Chapter VIII: Section TWO (2)

Dr. Baxter has executed a great number of very careful experiments, with a view to testing the different disinfecting properties of the so-called disinfectants commonly used. Evidence was adduced to show that carbolic acid, sulphur, permanganate of potash and chlorine are all endowed with true disinfectant properties, though in very varying degrees. The effectual disinfectant operation of chlorine and permanganate of potash appeared to depend far more on the nature of the medium through which the particles of infective matter are distributed than on the specific character of the particles themselves.

A virulent liquid cannot be regarded as certainly and completely disinfected by sulphur, unless it has been rendered permanently and thoroughly acid. No virulent liquid can be considered disinfected by carbolic acid, unless it contains at least two per cent., by weight, of the pure acid.

When disinfectants are mixed with a liquid, it is very important to make sure that they are thoroughly incorporated with it, and that no solid matters capable of shielding contagion from immediate contact with its destroyer be overlooked.

Aerial disinfection, as commonly practised in the sick room, is either useless or positively objectionable, owing to the false sense of security it is calculated to produce.

To make the air of a room smell strongly of carbolic acid, by scattering carbolic powder about the floor, or of chlorine, by placing a tray of chloride of lime in a corner, is, so far as the specific destruction of contagion is concerned, an utterly futile proceeding.

The practical result of these experiments goes to prove, first, that dry heat, when it can be applied, is probably the most perfect of all disinfectants; second, that the old plan of stopping up crevices and fumigating with sulphur and charcoal is more efficacious than any other proceeding with more modern disinfectants; third, that the use of carbolic vapor for disinfecting purposes should be abandoned, owing to the relative feebleness and uncertainty of its action.

A RELIABLE SIGN OF DEATH.

This sign consists in the absence of contraction of the pupil, after puncture of the cornea and evacuation of the aqueous humor. When the pupil contracts, life is still present; when it remains immovable, it is a certain sign of death. The puncture of the cornea may be made with a cataract knife, or even an ordinary lancet. It is a harmless operation.

RAPID DECAY OF THE HUMAN STRUCTURE.

Under this heading, we will present to our readers an essay upon the causes of the dissolution of the human body. The writer, Mr. W. W. BALL, of Bangor, Michigan, who published the following in THE CASKET of March, 1877, has kindly allowed us to republish it, for the benefit of those who have not read it, and also as a proof that the theories advanced in this volume cannot be refuted. We give the article at length. The statements advanced in the essay, also the course of treatment adopted in the preservation of bodies, will be found to possess great similarity with the different methods herein given.

BY W. W. BALL.

As soon as the vital action ceases, decomposition ensues in the
substances which were before the very elements of life, viz.:
blood, lymph, chyme, chyle and gastric juice, become active agents
in its destruction.

In the blood, the most important agent during life, as soon as
life ceases it becomes one of the first to produce that blackened,
putrid and sloughing condition we find shortly after death. The
blood being

left in every part of the body, it breaks up and forms new
compounds, of which only a general outline is attainable, for want
of definite chemical analysis or microscopical observation. The
fibrine and serum separate; the former, which contains most of the
red corpuscles, albumen, saline and fatty substances, glutinates or
coagulates on the sides of the vessels themselves, while the serum
permeates the surrounding tissues, uniting with oxygen carried off
from the pulmonary structure during life, and these, having an
affinity for the tissues, form those compounds termed sulphuretted
and carburetted hydrogen gases, giving rise to that effluvium which
characterize deceased bodies.

CONDITION OF THE BLOOD.

After death the blood is found in two forms. This is owing to certain diseases and circumstances. The first is encountered when death has ensued after a long stage of sickness. The vital fluids become exhausted by disease, and the organs of circulation become too weak to perform their office of circulating the fluid they contain; hence, dissolution takes place in the blood from want of constant and rapid action. Thus the fibrine becomes lodged and coagulated in the veins and capillary system. The fibrine and serum separate, leaving the fibrine coagulated or clotted, and the serum, a transparent, fatty or oily liquid, permeates the tissues of the flesh. Usually the arteries are found without any blood remaining in them. In instances of this kind there will be no difficulty encountered from the corpse turning black, as the gases cannot force the blood to the surface into the capillary system, because the fibrine is lodged elsewhere, but the flesh may turn brown or saffron color to some extent.

DIFFICULT CASES.

The second condition of the blood is found when death resulted from accident or short duration of sickness. In these instances there is usually a large abundance of fluids remaining in the system. These foster fermentation in every structure, and evolve the gases so rapidly as to cause the cavities of the thorax and abdomen to become extended to their utmost capacity with gases that induce the blood to leave the vessels in the thorax and appear at the surface in the capillary system. In this instance the fibrine and serum of the blood remain together in an inky or eccymosed condition.

Thus it is observed that the gases are so rapidly evolved by the destructive fluids, that before the fibrine coagulates it is forced from the vessels of the thorax (especially the superior vena cava), and caused to appear above the surface into the neck and face. The great pressure of the gases depresses the vessels of the thorax in the same manner that it does the stomach when purging takes place, which occurs invariably whenever the stomach contains any movable matter. The lymph, chyle and chyme, which are the same or similar, as soon as death ensues take on new molecular changes; the lymph especially, which is retained in all the glands and vessels of the lymphatic system, enters into the process of decomposition, fostering putrefaction in the whole structure; while the gastric juice, a peculiar fluid so subservient to digestion, which affects the food only during life, immediately attacks the substances of the stomach when life is extinct, in the same or similar manner as it affected the food during life, corroding and completely destroying everything with which it comes in contact, as there is no vitality to resist its action. Elements having other affinities, and the organism generally, hurry back to their primeval state. Nature knows no delays. The work to be done is to disorganize the body and destroy its form. This is the work of heat, moisture, air and germs in unison, causing the fluids and tissues of the body to decay rapidly, while the albumenoid matters are decomposed into fetid gases escaping into the air, which in a short time accomplish the work of dissolution, leaving the body a mass of corruption and the receptacle of myriads of germs of microscopic beings. The corpse is their natural aliment, and death their chosen laboratory.

The products of putrefying animal matter are carbonic acid, water, ammonia and carburetted hydrogen gases, which are generally mixed with various portions of phosphuretted and sulphuretted hydrogen gases. The blackened or mortified appearance in those instances is usually caused by the eccymosed or dark blood from the vessels of the thorax (especially the superior vena cava). The great pressure of the gases in the abdomen and thorax prevents the liquid from gravitating to the regions of the heart and large vessels, producing the black and livid appearance of the face and neck by its retention in the capillary system of the epidermis. Man has been facetiously described as twelve pounds of solid matter wet up with six pails of water; hence, the great abundance of water in the human structure gives the necessary mobility for putrefaction. This is proven by this fact: that by drying the animal substances they are completely preserved. It is thus that the bodies of those perishing in the Arabian deserts are recovered years subsequently, dried, but otherwise fresh and life-like. This fact also proves that the atmosphere and climate in Asia is far more favorable for the preservation of animal substances than in this country, and the writer thinks it has far more to do in preserving the many thousand mummies of the ancient Egyptians than any art or untold science. If it were not for want of space, I would dwell more upon this subject; but as the public generally have no desire to be wafted into untold centuries, I shall confine this writing to further the progress of science in this direction, if possible. Having no secret nostrum to impose upon the public, I will offer a few hints which I hope will prove to be of importance to the profession generally.

EMBALMING PROCESSES.

For chemical embalming, it is well known to those having experience as undertakers and embalmers, that in order to successfully perform this kind of work, it requires knowledge as well as experience. The various circumstances encountered necessarily govern the work. In the writer’s experience, he finds that when difficult and obstinate cases are to be retained for some length of time (especially in warm weather), it will be necessary to complete the work with care. A very important matter in this work is to renovate the stomach thoroughly; then, with simple instruments, similar to an aspirator needle or trocar, give vent to the gases and thus expel them from the cavities of the system. Then, with pump, draw off or force out the fluids and gases from the organs of circulation, and in this manner disinfect the body as far as possible. Elevate the head and shoulders for the purpose of letting the inky fluid gravitate from the capillary system of the face to the large vessels of the thorax. This will renew the life’s characteristics in a remarkable and satisfactory manner, if the gases be properly removed.

A simple method of disposing of the gastric juice of the stomach is to inject into the nose or mouth one or two ounces of an aqueous solution of any powerful antiseptic, similar to those mentioned in this article, and after a few moments carry the head off the bed, and, by gently pressing the stomach, empty its contents. This will prevent further difficulty from purging, if refilled with the solution and carefully sealed. Insert an instrument into the trachea, and thus give vent to the gases in the lungs, and inject full of the solution. In the same manner dispose of the gases from the thorax, and fill with solution. Also, the abdominal cavities, by completing thus, will preserve the viscera. The reagents or coagulants spoken of render the albumenoids or azotized material incapable of putrefaction, by the impervious nature of the compounds it forms of all substances that have protein for their base, as the tissues readily absorb the preserving solutions after being prepared as mentioned above. This unites the antiseptic and deodorizing agent with the very substances that it is necessary to render inactive in order to successfully retain the remains of deceased persons.

DEODORIZING AGENTS.

The following are very good antiseptics and deodorizing agents: Chloride of zinc, corrosive sublimate, hyposulphite, oxymuriate of mercury, carbolic acid, bicarbonate of potassa, aqueous solution of alumina. The two latter may be rendered more subservient by combining them with the higher oxides. The metallic salts are much the best for chemical embalming, if properly used. The remains of drowned persons may be prepared in the manner as above, with no small degree of success, as giving vent to the gases and freely applying antiseptics and deodorizing agents will readily correct, to a great extent, the difficulties thus encountered by this process. We have removed the most destructive fluids, or effected a combination with them, thus preventing the fermenting process and dispersing the gases, rendering the body absolutely free from those disagreeable and noxious odors which are termed phosphuretted and sulphuretted hydrogen gases, as well as low types or germs of disease, while the life’s characteristics in this state of preservation invariably present a most pleasant appearance, allaying all natural repugnance to the dead, as they seem so natural and life-like, and remain in this state of preservation for a great length of time, either in transit or various changes of atmosphere, while this manner of operation is simple and without complication, affording appropriate means that undertakers may apply successfully and save themselves annoyance, time, labor and expense, by a little practice and observing closely the directions herein given.

The enlightenment of the public demands more attention to these important matters, as there is no necessity for the untimely and indecent burial of the loved but unfortunate victims of mortality, when due observance is given to the progress of art in modern science. To successfully retain the dead for such a period of time as will enable the bereaved friends to make such arrangements for burial as the occasion may require, without the necessity of mutilating or eviscerating in the horrible manner that has been practised in many instances, has been the design of the writer, who has devoted much time in the work, and hopes, with the aid of others, in the no distant future, to make such additional suggestions and contributions as will practically apply to the wants of the profession, as well as meet the approbation of a grateful public.

Scientific research has defined and established those fixed laws of nature with that precision whereby organic matters may be traced to their simple elements. We will herein endeavor to very briefly trace, as far as possible, the chemical changes that are observed in dead animal matter. We assert that in the majority of cases (with a given temperature maintained), the first described subject will be the first to become an uncontrollable mass from the agents of putrefaction; first, simply by the abundance of those fluids contained in subjects that immediately become active agents of dissolution, while such agents have been completely exhausted by the disease of the second.

The apparent healthy condition of the flesh after death is produced by the favorable temperature that is maintained, dryness of the atmosphere, etc., together with the general favorable conditions of the subject, which will render the preservation of such remains quite perfect, in some instances for a surprisingly long time. It is shown that disease of long standing completely exhausts the vital fluids before death, especially when the functions of the body have failed to produce the necessary nutrition. Thus it will be observed that the process of decomposition is very different than when the system is full of albumenoids and watery fluids, notwithstanding the tissues may have been seized upon by putridity before death. With consumptives, the disease reduces the flesh to dry parchment, or nearly so, leaving but a very small portion of water in the system. Hence, as putrefaction is impossible in the absence of moisture, and the active agent, albumen, equally reduced, decomposition of such substances that remain ensues only by a process of decay, slow combustion or oxidation, the slowly uniting of oxygen with the substance. In this the constituent parts of the animal tissues break up into simpler compounds by the chemical changes that nature produces, and differs from other forms of putrefaction only by the length of time employed. In cases like typhoid fever, the flesh, after death, assumes more of a putrid and sloughing condition, as the fluids are not so completely exhausted as in the former disease, thus leaving more of the active agents in the body for its immediate destruction.

When death is the result of a putrid malady, putrefaction begins almost immediately when the body grows cold; its effects are noticeable much sooner when the atmosphere is warm. In general, in our climate, the work of decomposition becomes evident after from thirty-five to forty hours. Its first effects are noticeable on the skin of the stomach; this takes on a greenish discoloration, which soon spreads and covers the whole surface of the body; at the same time everything is seized upon by what is termed putridity; the moist parts soften and decay; little by little the flesh sinks and grows watery, and is thus carried away or burned up by the air’s oxygen.

And now, dear reader, we would impress your mind with the fact that the moment of the appearance of putrefaction absolutely varies with the degree of outward temperature, the causes of death, and the general condition of the remains, and just in accordance to the quantity of fluids remaining in the system. The degree of difficulty in retaining the life’s characteristics are encountered, first, because of the albumenoids, the active agents of putrefaction; second, the large per cent. of water they contain; hence we have the necessary mobility of putrefaction, and the very substances that are most prone to the active ferments, united with the agents of disorganization, vibrois and bacteria, or rather the germs of those thread-like corpuscles which penetrate the skin and wind their way through the ducts into the vessels of circulation, which seem to conduct the rabid element to every structure. The living germs that collect on the surface of the body and in the digestive canal, develope, multiply, pierce into all the points of the organism, and produce in it a complete separation of all the tissues and humors.

When persons have been killed suddenly, there being no disease to tamper with the functions of the body, the process of nutrition would be complete until the very moment the vitality is removed; hence the supply of fuel for this fire of dissolution. The corruption of these animal matters is not more possible than the fermentive action of gluten in grape juice, and precisely the same. When these animal matters maintain a high temperature, the products formed are said to be destructive distillation.

Many cases are recorded of similar stages of decomposition, which is an apparent spontaneous combustion, renewing the normal temperature of life, many times giving flushness to the cheeks, and thus appearing to have life renewed, notwithstanding the body had been cold for many hours previous to this phenomenon taking place, the result of a peculiar chemical action. But these instances seldom or never occur, while the difficulty encountered is in completely reducing the heat from the bodies of those persons killed by accident, which fact renders the successful preservation of such remains for any length of time utterly impossible, as the fetid gases are evolved in such great abundance as to literally cook the flesh and escape into the air. Developed in the cadaverous odor, a pungent and ammoniacal stench, except there be prompt application of some powerful chemical reagent, with which the organized material may enter into combination and thus overcome the delivellant tendencies of the affinities of its elements. If ice is used and the temperature of the body reduced below 32°, the water in the system is frozen, which acts as if the tissues had been dried, and putrefaction is thus arrested for such time as the proper temperature is maintained.

PRACTICES WHICH MUST BE ABOLISHED.

Some usages which seem to be sanctioned by long practice, but not by any remarkable amount of good judgment, ought to be discountenanced and done away with, simply upon the ground that these acts conflict directly with all sanitary laws, and to a great extent endanger the lives of the persons who may be present. Still, these repeated transgressions upon the common precautionary measures against contagion are not the result of a desire to do wrong, neither do they always arise from sheer ignorance, but they are almost always caused by an utter disregard of even the simplest prudence.

For instance, how often, where a child has succumbed to the attack of some infectious disease, like scarlet fever, diphtheria, etc., how often will parents, regardless of the contagious character of the disease, insist upon kissing the pallid lips of the corpse, and, moreover, invite other children to follow the same dangerous practice.

And again, another prolific source of disease lies in the fact that funeral services will be conducted in a close, warm, ill ventilated room, crowded with a sympathizing audience, in close proximity to a corpse emitting foul and infectious effluvia, and inhaling these into the system. It is true that these same noxious gases may not always be detected by the smell, as the floral ornamentations, the crowded state of the room, etc., all tend to disguise any unpleasant odors; but the germ of contagion is still there and actively at work.

It is a fact, patent and undeniable, that carelessness in the keeping and disposing of bodies is an act of guilty neglect, and the sooner the community be made acquainted with the danger attending such practices as those above spoken of, the better it will be for the enforcement of those sanitary measures which are necessary in every well regulated city or town.

We have already spoken of dangers to be encountered in the handling of bodies, but the subject is of so much importance to undertakers, and concerns the profession so closely, that it may not be amiss here to renew our former cautions, also to add a few more suggestions, so as to modify the danger thereof, even if it cannot be completely eradicated.

DANGERS ARISING FROM HANDLING THE DEAD.

To those who, like physicians, students and nurses, are almost constantly thrown into direct contact with every form of epidemic, contagious and infectious diseases, the dangers arising therefrom are considerable. But undertakers are exposed to a still greater risk, namely: that of handling the remains of those who have died from the effects of those same diseases. Not only do they have to guard against the infectious character of the contagion, but they have also to protect themselves against the malignant effluvia which emanates from the victims of the contagion after disintegration of the body has taken place, the nauseous and sickening gases which are generated by decay, and the deadly virus which may be innoculated into the system, either through some puncture or abrasion of the skin; the virulent effects of the poison may be carried carelessly to the mouth, the nose or the eyes by a thoughtless action. Too much care cannot be exercised by undertakers in handling a corpse, especially if the subject is known to be afflicted with some infectious or malignant complaint.

Still, the precautions generally in use among undertakers, and the different preparations that are commonly recommended as preventives, are useless in most cases, as there are conditions of the system which will increase the danger, and in some instances leave it open to the insidious attacks of disease and contagion. Too much importance has been attached, so far, by undertakers, to the artificial means devised by some, under the names of preservatives, antidotes, etc., etc. The reliance placed on them, in a great many cases, has proved futile, and although some possess real and undisputed merit, they proved ineffectual when the system has been influenced by the following

CONDITIONS OF THE SYSTEM,

which will increase the danger of contagion:

_Fear._—Almost in every case, if a person is brought in sudden contact with the remains of one who has died of either cholera, small pox, yellow fever, or any of those terrible epidemic and contagious diseases which will in a few weeks decimate a populous city, the feeling will be one of repulsive horror; in some this feeling will amount to absolute fear, which will show itself in the dilated pupil, the bleached countenance, and the momentous forebodings which assail the mind and predispose the system to the attacks of the disease. In this case, the mind influences the body to such an extent that the disease has already fastened itself upon the system, before the first symptoms are felt.

Another and potent cause of danger is that which proceeds from a debilitated condition of the system, the causes of which are numerous: over-exertion of either the body or the mind; labor carried on incessantly without due regard to relaxation; imperfect nutrition, or long fast, are all causes which will tend to render the system more vulnerable to the aggressions of sickness.

But the most pernicious and fatal of all mistakes, is that of using stimulants to ward off the effects of contagion. How many of our professionals and their assistants have given way to the use of ardent spirits, under the delusion that it was absolutely necessary, to avoid the noxious effects of infectious diseases. It is a well authenticated fact, and one worthy of notice, that persons who generally indulge in the use of spirituous liquors, even in a moderate quantity, are those who are first attacked by epidemic or contagious diseases, and who almost always fall victims to it. Take, for instance, the case of a surgeon about to perform a dangerous operation. His first inquiry will be about the habits of the patient; he knows well enough that a man addicted to drink will not bear up under the trial.

The only means we have to protect ourselves from the dangers of infection from dead bodies are, first, a perfect ventilation of the room where the remains lie, so as to obviate the bad tendency which the air of the death-chamber might have upon the system. Attention must also be paid to the diet; the food eaten should be generous and nutritious, and it is proper to take a _small quantity_ of wine at a time when the body and mind are debilitated by long and exhaustive manipulation of the dead, but avoid all excess of fluids or solids. _Temperance is strictly necessary._

Wounds received while handling a corpse should not be neglected; if a simple abrasion, it should be covered; if pricked, the liquid muriate of ammonia or caustic potass are recommended to be applied as cauteries. These are the early measures to be pursued; but after absorption has taken place, a different course must be practised, and a good physician consulted without delay. The garments ordinarily worn should never be brought into direct contact with the remains of a person tainted with some infectious disease.

But it is to the hands we must pay particular attention. Gangrenous or syphilitic sores may be found on a subject, in which case extreme caution must be exerted; the hands should be first well rubbed with lard or sweet oil mixed with carbolate of camphor, and thoroughly washed after the handling of the body is over; then the hands should be well soaked in chlorinated soda (Labarraque solution), as the disinfecting properties of chlorine will be found here particularly useful.

If the above suggestions are faithfully followed, they will be found to greatly diminish the dangers attending the handling of the dead—dangers which can never be entirely avoided.

MANAGEMENT AND DISCIPLINE

OF AN UNDERTAKING ESTABLISHMENT.

Much of the success of an undertaking establishment will be dependent, not only upon the head of the firm himself, but also upon the discipline maintained among those to whom the details of the business are entrusted; and the difficulties surrounding proper management will increase as it extends and involves the employment of more numerous operatives, unless the general duties of all are specifically laid down, and the particular duties of each well defined and insisted upon.

The rules which follow were prepared by a gentleman of considerable experience and unusual success in business; they were designed for a store employing three assistants.

Although, of course, they require modifications to suit the circumstances of different establishments, their general tenor is adapted to all, and the high tone of professional and moral aptitude they require renders them worthy the acceptance of every assistant who would deserve the approval of his employer, and of every employer who desires the best interests of his assistants.

SPECIFIC DUTIES OF THE FIRST ASSISTANT.

1st.—To see that the specific duties of the other assistants are promptly and well performed.

2d.—To attend to mail orders from dealers in the country; select the goods to be packed up and sent out; to wait on customers, etc., that the two other assistants may not be hindered in the performance of their duties.

3d.—He is to attend to the laying out of bodies; and in the absence of the proprietor, or if the pressure of business should require it, he is to take charge of the funerals, with the assistance of the second assistant.

4th.—In case of the absence of either of his juniors, to take the place of the second assistant.

5th.—He is to take charge of the books, collections, etc., should the proprietor wish him to do so.

6th.—He is to take knowledge of and properly note any articles that may be needed for the store, including goods to be purchased and work to be attended to.

7th.—To see that the stock of goods is well supplied with those items which are generally kept by the quantity. Should the place of business be remote from any manufacturing firm of undertakers’ goods, such as coffins, hardware, caskets, etc., he is to keep a faithful and strict account of the sizes, styles and grades of caskets and coffins on hand, as also of the needful requirements in that line; he should also call the attention of the proprietor to the quality, style, etc., of the goods needed, and place in the hands of his employer a list of the goods to be ordered, or likely to be called for.

8th.—To keep a note book of what is necessary to be done in the ordinary business of the store, and to designate employment for the other assistants.

9th.—He is to superintend, and if need be to help, in the lining and trimming of coffins, and, in the absence of the proprietor, to attend to the embalming and preserving of bodies.

10th.—In short, he must, during the absence of the proprietor, take entire charge of the store, and be alone responsible for its business.

SPECIFIC DUTIES OF THE SECOND ASSISTANT.

1st.—It will be his duty to dust the cases, desks, etc., thoroughly every morning. This service must be performed before breakfast, and as often repeated through the day as necessary.

2d.—In the absence of the third assistant, he is to perform his duties.

3d.—He shall assist the proprietor, or the first assistant, in the laying out, washing and dressing of bodies; and also at funerals, in the management of the hearse and carriages.

4th.—He is to trim caskets according to the directions of the first assistant, and follow the instructions given him as to the choice of materials used in their ornamentation.

5th.—He shall see that a sample of each size, style and grade of coffin and casket be always on hand in the show room, and ready to be turned out in the shortest space of time possible.

6th.—He is to keep an exact record, in the book devoted to that purpose, of the name, residence, cause of death, age and place of burial, of all parties which may have been interred by the firm. This register must always be posted up to date.

7th.—It will be his duty to clean the show cases, work room, and the stock in general, once a week, and oftener if necessary.

SPECIFIC DUTIES OF THE THIRD ASSISTANT.

1st.—He is to open the store in the morning; make the fire, and attend to it through the day; sweep out the store; wash the windows; and see that all tools and implements are in their proper place and ready for instant use.

2d.—It shall be his duty to keep cooling boards clean and tidy; to have palls, stools and pedestals dusted and in shape.

3d.—It shall be his duty to pack goods and make boxes when required.

4th.—It will be required of him to do such errands as the business of the store may demand, and also to close the store at night.

GENERAL REGULATIONS OF THE STORE.

1st.—Business hours will include the time between breakfast and six o’clock, P. M., except when special duty may require it otherwise.

2d.—During business hours, all hands must be employed at some regular store duty.

3d.—As waiting on customers is a duty which requires most knowledge and experience, the first assistant must always serve when there is one customer; the other assistants may help if need be.

4th.—The first assistant must always take that part of the duty which requires most knowledge and skill. This order of duty must never be deviated from, if circumstances will admit of it.

5th.—All other duty must give way to that of waiting on customers.

6th.—Every person entering the store, whether pauper or president, infant or adult, white or colored, must be treated with courtesy and kindness.

7th.—Boisterous mirth and a sullen temper are to be equally avoided, as productive of neither business nor business character. The acquisition of a uniformly cheerful temperament is an attainment worth far beyond the price it usually costs.

8th.—There are to be no masters and no servants. Each one is to feel conscious of the fact that the performance of the duties assigned to him is just as necessary and as important as what pertains to any other hand in the store. All useful employment is honorable; indolence is a disgrace.

9th.—An afternoon of every week will be devoted to the cleaning of the store, in which all must share as occasion offers.

10th.—As neatness, order and cleanliness are necessary, and not mere accomplishments, in an undertaking establishment, all are required to practice them constantly.

11th.—Assistants should be rather select in the choice of their acquaintances; while the occasional visit of a well behaved friend will be countenanced, lounging in the store will not be tolerated.

12th.—Each assistant shall have, if business permits, one afternoon and evening every week, and every other Sunday; the afternoon will comprise the time between twelve o’clock at noon and six o’clock P. M.; the evening, between six o’clock P. M. and the closing of the store. These privileges must not be interfered with unnecessarily.

13th.—No assistant residing in the house will be allowed to be absent at night after the closing of the store, without special permission.

14th.—A vacation of two weeks every year will be allowed each assistant.

15th.—It is not the wish of the proprietor that any of his employes should extol the goods beyond their merits to advance his pecuniary interests, or to say or do aught in the performance of his duties that he would not be willing that others should say or do to him under the same circumstances.

A cheerful compliance with the foregoing rules is confidently expected, and the repeated infraction of a regulation of the store will be cause for dismissal.

In certain establishments, where a driver is kept for the purpose of taking care of horses and driving the hearse or other vehicles, this employe shall be under the immediate supervision of the proprietor.

MODIFICATIONS IN THE MODE

OF EMBALMING BODIES.

There are modifications in the processes used for the preservation of bodies, which are governed by circumstances affecting the different conditions of the body at the time of death. Although we may lay general rules for the quantity and variety of antiseptics used in embalming, there are certain cases where the quantity of the chemicals which enter into the composition of the injecting fluid must be either increased or curtailed, as well as the amount of the injection.

It would require the scope of a cyclopedia to give in detail the proportions of each constituent in the number of different cases which may come under the notice of the embalmer.

The mode of operation in all cases may be the same, but the nature and quantity of the injection will vary, first, with the climatic circumstances of the atmosphere; second, with the cause of death; third, with the age of the deceased; fourth, with the state of the body after death; fifth, with the length of time which has elapsed since death took place.

It has been demonstrated in a previous chapter that a high temperature is conducive to rapid decomposition of organic matter, also that a warm, moist atmosphere will operate in the same manner; it is therefore incumbent upon the operator to guard against these two agents of putrefaction by keeping the body in a moderately cool and well ventilated place until the work of preserving is accomplished; also to give the antiseptics employed time to successfully destroy and render harmless the dangerous effects of the heat.

It must not be understood by the preceding caution that a body cannot be embalmed in an ordinary room during the heat of the summer, but the suggestion herein given is solely for the purpose of facilitating the operation and rendering the success certain; besides, as it has been illustrated in some of the processes precedingly given, the strength as well as the quantity of the injection have been increased when used during the warm season.

As to the modifications to be observed in the treatment of bodies, when the cause of death is taken into consideration. It has formed the subject of some chapters to show that, in cases where death is the result of a certain class of diseases, the body is more prone to putrefy than in others; whilst in other cases, again, the body is to a certain extent preserved from corruption by the agents which have proved fatal to the organism; as, for instance, when death has been the result of poisoning, either by alcohol or arsenic.

The age of the person deceased, and the condition of the body after death, as also the length of time elapsed since death took place, as affecting the mode of treatment, have all been discussed in a former part of this work, and it would hardly be necessary to have a new elucidation upon the same subject.

The important point we wish to impress now upon the minds of our professionals is, that circumstances in this case are to be strictly investigated; also, that a uniform treatment of all cases, however different the circumstances and conditions, will not prove successful; and that a thorough knowledge and experience are necessary to achieve satisfactory results.

Discrimination and judgment are to be used in every case. Some are too ready to condemn a certain process, or to question the properties of some antiseptics, because their first trial of either has proved an ignominious failure; whereas the real cause of all the trouble lies in their ignorance of the laws which govern the mode of proceeding, and the use of the chemicals placed at their disposition.

Others, again, are prone to extol the merits of some preparation, the component parts of which they do not know, but it may have done them good service in several instances; and when, contrary to their expectations, it fails to answer the purpose, they lose faith in it, discard it altogether as worthless, and never entertain the idea that an alteration in the quantity used, or in the combination and strength of the constituents, is the real source of mischief.

Hence, it is a fact not to be denied that a diagnosis (if it may be called so) is necessary before the work of embalming be entered into. And he who would endeavor to preserve the body of a stout, fleshy person by the same means employed in the preserving of a body emaciated by long sufferings, and under different conditions of temperature, might not meet with a success equal to his expectations.

CHLORINE:

ITS PROPERTIES AND USES.

_Chlorinated Lime._—In consequence of its powers as a disinfectant, chlorinated lime is a very important compound in its application to medical police; it possesses the property of arresting or preventing animal or vegetable putrefaction, and perhaps of destroying pestilential and infectious miasma. It is used with advantage in preventing bodies from exhaling an unpleasant odor before interment in the summer season. In juridical exhumations its use is indispensable, as it effectually removes the disgusting and insupportable fetor of the corpse.

The mode in which it is applied in these cases is, to envelope the body in a sheet completely wet with a solution made by adding about one pound of the chloride to a bucketful of water. It is employed also for disinfecting dissecting rooms, vaults, cemeteries and other places, which exhale offensive effluvia.

In destroying contagion and infection it appears to be highly useful. In short, all places deemed infectious from having been the receptacle of virulent disease may be more or less disinfected by its use, after having undergone the ordinary process of cleansing.

Chlorinated lime acts exclusively by its chlorine, which, being loosely combined, is disengaged by the slightest affinities. All acids, even the carbonic, disengage it; and as this acid is a product of animal and vegetable decomposition, noxious effluvia furnish the means, to a certain extent, of their own disinfection. But the stronger acids disengage it more freely, and amongst these sulphuric acid is the most convenient. Accordingly, the powder may be dissolved in a very dilute solution of this acid; or a small quantity of the acid may be added to an aqueous solution already formed, if a more copious evolution of chlorine be desired than that which takes place from the mere action of the carbonic acid of the atmosphere.

The great and only objection, so far, against the use of chlorinated lime by the profession, has been the strong smell of the chlorine evolved; but taking into consideration the great antiseptic properties, and also the strong bleaching and disinfecting qualities of the chlorine, we find that it cannot be overlooked as an agent of major importance in the preservation of bodies.

There are certain modes of using the chlorinated lime whereby the offensive odor can be to a great extent diminished, if not altogether done away with. When used in its crude state, it will be found difficult to handle; besides, it could not be used for the purpose of an injection; it needs, then, a certain amount of preparation before it be used in a liquid form. The following has been given as the simplest manner of preparing it for injecting:

Take, of chlorinated lime, one pound, carbonate of soda, two pounds, water, one gallon; dissolve the carbonate of soda in three pints of water by the aid of heat; to the remainder of the water add, by small portions at a time, the chlorinated lime, previously well triturated, stirring the mixture after each addition. Set the mixture by for several hours, that the dregs may subside; then decant the clear liquor, and mix it with the solution of carbonate of soda. Lastly, decant the clear liquor from the precipitated carbonate of lime, pass it through a linen cloth, and keep it in bottles secluded from the light.

The London _Pharmacopœia_ gives a still better process for preparing it, for reasons which will be given hereafter:

Take, of carbonate of soda, one pound, water, forty-eight fluid ounces, chloride of sodium (common salt), four ounces, black oxide of manganese, three ounces, sulphuric acid, two fluid ounces and a half; dissolve the carbonate of soda in two pints of water; then put the chloride of sodium and the binoxide or black oxide of manganese, rubbed to powder, in a retort, and add to them the acid, previously mixed with three fluid ounces of water, and cooled. Heat the mixture, and pass the chlorine first through five fluid ounces of water, and afterwards into the solution of the carbonate above directed. Upon the addition of muriatic acid, both these solutions emit carbonic acid and chlorine together.

The foregoing given preparation will be found to answer the purpose for disinfecting, injecting and preserving corpses. For injecting purposes, the solution should be used fresh, and the muriatic acid only added to it, for a more copious liberation of both carbonic acid and chlorine, when ready to inject the liquid, as the antiseptic properties of the solution depend altogether on its gaseous evolutions.

To inject the solution, it will be found that the axillary artery on the left side is a good point; also, the right jugular vein should be punctured, so as to facilitate the flow of blood from the head. But to make the operation complete, and to be sure of a perfect and thorough injection, the ascending aorta should be injected, and the inferior vena cava severed at a corresponding point. This mode of injecting has been described in a former chapter.

It is not possible to specify here the amount of liquid to be injected; but as a general rule there should be enough of the solution injected to fill the circulatory system, and the injection be continued until after the blood has ceased to flow from the wound in the vena cava and the injecting fluid appears in its place.

When injected with this solution, a corpse may present for a few hours afterwards a bloated and swollen appearance, and the face and body may be marbled over with white spots; but these symptoms will soon disappear, the body will collapse again to its normal size, and the color become of a uniform shade.

To preserve bodies during the summer season for a few days and without ice; also to prevent the swelling up of the abdomen and the purging at the mouth and nostrils, open the stomach, as explained in a previous chapter, empty out the contents, and inject into it some of the above solution; the bowels must be treated in the same manner, and also inject the lungs through the nostrils, by producing artificial respiration. If the liquid cannot be injected in this manner, cut into the trachea an incision large enough to admit of the nozzle of the injector being inserted, and pour in the necessary quantity.

If any fetor is exhaled from the corpse after being placed in the coffin, a sponge well saturated with the solution and being placed at the feet of the corpse will remove all foul effluvia; or better still, a china or porcelain bowl filled with the solution may be placed inside the case until a few minutes before the funeral and the screwing down of the lid.

The air of the room may also be purified by saturating some cloths with the solution and hanging them in different parts of the apartment. The vessels containing excretions should not be neglected, and some of the solution poured into them.

In fact, undertakers will find the above solution to be adapted to all purposes of disinfecting, deodorizing and preserving corpses.

INSTRUMENTS.

Undertakers will find it to their advantage to possess instruments of the best materials and make; they are always cheaper in the end, as they will resist the wear and tear to a greater extent, and will not be liable to get out of order when most needed.

Especially in injecting apparatus should a great amount of care be exercised about the selection. The greatest danger to be guarded against is corrosion, as all injecting fluids which are now in use contain more or less of either acids or metallic salts, all of which will attack and corrode, to a lesser or greater extent, the metals and other substances with which they come in direct contact.

Any injector, therefore, so constructed as to be free from danger to its mechanism from the corroding effects of the liquids above mentioned, will be the one to be chosen. According to the statements above given, any part of an apparatus which is required to operate with a certain degree of nicety must be kept from the corrosive effects of the fluids, and this result is to be gained only by the peculiar construction of the apparatus.

In the greater part of the injecting pumps now manufactured and in use in this country, the body of the pump, which contains the working part of the apparatus, is also filled with the liquid while in use; and, therefore, this part, which ought to be protected from injury, is constantly immersed in the strong corrosive solution during all the time that the injector is being worked.

The result of this constant corroding action upon the apparatus will soon show itself in the working of it, and constant repairs will be found necessary to keep it in order or in a state of comparative effectiveness.

It must be well remembered, that upon the working of the apparatus depends, to a great extent, the good or poor success of embalming; also, that upon the manner of using an apparatus, of whatever description it may be, the length of its duration and its effectiveness will be in the same ratio.

The automatic apparatus of Girard, for injecting purposes, is a marvel of simplicity and durability; there is no piston or force pump, which is liable at any moment to get out of order; no valves, which will wear out by friction, or leak from the effects of the liquid used.

The force used in ejecting the fluid is that of a gas, highly antiseptic in its nature, and which, being generated inside of a cylinder, saturates the injecting fluid (itself an antiseptic solution), and by its expansive force propels it into the arteries of the body.

All the appliances necessary to the perfect working of the apparatus are condensed into a small compass. The amount of gas generated can be increased or diminished at will. A pressure gage indicates the force of expansion acquired by the gas. A glass tube, similar to the water tube in use on some boilers, and with a graduated scale attached, shows both the amount of liquid used and also the quantity remaining in the apparatus; while a relief-cock insures safety to the operator against too rapid an accumulation of gas.

This last danger need scarcely be apprehended, as, after the pressure gage indicates the force of expansion required, the further generation of the gas can be entirely stopped, until the vacuum created by the outflow of liquid needs to be replaced by a new supply of gas. For it is a fact well understood, that the force of expansion of the generating power decreases in the same proportion as the volume of the liquid is diminished, thereby causing a greater vacuum in the apparatus.

The inside of the apparatus is thickly coated with lead, as that metal is not sensibly acted on by either muriatic or sulphuric acid, except at very high temperatures.

The jet or stream of liquid can be regulated by a screw cock, attached to the neck of a metallic tube reaching to the bottom of the apparatus, inside, and provided at its inner extremity with a perforated bulb, which, acting as a filter, prevents any impurity or sediment from finding its way into and stopping the circulation of the fluid through the arterial system; at the same time it prevents any excessive amount of pressure upon the rubber tube five or six feet in length, which is connected with the delivery tube outside, and at the end of which the nozzle is attached.

The nozzle or cannula itself is a very important part of the apparatus, and is of a peculiar shape; it consists of a thin copper tube about eight inches in length and a little over an eighth of an inch in diameter; it is to be inserted at full length, or nearly so, into the artery to be injected, as by doing so it meets a point where the walls of the artery are strengthened by the surrounding tissues.

The shape of the apparatus is that of an elongated cylinder, rounded off at both ends, resembling somewhat a soda fountain; it stands upright, upon four curved legs about four inches in height, and possesses a symmetrical and substantial appearance.

The other apparatus—Ronsard’s—is about similar in construction, but the power exerted in forcing out the liquid is not gas, as in the former apparatus, but compressed air, forced into the body of the reservoir by means of a pump.

The body of the apparatus consists of a cylinder holding about five gallons; this constitutes the reservoir containing the liquid to be injected. Outside of this cylinder and running alongside of it is the body of the pump. The pipe communicating the air forced inside the cylinder above the liquid enters the bottom of the reservoir, and, passing through the liquid, runs along the inner side of the vessel until it has reached a point almost to the top of the cylinder. In the center of the apex at the top of the cylinder is a small funnel connected to a pipe running inside of the apparatus; this pipe, which is furnished with a cock, is intended to conduct inside the apparatus the liquid poured in at the funnel; it will act also as a relief cock, should it be found necessary to relieve the pressure on the liquid.

This apparatus is not provided, like the other, with a pressure gage, from the fact that the pressure being the result of a mechanical cause, the operator will soon be able to judge the amount of pressure by the number of strokes of the piston.