Munshis Pyare Lal Misra and Kanhya Lal of the Gazetteer Office.

[24] Tribes and Castes of Bengal, art. Ghasi.

[25] Central Provinces Gazetteer (1871), p. 273.

[26] Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal, p. 325.

[27] Ficus glomerata.

[28] Cynodon dactylon.

[29] Tribes and Castes of Bengal, art. Ghasi.

[30] This article is based partly on a paper by Khan Bahadur Imdad Ali, Pleader, Damoh.

[31] Punjab Census Report (1881), para. 272.

[32] Crooke's Tribes and Castes, art. Ghosi.

[33] From a note by Mr. Hira Lal.

[34] This article is compiled from papers by Kanhya Lal of the Gazetteer Office, and Madho Rao, Deputy Inspector of Schools, Balaghat.

[35] Balaghat District Gazetteer (C. E. Low), p. 80.

[36] Linguistic Survey of India, vol. iv. Dravidian Language, p. 386.

[37] The country of Gondwana properly included the Satpura plateau and a section of the Nagpur plain and Nerbudda valley to the south and west.

[38] Early History of India, 3rd ed. p. 337.

[39] Art. Gondwana.

[40] Linguistic Survey, Munda and Dravidian Languages, iv. p. 285.

[41] Notes, p. 15.

[42] Garha is six miles from Jubbulpore.

[43] See article on Kol.

[44] Mr. Standen's Betul Settlement Report.

[45] The argument in this section will be followed more easily if read after the legend in the following paragraphs.

[46] Highlands of Central India (Chapman & Hall).

[47] Deo-khulla or threshing-floor of the gods. See section on Religion.

[48] Passage from Mr. Hislop's version.

[49] Dhupgarh in Pachmarhi might be indicated, which has a steep summit.

[50] Terminalia arjuna.

[51] This extract is reproduced by permission of the publishers, Messrs. Chapman & Hall, London.

[52] Tekam the teak tree, Markam the mango tree, and Telengam the Telugu. These are the names of well-known exogamous septs.

[53] See section on Religion.

[54] See also art. Kahar.

[55] The theory is stated and explained in vol. iv. of Exogamy and Totemism.

[56] See para. 15.

[57] Boswellia serrata.

[58] Semecarpus anacardium.

[59] Anogeissus latifolia.

[60] Diosypyros tomentosa.

[61] One rupee = 1s. 4d.

[62] From Mr. Langhorne's monograph.

[63] The above rite has some resemblance to the test required of the suitors of Penelope in the Odyssey of bending the bow of Odysseus and shooting an arrow through the axes, which they could not perform.

[64] The information on child-birth is obtained from papers by Mr. Durga Prasad Pande, Extra Assistant Commissioner, and the Rev. Mr. Franzen of Chhindwara, and from notes taken in Mandla.

[65] See articles on Kunbi, Kurmi, and Mehtar.

[66] Boswellia serrata.

[67] The following examples of names were furnished by the Rev. Mr. Franzen and Mr. D. P. Pande.

[68] See article on Kurmi.

[69] Boswellia serrata.

[70] Deputy-Commissioner, Chhindwara. The note was contributed to the Central Provinces Census Report for 1881 (Mr. Drysdale).

[71] Ghora, a horse.

[72] Diospyros tomentosa.

[73] Cassia fistula.

[74] This is incorrect, at present at any rate, as the Karma is danced during the harvest period. But it is probable that the ritual observances for communal fishing and hunting have now fallen into abeyance.

[75] C. P. Gazetteer (1871), Introduction, p. 130.

[76] This section contains some information furnished by R. B. Hira Lal.

[77] Notes on the Gonds, pp. 15, 16.

[78] Indian Caste, i. p. 325.

[79] See article Birhor.

[80] See article Bhunjia.

[81] Notes, p. 1.

[82] Highlands of Central India, p. 156.

[83] Report on Bastar Dependency, p. 41.

[84] Assessment of revenue for land.

[85] Quoted in C.P. Gazetteer (1871), Introduction, p. 113.

[86] Chhindwara Settlement Report.

[87] Report on Bastar Dependency, p. 43.

[88] Ind. Ant. (1876), p. 359.

[89] See para. 65, Tattooing.

[90] See para. 41, Religion.

[91] Balaghat District Gazetteer, p. 87.

[92] Rawan was the demon king of Ceylon who fought against Rama, and from whom the Gonds are supposed to be descended. Hence this song may perhaps refer to a Gond revolt against the Hindus.

[93] The amaltas or Cassia fistula, which has flowers like a laburnum. The idea is perhaps that its leaves are too small to make a proper leaf-cup, and she will not take the trouble to get suitable leaves.

[94] Hislop, Notes, p. 2.

[95] Chhindwara Settlement Report.

[96] This article is based on a paper by Pandit Pyare Lal Misra.

[97] This article is compiled from papers by Mr. Kesho Rao Joshi, Headmaster, City School, Nagpur, and Pyare Lal Misra, Ethnographic Clerk.

[98] Page 67.

[99] In the Maratha Districts the term Ganges sometimes signifies the Wainganga.

[100] Dam apparently here means life or breath.

[101] Gunthorpe, p. 91.

[102] This article contains material from Mr. J. C. Oman's Mystics, Ascetics and Saints of India, Sir E. Maclagan's Punjab Census Report, 1891, and Dr. J. N. Bhattacharya's Hindu Castes and Sects (Calcutta, Messrs. Thacker, Spink and Co.).

[103] Elaeocarpus.

[104] Mr. Marten's C.P. Census Report (1911), p. 79.

[105] Orphéus, p. 137.

[106] Oman, Mystics, Ascetics and Saints, p. 269.

[107] Bhattacharya, Hindu Castes and Sects, p. 380.

[108] Bhattacharya, ibidem, and Oman, Mystics, Ascetics and Saints, pp. 160, 161.

[109] Buchanan, Eastern India, i. pp. 197, 198.

[110] Nesfield, Brief View of the Caste System, p. 86.

[111] J. C. Oman, Cults, Customs and Superstitions of India (London, T. Fisher Unwin), p. 11.

[112] Mystics, Ascetics and Saints of India, pp. 156, 157.

[113] Sir E. Maclagan, Punjab Census Report (1891), p. 112.

[114] This article is based on notes by Mr. Percival, Assistant Conservator of Forests, and Rai Bahadur Hira Lal.

[115] For further details see article on Gond Gowari.

[116] See article on Kunbi.

[117] Early History of India, 3rd ed. pp. 409, 411.

[118] Mr. Smith ascribes this discovery to Messrs. A. M. T. Jackson (Bombay Gazetteer, vol. i. Part I., 1896, p. 467); D. R. Bhandarkar, Gurjaras (J. Bo. R.A.S. vol. xx.); and Epigraphic Notes (ibidem, vol. xxi.); and Professor Kielhorn's paper on the Gwalior Inscription of Mihira Bhoja in a German journal.

[119] Bombay Gazetteer, Hindus of Gujarat, Appendix B, The Gujars.

[120] The Khazars were known to the Chinese as Yetas, the beginning of Yeta-i-li-to, the name of their ruling family, and the nations of the west altered this to Hyatilah and Ephthalite. Campbell, ibidem.

[121] See article on Panwar Rajput, para. 1.

[122] Campbell, loc. cit. p. 495.

[123] Tribes and Castes, article Gujar, para. 12. The description is mainly taken from Elliott's History of India as told by its own Historians.

[124] Description of the Kangra Gujars by Mr. Barnes. Quoted in Ibbetson's Punjab Census Report (1881), para. 481.

[125] Census Report, para. 481.

[126] Cf. Krishna's epithet of Murlidhar or the flute-player, and the general association of the flute with herdsmen and shepherds in Greek and Roman mythology.

[127] Ibidem.

[128] Hoshangabad Settlement Report, para. 16.

[129] Nimar Settlement Report (1868).

[130] This article is based partly on a paper by Mr. Abdus Subhan Khan, Tahsildar, Hinganghat, and Mr. Aduram Chaudhri of the Gazetteer Office.

[131] The trifoliate leaf of Aegle Marmelos.

[132] Bombay Gazetteer, vol. xviii. p. 266.

[133] History of the Marathas, vol. i. p. 26, footnote.

[134] Bombay Gazetteer, vol. x. p. 119.

[135] Bombay Ethnographic Survey, Monograph on Gurao.

[136] Sesamum.

[137] Bombay Gazetteer, vol. xix. p. 101.

[138] This article is compiled principally from a monograph by Munshi Kanhya Lal, Assistant Master, Raipur High School, and formerly of the Gazetteer Office; and also from papers by Mr. Panda Baijnath, Superintendent of Bastar State, and Mr. Gokul Prasad, Tahsildar of Dhamtari. The descriptions of marriage, funeral and birth customs are taken from Munshi Kanhya Lal's monograph.

[139] By the Rev. G. K. Gilder of the Methodist Episcopal Mission of Raipur.

[140] Chalki is said to have been a Brahman who gave shelter to the pregnant fugitive widow of a Raja; and her child was the ancestor of the Bastar dynasty. But the name may also be taken from the Chalukya Rajput clan.

[141] The Rawats or Ahirs are graziers, and the Bhatra, Parja and Muria are primitive tribes allied to the Gonds.

[142] Linguistic Survey, vol. vii. p. 331, and a note kindly furnished by Sir G. Grierson at the time of the census.

[143] Buchanania latifolia.

[144] Bassia latifolia. Both these trees are valued because the fruit of the first and the flowers of the second afford food.

[145] A black pulse.

[146] The Hindus number the days of each lunar fortnight separately.

[147] It is simply water in which gold has been dipped.

[148] Crooke, ii. 481.

[149] Brief View, p. 31.

[150] Buchanania latifolia.

[151] Based principally on the account of the Hatkars on p. 200 of Sir A. Lyall's Berar Gazetteer, with some notes taken by Mr. Hira Lal in Buldana.

[152] Colonel Meadows Taylor, Tara, p. 404.

[153] Ain-i-Akbari, quoted in Berar Gazetteer, p. 200.

[154] Berar Gazetteer.

[155] Partly based on a paper by Munshi Kanhaya Lal of the Gazetteer Office.

[156] Muhammadans of Gujarat, by Khan Bahadur Fazalullah Lutfullah Faridi, pp. 21, 22.

[157] Rasmala, ii. p. 90.

[158] Faridi, ibidem.

[159] See article on Bhat.

[160] Acacia arabica.

[161] The late Mr. A. M. T. Jackson's notes, Ind. Ant., August 1912, p. 56.

[162] Laws of Manu, xi. p. 175, quoted in The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, ii. p. 476.

[163] Westermarck, The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, ii. p. 470.

[164] Ibidem, ii. p. 471.

[165] Ibidem, ii. pp. 481, 482.

[166] Ibidem, ii. pp. 487-489.

[167] This article is compiled from a paper by Mr. Babu Rao, Deputy Inspector of Schools, Seoni District.

[168] In this year only 33 Holias were returned as against more than 4000 in 1891; but, on the other hand, in 1901 the number of Golars was double that of the previous census.

[169] Mysore Census Report (1891), p. 254.

[170] Ethnographic Notes in Southern India, p. 258.

[171] This article is principally based on information collected by Mr. Hira Lal in Bhandara.

[172] A corruption of Uika.

[173] See the articles Mahar and Kunbi.

[174] This article is partly based on a paper by Bihari Lal, Patwari, of Hoshangabad.

[175] Semaria is a common name of villages, and is of course as such derived from the semar tree, but the argument is that the Jadams took the name from the village and not from the tree. Totem is perhaps rather a strong word for the kind of veneration paid; the vernacular term used in Bombay is devak.

[176] This article is based on an account of the Jaduas by Mr. A. Knyvett, Superintendent of Police, Patna, and kindly communicated by Mr. C. W. C. Plowden, Deputy Inspector-General of Police, Bengal, through Mr. G. W. Gayer, in charge of the Central Provinces Criminal Investigation Department.

[177] Sherring, Castes and Tribes, iii. p. 123.

[178] The nut of Eleocarpus lanceolatus.

[179] Aegle marmelos.

[180] Hindu Manners, Customs, and Ceremonies, 1897 ed. p. 118.

[181] This article is partly based on information contributed by Mr. Debendra Nath Dutt, Pleader, Narsinghpur; Mr. Ganga Singh, Extra Assistant Commissioner, Hoshangabad; and Mr. Aduram Chaudhri of the Gazetteer Office. The correct pronunciation of the caste name is Jat, but in the Central Provinces it is always called Jat.

[182] Punjab Census Report (1881), para. 421.

[183] Early History of India.

[184] Mahabharata, viii. 2026, et seq., translated by Professor H. H. Wilson, and quoted in vol. i. pp. 260, 262 of Dr. J. Wilson's Indian Caste.

[185] Ibidem, paras. 422-424.

[186] Kashyap was a Rishi or saint, but he may probably have developed into an eponymous hero from Kachhap, a tortoise.

[187] Hoshangabad Settlement Report, p. 62.

[188] Aegle marmelos.

[189] Hoshangabad Settlement Report, loc. cit.

[190] This article is entirely based on an account of the caste furnished by Rai Bahadur Panda Baijnath, Superintendent, Bastar State.

[191] Bassia latifolia.

[192] Boswellia serrata.

[193] This has been fully demonstrated by Sir J. G. Frazer in The Golden Bough.

[194] Colebrooke's Essays.

[195] Quoting from Dr. George Smith's Life of Dr. Wilson, p. 74.

[196] Ibidem, pp. 13-15.

[197] Weber's Indian Literature, p. 239.

[198] Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chap, lxiii.

[199] Republished in the Theosophist.

[200] Eastern India, ii. p. 756.

[201] Travels in the Mughal Empire, Constable's edition, p. 316.

[202] Rajasthan, ii. p. 19.

[203] Maclagan, l.c. p. 115.

[204] Ibidem, l.c.

[205] Maclagan, l.c.

[206] Crooke's Tribes and Castes, art. Kanphata.

[207] Crooke's Tribes and Castes, art. Jogi.

[208] Sleeman, Report on the Badhaks, pp. 332, 333.

[209] These proverbs are taken from Temple and Fallon's Hindustani Proverbs.

[210] Bombay Gazetteer, vol. xxi. p. 184.

[211] Phaseolus radiatus.

[212] Newcomb's Astronomy for Everybody, p. 33.

[213] Owing to the precession of the equinoxes, the sidereal year is not the same as the solar year, being about 20 minutes longer. That is, the sun passes a particular star a second time in a period of 365 days 6 hours and 9 minutes, while it passes the equatorial point in 365 days 5 hours 48 minutes 49 seconds, this latter period being the solar year. The difference is due to slight changes in the direction of the earth's axis, which change the position of the celestial equator and of the equinoctial point where the sun crosses it. It is not clear how the Hindus get over this difficulty, but the point does not affect the general account.

[214] The stars corresponding to the nakshatras and their symbols are mainly taken from Mr. L. D. Barnett's Antiquities of India, pp. 190, 191, compared with the list in Mr. W. Brennand's Hindu Astronomy, pp. 40, 42.

[215] Taken from Professor Newcomb's Astronomy for Everybody.

[216] The moon's orbit is really an ellipse like that of the earth and all the planets.

[217] Barnett, op. cit. p. 190.

[218] The Indian Calendar, by Messrs. Sewell and Dikshit, pp. 11 and 25.

[219] Brennand's Hindu Astronomy, p. 100.

[220] The Indian Calendar, Sewell and Dikshit, p. 28 and Table I.

[221] This seems to have been done by some ancient Indian astronomers.

[222] The Indian Calendar, p. 29.

[223] Taken from Brennand's Hindu Astronomy, p. 39.

[224] Barnett, Antiquities of India, p. 193.

[225] The above particulars regarding the measurement of time by the gharial are taken from 'An Account of the Hindustani Horometry' in Asiatic Researches, vol. v. p. 81, by John Gilchrist, Esq. The account appears to be to some extent controversial, and it is possible that the arrangement of the gharis may have varied in different localities.

[226] The information contained in this paragraph is taken from Captain Mackintosh's Report on the Ramosis, chap. iii. (India Office Library Tracts), in which a large variety of rules are given.

[227] Some of these names and also some of the women's names have been taken from Colonel Temple's Proper Names of the Punjabis.

[228] Punjab Ethnography, para. 612.

[229] This passage is taken from Sir G. Grierson's Peasant Life in Bihar, p. 64.

[230] This article is based on a paper by Mr. Pancham Lal, naib-tahsildar, Murwara, with extracts from the Central Provinces Monograph on Pottery and Glassware, by Mr. Jowers, and some information collected by Mr. Hira Lal.

[231] Dhal means a shield, and the ornament is of this shape.

[232] Crooke's Tribes and Castes, article Kachhi.

[233] Partly based on a paper by Munshi Kanhya Lal of the Gazetteer office.

[234] Irvine, Army of the Mughals, pp. 158, 159.

[235] Boswellia serrata.

[236] Sesamum indicum.

[237] This article is compiled from papers by Mr. Sarat Chandra Sanyal, Sessions Judge, Nagpur, and Mr. Abdul Samad, Tahsildar, Sohagpur.

[238] Eastern India, ii. 426.

[239] Ibidem, iii. pp. 119, 120.

[240] Moor, Hindu Infanticide, p. 91.

[241] Yule and Burnell's Hobson-Jobson, Crooke's edition, s.v. Boy.

[242] Tribes and Castes of the N.W.P., art. Kahar.

[243] Private Life of an Eastern King, p. 207.

[244] Ibidem, pp. 200, 202.

[245] Stevens, In India, p. 313.

[246] Tribes and Castes of Bengal, art. Kahar.

[247] Tribes and Castes of Bengal, ibidem.

[248] S.v. Boy.

[249] This article is partly compiled from papers by Mr. G. Falconer Taylor, Forest Divisional Officer, and by Kanhya Lal, Clerk in the Gazetteer office.

[250] Berar Census Report (1881), p. 141.

[251] Hislop papers. Vocabulary.

[252] North Arcot Manual, p. 247.

[253] 1881, p. 141.

[254] Ibidem.

[255] Bombay Gazetteer (Campbell), vol. xii. p. 120.

[256] Bombay Gazetteer (Campbell), vol. xxi. p. 172.

[257] Berar Census Report (1881), p. 141.

[258] Some information for this article has been supplied by Babu Lal, Excise Sub-Inspector, Mr. Aduram Chaudhri, Tahsildar, and Sundar Lal Richaria, Sub-Inspector of Police.

[259] Tribes and Castes of Bengal, art. Kalar.

[260] Bassia latifolia, the tree from whose flowers fermented liquor is made.

[261] The headquarters of the Sanjari tahsil in Drug District.

[262] Phulbaba, lit. 'flower-father.'

[263] This story is only transplanted, a similar one being related by Colonel Tod in the Annals of the Bundi State (Rajasthan, ii. p. 441).

[264] Saccharum spontaneum.

[265] Settlement Report, p. 26.

[266] Mr. (Sir E.) Maclagan's Punjab Census Report (1891).

[267] Religions of India, p. 113.

[268] Apparently also called Sarcostemma viminalis.

[269] Bombay Gazetteer, Parsis of Guiarat, by Messrs. Nasarvanji Girvai and Behramji Patel, p. 228, footnote.

[270] Ibidem.

[271] Hopkins, loc. cit. p. 213.

[272] Rajendra Lal Mitra, Indo-Aryans, ii. p. 419.

[273] Deussen, Outlines of Indian Philosophy, p. 12.

[274] Indo-Aryans, i. p. 393.

[275] Ibidem, p. 396.

[276] Ibidem, p. 402.

[277] Indo-Aryans, i. p. 411.

[278] Garrett's Classical Dictionary, s.v. Varuni and Vishnu.

[279] The Golden Bough, 2nd edition, i. pp. 359, 360.

[280] Indo-Aryans, pp. 408, 409.

[281] Ibidem, pp. 404, 405.

[282] Indo-Aryans, pp. 405, 406.

[283] Bombay Gazetteer, Poona, p. 549.

[284] Cannabis sativa.

[285] A liquor made from the flowers of the hemp plant, commonly drunk in the hot weather.

[286] See Mr. E. Clodd's Myths and Dreams, under Dreams.

[287] A name of Siva or Mahadeo.

[288] 'Victory to Shankar.'

[289] A preparation of opium for smoking.

[290] T. H. Hendley, Account of the Bhils, J.A.S.B. xliv., 1875, p. 360.

[291] M. Salomon Reinach in Orphéus, p. 120.

[292] Sir James Frazer in Attis, Adonis, Osiris, ii. p. 241.

[293] Book IV., chap. lxxv., quoted in Lane's Modern Egyptians, p. 347.

[294] Lane, Modern Egyptians, p. 348.

[295] Eastern India, iii. p. 163.

[296] Sir G. Watt's Commercial Products of India, s.v. Nicotiana.

[297] Ind. Ant., January 1911, p. 39.

[298] Tobacco is no doubt a derivative from some American word, and Platts derives the Hindi tanbaku or tambaku from tobacco. The fact that tanbaku is also Persian for tobacco militates against the Sanskrit derivation suggested by Mr. Ganpat Rai and others, and tends to demonstrate its American importation.

[299] This article is based on papers drawn up by Mr. Hira Lal, Extra Assistant Commissioner, Pyare Lal Misra, Ethnographic Clerk, and a very full account of the tribe by Mr. Ganpati Giri, Manager of Bindranawagarh, which has furnished the greater part of the article, especially the paragraphs on birth, religion and social customs.

[300] Jungle Life in India, p. 588.

[301] Criminal Tribes, p. 78.

[302] Criminal Classes.

[303] Berar Census Report (1881), p. 140.

[304] Page 139.

[305] See art. Beria, para. 1.

[306] Ibbetson, Punjab Census Report (1881), para. 527.

[307] Ibidem.

[308] Art. Kanjar, para. 3.

[309] Ibbetson.

[310] Crooke, art. Dom, para. 21.

[311] Lectures, p. 59.

[312] Bombay Gazetteer, Muhammadans of Gujarat, p. 83.

[313] Kennedy, Criminal Tribes of Bombay, p. 257.

[314] Criminal Tribes, p. 46.

[315] Berar Census Report (1881), p. 140.

[316] Tribes and Castes of Bengal, art. Dom.

[317] Nesfield, l.c. p. 393.

[318] Ind. Ant. xvi. p. 37.

[319] Ind. Ant. xv. p. 15.

[320] In Sir G. Grierson's account the Bhojpuri version is printed in the Nagari character; but this cannot be reproduced. It is possible that one or two mistakes have been made in transliteration.

[321] Quoted in Mr. Crooke's article on Dom.

[322] Gayer, Lectures, p. 59.

[323] Gunthorpe, p. 81. Mr. Kennedy says: "Sansia and Beria women have a clove (lavang) in the left nostril; the Sansias, but not the Berias, wear a bullaq or pendant in the fleshy part of the nose."

[324] Gayer, l.c. p. 61.

[325] Crooke, l.c. para. 3.

[326] In a footnote Mr. Nesfield states: "The Kanjar who communicated these facts said that the child used to open out its neck to the knife as if it desired to be sacrificed to the deity."

[327] Butea frondosa.

[328] It is not, I think, used for weaving now, but only for stuffing quilts and cushions.

[329] But elsewhere Mr. Nesfield says that the brushes are made from the khas-khas grass, and this is, I think, the case in the Central Provinces.

[330] This article is compiled principally from a note by Mr. Paiku, Inspector of Police, Chanda.

[331] This article is based principally on a paper by Nand Kishore, Bohidar, Sambalpur.

[332] Hobson-Jobson, art. Cranny.

[333] Eragrostis cynosuroides.

[334] (London, A. & C. Black.)

[335] This definition of totemism is more or less in accord with that held by the late Professor Robertson Smith, but is not generally accepted. The exhaustive collection of totemic beliefs and customs contained in Sir J. G. Frazer's Totemism and Exogamy affords, however, substantial evidence in favour of it among tribes still in the hunting stage in Australia, North America and Africa. The Indian form of totemism is, in the writer's opinion, a later one, arising when the totem animal has ceased to be the main source of life, and when the clan come to think that they are descended from their totem animal and that the spirits of their ancestors pass into the totem animal. When this belief arises, they cease eating the totem as a mark of veneration and respect, and abstain from killing or injuring it. Finally the totem comes to be little more than a clan-name or family name, which serves the purpose of preventing marriage between persons related through males, who believe themselves to be descended from a common ancestor.

[336] Orphéus (Heinemann), p. 197.

[337] Lane, Modern Egyptians, p. 248.

[338] Orphéus, p. 47.

[339] Ibidem, p. 50.

[340] B. G. Parsis of Gujarat, pp. 232, 241.

[341] Orphéus, pp. 101, 102.

[342] Ibidem, p. 204.

[343] Ibidem, p. 144.

[344] Ibidem, p. 169.

[345] D. M. Flinders-Petrie, Egypt and Israel, p. 61.

[346] Gomme, Folk-lore as a Historical Science, p. 161.

[347] Haug's Essays on the Parsis, p. 286.

[348] Golden Bough, ii. pp. 299-301. See article on Kumhar.

[349] Orphéus, p. 139.

[350] Orphéus, pp. 119, 120.

[351] Ibidem, p. 144.

[352] Religions, Ancient and Modern, Ancient Rome, Cyril Bailey, p. 86.

[353] Religions, Ancient and Modern, Ancient Egypt, Professor Flinders-Petrie, p. 22.

[354] Religions, Ancient and Modern, Ancient Egypt, Professor Flinders-Petrie, pp. 24, 26.

[355] Vide article on Bania.

[356] Dowson's and Garrett's Classical Dictionaries, art. Kartikeya.

[357] Religion of the Semites, p. 265.

[358] Ibidem, pp. 269, 270.

[359] Religion of the Semites, pp. 270, 271.

[360] Ibidem, pp. 273, 274.

[361] Religion of the Semites, p. 289.

[362] Ibidem, p. 313.

[363] Religion of the Semites, p. 271.

[364] Religion of the Semites, p. 275.

[365] Golden Bough, ii. p. 321.

[366] Vide art. Kumhar.

[367] Religion of the Semites, p. 338.

[368] Ibidem, p. 281.

[369] Dr Jevons, Introduction to the History of Religion, p. 150.

[370] Religion of the Semites, p. 285.

[371] Orphéus, pp. 123, 125.

[372] In following the explanation of the Passover given by Professor Robertson Smith and M. Reinach, it is necessary with great diffidence to dissent from the hypothesis of Sir J. G. Frazer that the lamb was a substitute for the previous sacrifice by the Israelites of their first-born sons.

[373] Orphéus, p. 272; Religion of the Semites, p. 311.

[374] Religion of the Semites, p. 304.

[375] Ibidem, pp. 305, 306.

[376] Religion of the Semites, pp. 296, 297.

[377] Golden Bough, ii. p. 313.

[378] When the blood of the animal was poured out before the god as his share.

[379] Religion of the Semites, p. 246.

[380] Vide article on Dhanwar.

[381] Sir G. Robertson, Kafirs of the Hindu Kush, pp. 450, 451.

[382] Ibidem, p. 460.

[383] Dalton, Ethnology of Bengal, p. 176.

[384] Grant-Duff, History of the Marathas, vol. i. p. 27. Mr. Hira Lal notes that owing to the predominance of Muhammadans in Berar the practice of slaughtering all animals by the method of halal and the regular employment of the Mullah to pronounce the sacred text before slaughter may have grown up for their convenience. And, as in other instances, the Hindus may have simply imitated the Muhammadans in regarding this method of slaughter as necessary. This however scarcely seems to impair the force of the argument if the Hindus actually refused to eat animals not killed by halal; they must in that case have attached some religious significance or virtue to the rite, and the most probable significance is perhaps that stated in the text. As Mr. Hira Lal points out, the Hindu sacred books provide an elaborate ritual for the sacrifice of animals, but this may have fallen into abeyance with the decline in the custom of eating meat.

[385] Vide article on Mochi.

[386] V. A. Smith, Asoka, p. 56.

[387] Ibidem, p. 58.

[388] This article is compiled from papers by Mr. Rajaram Gangadhar, Tahsildar, Arvi; Mr. Sadasheo Jairam, Sanskrit Professor, Hislop College; and Mr. Deodatta Namdar, Manager, Court of Wards, Chauri.

[389] Crooke's Tribes and Castes, art. Thathera.

[390] Crooke's art. Thathera.

[391] A part of the information contained in this article is furnished by Mr. Aduram Chaudhri of the Gazetteer Office.

[392] Madras Census Report (1901), p. 151, quoting from South Indian Inscriptions, Buchanan's Mysore, Canara and Malabar, and Elliot's History of India.

[393] Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, ii. pp. 444, 445.

[394] The Golden Bough, vol. ii. p. 205 et seq.

[395] Garrett's Classical Dictionary of the Hindus, p. 322.

[396] Westermarck, ibidem, quoting Ward's Hindus, p. 134.

[397] Wheeler's History of India, vol. iv. part ii. pp. 324, 325.

[398] Forbes, Rasmala, i. p. 247.

[399] Crooke's Tribes and Castes, art. Tawaif.

[400] Extract from the Dasa Kumara Charita or Adventures of the Ten Youths, in A Group of Hindu Stories, p. 72.

[401] S. M. Edwardes, By-ways of Bombay, p. 31.

[402] Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremonies, p. 93.

[403] Eastern India, i. p. 119.

[404] Ibidem, iii. p. 107.

[405] Ibidem, ii. p. 930.

[406] Persian Travels, book iii. chap. xvii.

[407] From a review of A German Staff Officer in India, written by Sir Evelyn Wood in the Saturday Review, 5th February 1910.

[408] Tribes and Castes of Bengal, art. Vaishnava. The notice, as stated, refers only to the lowest section of Bairagis.

[409] Memoir of Central India.

[410] Tribes and Castes of the N.-W. P., art. Katwa.

[411] Temple and Fallon's Hindustani Proverbs.

[412] Perhaps a leather strap or belt.

[413] A revolution or circuit.

[414] A thousand.

[415] The third Baisakh (June).

[416] Butea frondosa.

[417] A description of the ceremony is given in the article on Kurmi.

[418] This article is based almost entirely on a monograph contributed by Mr. Hira Lal.

[419] Ethnology, p. 158.

[420] Fruit of the egg-plant.

[421] Ethnology, pp. 136, 137.

[422] Jungle Life in India, pp. 315, 316.

[423] This article is based partly on papers by Munshi Kanhya Lal of the Gazetteer office, Mr. Sundar Lal, Extra Assistant Commissioner, Saugor, and Mr. J. N. Sil, Pleader, Seoni.

[424] Hindus of Gujarat, p. 59, quoting from Ind. Ant. vi. 192-193.

[425] Hindu Castes and Sects, p. 175.

[426] Eastern India, i. p. 162.

[427] Ibidem, ii. p. 466.

[428] Ibidem, ii. p. 736.

[429] Ibidem, ii. p. 122.

[430] Essays, vol. ii. p. 182.

[431] Ethnology of Bengal, pp. 312, 313.

[432] United Provinces Census Report (1901), pp. 222-223.

[433] Lala Jwala Prasad, Extra Assistant Commissioner, in Sir E. A. Maclagan's Punjab Census Report for 1891.

[434] Memoir of Central India, vol. ii. pp. 165-166.

[435] The Kanungo maintains the statistical registers of land-revenue, rent, cultivation, cropping, etc., for the District as a whole which are compiled from those prepared by the patwaris for each village.

[436] Hindus of Gujarat, p. 60.

[437] Ibidem, p. 64.

[438] Ibidem, p. 61.

[439] Bhattacharya, Hindu Castes and Sects, p. 177. It is true that Dr. Bhattacharya states that the Kayasths were also largely employed under the Hindu kings of Bengal, but he gives no authority for this. The Gaur Kayasths also claim that the Sena kings of Bengal were of their caste, but considering that these kings were looked on as spiritual heads of the country and one of them laid down rules for the structure and intermarriage of the Brahman caste, it is practically impossible that they could have been Kayasths. The Muhammadan conquest of Bengal took place at an early period, and very little detail is known about the preceding Hindu dynasties.

[440] Risley, Tribes and Castes of Bengal, art. Bihar Kayasth.

[441] Sherring, Tribes and Castes, vol. iii. pp. 253-254.

[442] Bhattacharya, Hindu Castes and Tribes, p. 177.

[443] Hindus of Gujarat, p. 81.

[444] Ibidem, p. 67.

[445] Ibidem, p. 68, and Mackintosh, Report in the Ramosis, India Office Tracts, p. 77.

[446] Hobson-Jobson, s.v. Cranny.

[447] Hobson-Jobson, p. 167.

[448] Memoir of Central India, loc. cit.

[449] Hindus of Gujarat, p. 60.

[450] Tribes and Castes of Bengal, art. Bengal Kayasth. The Kayasths deny the story that the five Kayasths were servants of the five Brahmans, and say that they were Kshatriyas sent on a mission from the king of Kanauj to the king of Bengal. This, however, is improbable in view of the evidence already given as to the historical status of the Kayasths.

[451] Tribes and Castes, ibidem.

[452] Hindu Castes and Sects, p. 155.

[453] Ibidem, pp. 375, 380.

[454] See articles on Ghasia and Dhobi.

[455] Village Communities, p. 125.

[456] Hindu Castes and Sects, ibidem, p. 177.

[457] Tribes and Castes, art. Kayasth.

[458] Bhattacharya, loc. cit., p. 188.

[459] Hindus of Gujarat, p. 72.

[460] Dasrath and Kaushilya were the father and mother of Rama.

[461] These are the occupations of the Kayasths.

[462] Geography and Astronomy.

[463] Quoted from the Matsapuran in a criticism by Babu Krishna Nag Verma.

[464] This article is based on papers by Mr. Mahfuz Ali, tahsildar, Rajnand-gaon, Mr. Jowahir Singh, Settlement Superintendent, Sambalpur, and Mr. Aduram Chaudhri of the Gazetteer Office.

[465] Tribes and Castes of Bengal, art. Kaibartta.

[466] Tribes and Castes of Bengal, art. Kewat.

[467] Tribes and Castes of Bengal, ibidem.

[468] A curved stick carried across the shoulders, from which are suspended two panniers.

[469] This article is based on Mr. Crooke's and Colonel Dalton's accounts, and some notes taken by Mr. Hira Lal at Raigarh.

[470] Ethnology of Bengal, pp. 128, 129.

[471] Ibidem, pp. 209, 210.

[472] Tribes and Castes, art. Kharwar.

[473] Tribes and Castes of Bengal.

[474] From bhuj, an arm, and jangh, a thigh. These are Hindi words, and the whole story is obviously a Brahmanical legend. Balrai seems a corruption of Balaram, the brother of Krishna.

[475] Estate held on feudal tenure.

[476] Religion and Folklore of Northern India, vol. ii. p. 170.

[477] Crooke, Tribes and Castes.

[478] Saccharum spontaneum.

[479] Tribes and Castes, art. Birhor.

[480] The above instances are reproduced from Sir J. G. Frazer's Psyche's Task (London, 1909). These cases are all of homicide, but it seems likely that the action of the Khairwars may be based on the same motives, as the fear of ghosts is strong among these tribes.

[481] Risley, loc. cit.

[482] Ethnology of Bengal, pp. 128, 129.

[483] Crooke's Tribes and Castes, art. Khairwa. Quoting from Bombay Gazetteer, x. 48 and iii. 310.

[484] Loc. cit.

[485] Tribes and Castes of Bengal, art. Khandait. In 1911, after the transfer of Sambalpur, only 18 Khandaits remained in the Central Provinces.

[486] The following particulars are from a paper by Mr. Kashinath Bohidar, Assistant Settlement Superintendent, Sonpur.

[487] Compiled principally from a paper by Kanhya Lal, clerk in the Gazetteer Office.

[488] Carthamus tinctorius.

[489] In the Ethnographic Appendices to the India Census Report of 1901 a slightly different version of the story is given by Captain Luard. The Dangis, it must be remembered, are a high caste ranking just below Rajputs.

[490] This article is mainly based on notes taken by Rai Bahadur Hira Lal at Raigarh, with extracts from Colonel Dalton's and Sir H. Risley's accounts of the tribe.

[491] Tribes and Castes of Bengal, art. Kharia.

[492] Saccharum spontaneum. This grass infests cultivated fields and is very difficult to eradicate.

[493] Melia indica.

[494] Ethnology of Bengal.

[495] Jungle Life in India, p. 89.

[496] Linguistic Survey, vol. iv. Munda and Dravidian Languages, p. 22.

[497] Ibidem, p. 129.

[498] Mr. Crooke's Tribes and Castes, art. Khatik.

[499] Census Report (1881), para. 502.

[500] This statement does not apply to the Chamars of the Central Provinces.

[501] Tribes and Castes of Bengal, art. Khatik.

[502] Bombay Gazetteer, Hindus of Gujarat, pp. 55, 56.

[503] Tribes and Castes, art. Khatri.

[504] Bombay Gazetteer, Hindus of Gujarat, p. 55.

[505] Bombay Gazetteer, Hindus of Gujarat, p. 189.

[506] Ibidem, pp. 58, 59.

[507] Hindus of Gujarat, pp. 58, 59.

[508] This article consists mainly of extracts from Mr. F. L. Faridi's full account of the Khojahs in the Bombay Gazetteer, Muhammadans of Gujarat.

[509] Kandh is the Uriya spelling, and Kond or Khond that of the Telugus.

[510] Linguistic Survey of India.

[511] Narsingha means a man-lion and is one of Vishnu's incarnations; this subsept would seem, therefore, to have been formed since the Khonds adopted Hinduism.

[512] In Orissa, however, relationship through females is a bar to marriage, as recorded in Sir H. Risley's article.

[513] Report on the Khonds, p. 56.

[514] Report, p. 59.

[515] Sir H. Risley notes that the elephant represented the earth-goddess herself, who was here conceived in elephant form. In the hill tracts of Gumsur she was represented in peacock form, and the post to which the victim was bound bore the effigy of a peacock. Macpherson also records that when the Khonds attacked the victim they shouted, 'No sin rests on us; we have bought you with a price.'

[516] Golden Bough, 2nd ed. vol. ii. p. 241 sq.

[517] Pages 517-519. Published 1906.

[518] Journal, A. S. of Bengal, 1898.

[519] Sir G. A. Grierson's Linguistic Survey, Munda and Dravidian Languages.

[520] This article is compiled principally from a paper by Pandit Sakharam, Revenue Inspector, Hoshangabad District.

[521] Tod's Rajasthan, vol. ii. p. 327.

[522] Elliott's Hoshangabad Settlement Report, p. 60.

[523] Compiled from papers by Mr. Mulchand, Deputy Inspector of Schools, Betul; Mr. Shams-ul-Husain, Tahsildar, Sohagpur; Mr. Kalyan Chand, Manager, Court of Wards, Betul; and Kanhya Lal, clerk in the Gazetteer Office.

[524] Hoshangabad Settlement Report (1867), p. 60.

[525] History of the Sikhs, p. 15, footnote.

[526] Ibbetson's Census Report (1881), p. 297.

[527] Nagpur Settlement Report, p. 24.

[528] Mr. Lawrence's Bhandara Settlement Report (1867), p. 46.

[529] Bombay Gazetteer, Satara, p. 106.

[530] See article on Kunbi.

[531] Bhandara District Gazetteer, para. 90.

[532] Bhandara Settlement Report.

[533] Ibidem.

[534] Subordinate revenue officer.

[535] Tribes and Castes of Bengal, art. Bhumij.

[536] The Mundas and their Country, p. 400.

[537] Linguistic Survey, Munda and Dravidian Languages, vol. vi. p. 7.

[538] Tribes and Castes of Bengal, art. Munda.

[539] Tribes and Castes of Bengal, p. 15.

[540] Introduction to The Mundas and their Country, p. 9.

[541] Introduction to The Mundas and their Country, p. 9.

[542] Garha is six miles from Jubbulpore.

[543] The Mundas and their Country, p. 124.

[544] Rasmala, i. p. 113.

[545] Two baskets slung from a stick across the shoulders.

[546] Dalton, Ethnology of Bengal, p. 166.

[547] Dalton, p. 152.

[548] November, January and February.

[549] Tribes and Castes, art. Munda.

[550] Thuiya, Bhuiya is a mere jingle.

[551] J.A.S.B., No. 1 of 1903, p. 31.

[552] Dalton, ibidem.

[553] Mr. B. C. Mazumdar's Monograph.

[554] Roy, ibidem, p. 428.

[555] The Mundas and their Country, p. 121.

[556] Linguistic Survey, vol. iv., Munda and Dravidian Languages, p. 27.

[557] This article includes some extracts from notes made by Colonel Mackenzie when Commissioner of Berar, and subsequently published in the Pioneer newspaper; and information collected for the District Gazetteers in Yeotmal and Wardha.

[558] Papers relating to the Aboriginal Tribes of the Central Provinces, p. 10.

[559] Ibidem, Editor's Note.

[560] Linguistic Survey, vol. iv., Munda and Dravidian Languages, p. 561.

[561] India Census Report (1901), p. 287.

[562] Hunter's Imperial Gazetteer, art. Kolamallai hills.

[563] Based partly on papers by Mr. Bihari Lal, Naib-Tahsildar, Bilaspur, and Mr. Aduram Chaudhri of the Gazetteer Office.

[564] For further information the articles on Sansia and Beria may be consulted.

[565] Andropagon Schoenanthus.

[566] Gunthorpe, loc. cit.

[567] Ibidem, p. 49.

[568] Kitts, loc. cit.

[569] Ind. Ant. iii. p. 185, Satara Gazetteer, p. 119.

[570] Lyall's Berar Gazetteer, pp. 103-5.

[571] Kathiawar Gazetteer, p. 140.

[572] Crooke's edition of Hobson-Jobson, art. Koli.

[573] Bombay City Census Report (1901) (Edwards).

[574] Gujarat Gazetteer, p. 238.

[575] Golden Book of India, s.v.

[576] Semecarpus anacardium, the marking-nut tree.

[577] Kitts, Berar Census Report (1881), p. 131.

[578] Akola Gazetteer (Mr. C. Brown), p. 116.

[579] P. 197.

[580] Hindus of Gujarat, l.c.

[581] Indian Antiquary, vol. iii. p. 236.

[582] Bombay Gazetteer, Hindus of Gujarat, p. 250.

[583] Indian Antiquary, vol. iii. p. 236.

[584] This article is largely compiled from an interesting paper submitted by Mr. Parmanand Tiwari, Extra Assistant Commissioner and Assistant Settlement Officer, Sambalpur.

[585] Phaseolus mungo.

[586] Madras Census Report (1901), p. 162.

[587] Mysore Ethnographic Survey, Komati caste (H. V. Nanjundayya).