Chapter VI: Part 6

The cultivation of the watermelon is practically the same as for the muskmelon, except that the plants grow larger and require more room for development than those of the muskmelon. Watermelons require that the soil should contain a larger percentage of sand than muskmelons, and that the land should be quite rich. Watermelons should be planted 10 feet each way between the hills, or in drills 10 feet apart and thinned to 3 feet apart in the drills. The watermelon seedlings must be protected from the cucumber beetle until the foliage becomes toughened. Watermelons readily group themselves into six classes based upon the color or characteristics of the skin or external appearance. It does not necessarily follow that in the proposed classification the fruit of each variety will all be of the same form to which it is referred; for, as every melon grower knows, the fruits in each hill vary more or less; but if everything is normal and favorable for their development the characteristic form or that typifying the variety will predominate. The larger the experience of the grower, the easier it is for him to understand these various types. In order to get the true type of each variety, it is important that the seeds be secured directly from the seedsman who first introduced them thus avoiding complications or errors.--(F. B. 255; N. H. E. S. 86; Ind. E. S. 123; N. Mex. E. S. 63; S. Dak. E. S. 67.)

I. Light Green { Sweet Heart Type
Class { (oval shape)
{ ---- ----
{ (medium shape)
{ Monarch Type,
{ (Long shape)

II. Medium Green { Icing Type,
Class { (oval shape)
{ ---- ----
{ (medium shape)
{ Jackson Type,
{ (long shape)

III. Dark Green { Black Spanish Type
Class { (oval shape)
{ ---- ----
{ (medium shape)
{ Boss Type,
{ (long shape)

IV. Light Striped { Kolb's Gem Type,
Class { (oval shape)
{ Cuban Queen Type,
{ (medium shape)
{ Rattlesnake Type,
{ (long shape)

V. Dull Striped { Pride of Georgia Type,
Class { (oval shape)
{ Christmas Type,
{ (medium shape)
{ Favorite Type,
{ (long shape)

VI. Mottled Green { Nabob Type,
Class { (oval shape)
{ Phinney Type,
{ (medium long shape)

MUSTARD.

Almost any good soil will produce a crop of mustard. The basal leaves of mustard are used for greens, and as the plants require but a short time to reach the proper stage for use frequent sowings should be made. Sow the seeds thickly in drills as early as possible in the spring, or for late use sow the seeds in September or October. The forms of white mustard, of which the leaves are often curled and frilled, are generally used. Mustard greens are cooked like spinach.--(F. B. 255; Mich. E. S. 20; La. E. S. 90.)

NASTURTIUM.

The hardiness and unsurpassed beauty of this plant should make it a favorite near every home. The seed pods just before beginning to ripen make a delicious flavoring for pickles.--(Mich. E. S. 20; S. Dak. E. S. 68.)

NEW ZEALAND SPINACH.

The plant known as New Zealand spinach is not a true spinach, but grows much larger and should be planted in rows 3 feet apart, with the plants 12 to 18 inches apart in the row. Some difficulty may be experienced in getting the seeds to germinate, and they should be soaked one or two hours in hot water before planting. New Zealand spinach is satisfactory for growing in warm climates, as it withstands heat better than the ordinary spinach. The fleshy leaves and tender stems are cooked the same as spinach.

OKRA (_Gumbo_).

This plant may be grown throughout the greater portion of the United States, but only one crop can be produced during a season in the northern part of the country. In the region around New Orleans successive plantings are made and a constant supply is maintained. The plant is of a tropical nature and will not endure frost, but the pods begin to be produced very soon after the plants start into rapid growth and continue to form for several weeks, especially if all pods are removed while young and no seeds allowed to ripen upon the plants.

_Soil and Its Preparation._--The soil upon which okra can be most successfully grown is a rich mellow loam, plowed rather deeply and well worked over with pulverizing tools. After the seedlings become established and the roots get a firm hold of the soil, the growth is very rapid and a large amount of available plant food, especially of a nitrogenous nature, is required. Quick-acting commercial fertilizers may be applied in moderate quantities, but these should be well mixed with the soil. The same conditions that will produce good cotton or corn will be found suitable for the production of okra.

_Planting the Seed._--Throughout the Northern States planting should be done as early as possible in spring, or as soon as the soil is warm enough for the planting of general garden seeds. In the Southern States, where a continuous supply is desired, successive seedings of four or five weeks apart should be made. Plant in rows 3-1/2 feet apart for the dwarf types, and 4-1/2 feet for the larger-growing varieties. Scatter the seeds in drills, or plant loosely in hills, as with corn, and cover to a depth of 1 or 2 inches, according to the compactness and moisture content of the soil. The seeds may be planted with any good seed drill, but when placed in hills they should be separated 3 or 4 inches to allow space for the development of the stems. If the soil is reasonably warm, germination will take place within a few days, but should there be a heavy rainfall in the mean time the soil should be lightly cultivated between the rows and the crust broken over the seed by means of an iron rake.

_Cultivation._--As soon as the plants are well established they may be thinned to three or four in a hill, or, if grown in drills, to 12 or 14 inches for the dwarf and 18 to 24 inches for the larger growing varieties. Where vacant places occur from failure in germination they may be filled in by transplanting. Cultivate as in the case of corn or cotton, keeping the ground well stirred and the surface soil loose, especially while the plants are small. After the leaves begin to shade the ground, very little cultivation is necessary except to keep the land free from weeds. A poor soil and insufficient moisture will yield pods of inferior size and quality, and irrigation may often be desirable in order to produce a marketable crop. Okra is sometimes grown as a mixed crop with cotton, the okra being removed before the cotton begins to mature; but this practice is not to be recommended, as both crops draw heavily upon the nitrogenous matter of the soil. The okra plants will usually continue to grow until late in the season, but after a time the pods are not so large or tender as those produced earlier in the season. As the pod is the only part of the plant ordinarily used for food, it is desirable to secure a rapid and continuous growth in order to produce the greatest quantity of marketable pods.

_Gathering and Marketing._--As soon as the plants begin to set fruit the pods should be gathered each day, preferably in the evening. The flower opens during the night or early morning and fades after a few hours. The pollen must be transferred during the early morning, and the pod thus formed will usually be ready for gathering during the latter part of the following day, although the time required to produce a marketable pod varies according to the age of the plant and the conditions under which it is grown. The pods should always be gathered, irrespective of size, while they are still soft and before the seeds are half grown.--(F. B. 232.)

_Cultivation for Seed._--If okra is to be grown for seed alone, only one variety should be planted, or if more than one variety is grown each should be separated from the other by at least one-fourth mile to prevent mixing. When several varieties of okra are grown near each other no seed should be saved except that produced by the method of bagging and hand pollination. To secure seed in this way is a rather simple matter when only a small quantity is required, as the pods formed on a single day when the plants are at their best will produce enough seed. The bags should be tied over the flower buds in the evening and the pollen transferred early the following day. Replace the bags immediately, as an insect or the wind may at any moment bring to the flower the pollen of another variety. After going over all the flowers of a variety it is well to return to the first three or four and repollinate them in order that they may receive pollen from different individual flowers of the same variety and to insure perfect fertilization. Before beginning upon another variety the brush used for transferring the pollen should be thoroughly cleaned. If a brush is not available, use a portion of a young leaf, folded together between the thumb and finger, to convey the pollen. This improvised brush should be discarded and a new one adopted for each variety. The bags need remain only during the day on which the pollen is transferred and may be replaced by a tag to mark the pod. The seed should remain on the plant until fully ripe.

The common bumblebee is a frequent visitor to the flowers of the okra, and a single bee was on one morning observed to pollinate over 500 flowers, comprising more than 50 separate samples. In this instance practically every flower in the field was visited and pollinated, although no pollen had previously been transferred. This observation demonstrated the necessity of great care to prevent cross-pollination. Our variety tests with okra have shown that seed growers have not always succeeded in keeping the varieties separate, and as a result there has been a gradual blending together of all the sorts. In many of the samples all the sorts usually grown are represented.

_Uses._--The principal use of okra is in soups and various culinary preparations in which meats form an important factor, as in the so-called gumbo soups, to which the young pods impart an excellent flavor, besides giving a pleasant mucilaginous consistency. The young seeds are occasionally cooked in the same way as green peas, and the very young and tender pods are boiled and served as a salad with French dressing. Both the stem and the mature pod contain a fibre which is employed in the manufacture of paper. No copper, brass, or iron cooking vessels should be employed in preparing okra, as the metal will be absorbed and the pods discolored or even rendered poisonous. The cooking should be done in agate, porcelain, or earthen ware.--(F. B. 232.)

_Varieties._--There are three general types of okra, viz., tall green, dwarf green, and lady finger. Each of these is again divided according to the length and color of the pods, making in all six classes or varieties, namely, tall green, long pod; tall green, short pod; dwarf green, long pod; dwarf green, short pod; lady finger, white pod; and lady finger, green pod. All variations from these are merely the results of mixtures, no true crosses or hybrids being formed. These mixtures are easily separated and referred to the parent type, and a little attention to roguing and selection is necessary in order to keep the varieties pure. It is essential that the parietal strain should be pure in order that a uniform and marketable lot of pods may be produced.--(F. B. 232, 255; U. Id. E. S. 10.)

ONIONS.

The onion is exceptional in that it will thrive under a very wide range of climatic and soil conditions. There is perhaps no extended area in the United States, except the mountainous regions, where the onion can not be successfully grown. For best results a temperate climate without great extremes of heat and cold should be selected. Onion culture is rarely profitable in regions where the climate does not change or has no definite seasons of heat and cold or wet and dry. Naturally the onion does best under rather cool conditions, with plenty of moisture during its early stages, but requires a reasonable degree of heat, together with dryness of both soil and atmosphere, for its proper ripening.

_Soils._--The essential requirements of a soil upon which to grow onions profitably are a high state of fertility, good mechanical condition in order that the crop may be easily worked, sufficient drainage, and freedom from weeds. If a soil has the proper mechanical properties--that is, if it contains sufficient sand and humus to be easily worked, is retentive of moisture and fertilizers, and is capable of drainage--all other requirements can be met. As a general rule new land is not adapted to onion growing until it has been worked one or two years with other crops. Onions should follow some crop that has been kept under the hoe and free from weeds the previous season. Corn, beans, and potatoes are suitable crops with which to precede onions. Muck and sandy soils may in some cases be brought to a suitable condition for onions the first season, but the fitting will have to be very thoroughly performed. The land should be plowed in the autumn, then replowed in the spring, after which numerous harrowings and doubtless some hand work will be required to get the soil in suitable shape. If necessary to manure the land heavily before planting to onions, it will be desirable to plant to some farm crop one season, then apply the manure during the autumn in order to give it time to become incorporated with the soil. Owing to the value of good onion land it would not be advisable to devote it to general farm crops for any extended period, although corn is frequently planted and oats or rye are sometimes used in the North. Cowpeas may be of great service in bringing new land into shape for planting to onions.

_Preparation of the Soil._--Assuming that the land intended for planting to onions is capable of being brought to a good mechanical condition, fertile, well drained, and reasonably free from weed seeds, the first step in the production of the crop will be to plow moderately deep, then harrow, disk, roll, and drag until the soil is smooth and mellow to a depth of 4 or 5 inches. On soils that are naturally well drained and where surface water can not accumulate, the plowing may be done in large blocks, but where the opposite conditions are found or irrigation is practiced it may be necessary to plow the land in narrow beds. In the case of insufficient drainage it will be desirable to throw the soil together into beds, leaving a double furrow between each bed to carry off surplus water. Where the flooding system of irrigation is practiced the beds must be leveled and a system of ditches and ridges provided for distributing and controlling the water.

_Crop Rotation._--Onions should not be planted on the same piece of land year after year, and some system of crop rotation should be maintained. Care should be taken, however, to use crops in the rotation that will not be exhaustive of the high fertility necessary in the onion land. During the years when the land is not devoted to onions it can be planted to some truck crop that will give a return that will justify the application of large quantities of fertilizers, or, better to a leguminous crop to be turned under as green manure. Continuous cropping with onions will cause the land to become infested with both disease and insect enemies that will sooner or later injure the crop to such an extent as to render it unprofitable.

_Fertilizers._--As the onion is an intensive crop and yields great quantities of marketable bulbs for the area planted, the grower is justified in manuring heavily. It would be difficult indeed to make the soil too rich for onions, provided the manures are thoroughly incorporated with the soil. A heavy application of fresh raw manure just before planting would have an injurious effect, but where the manure is well rotted and uniformly applied there is nothing to be feared.

_Animal Manures._--There is perhaps no fertilizer so well adapted to the production of onions as plenty of clean, well-composted stable manure, and the quantity and frequency of application will depend upon the nature of the land under cultivation. All stable manure used on onion land should be well composted before use and then spread upon the land several months before planting to onions. In the Northern States the manure may be applied during the autumn and well disked into the soil. The land can then be allowed to lie in the rough state and exposed to the action of frost during the winter, or it can be smoothed and seeded to rye, in which case it will be necessary to replow during the early springtime. Large quantities of fresh manure applied to onion land just before planting will have a tendency to produce an overgrowth of tops at the expense of the bulbs. This is especially true on irrigated lands and soils that are naturally moist.

_Commercial Fertilizers._--Where there is an abundance of humus matter in the soil the onion crop will be greatly benefited by moderate applications of high-grade commercial fertilizers. Many growers follow the practice of applying only a part of the fertilizer at planting time, reserving the balance to be put on as a top-dressing at some time during the period of cultivation. This plan is especially desirable where onions are grown during the winter, as the application of highly nitrogenous fertilizers in the autumn is liable to promote a soft growth that will be injured by cold. If the fertilizer is not put on until cold weather is over, the crop may be forced without danger of injury. For this purpose only those fertilizers of a very available form will answer.

_Planting and Thinning._--Experienced growers are frequently able by using extreme care in regulating the drills to distribute onion seed in rows where the crop is to mature so that little thinning will be necessary. Thinning is generally left until the time of the first hand weeding, when all thick bunches along the rows are thinned to a uniform stand of eight or ten plants to the foot. It is always well, however, to allow for considerable loss of plants, and unless the plants are so thick as to actually crowd, thinning will not be necessary.

_Transplanting._--The transplanting process, often spoken of as the "new onion culture," is merely a modification of the regular seeding method. The objects gained by transplanting are an earlier crop, a uniform stand, and bulbs of more regular size. Where a small area is to be grown, the transplanting process is the ideal method, but for large acreages and where labor is difficult to obtain, this would not be practical. After transplanting, the seedlings will require rain or watering in order that they may start, and for this reason the transplanting process is practically limited to areas where some form of irrigation is available. In growing onions by the transplanting method the seed is sown in greenhouses, hotbeds, cold frames, or specially prepared beds at the rate of 3-1/2 or 4 pounds for each acre to be planted. When the seedlings are grown under cover, they are given the necessary attention regarding watering and ventilation and kept growing quite rapidly until near the time for setting them in the open ground. As planting time approaches, the seedlings are "hardened" or prepared for transplanting by increased ventilation and exposure and by withholding water. When ready to transplant, the seedlings should be somewhat smaller than a lead pencil and rather stocky. The plants are lifted from the seed bed and the roots and tops both trimmed somewhat.

_Methods of Tillage._--The cultural requirements of the onion are frequent shallow stirring of the soil and freedom from weeds. The feeding roots of the onion run close to the surface of the soil and should not be disturbed by deep cultivation. Sometimes a heavy rain immediately after seeding will so pack the surface that the seedlings can not break through. Under such circumstances it will be necessary to slightly break the surface by means of a steel rake or a rake-like attachment on a cultivator. As soon as the plants are up and the rows can be followed the cultivator should be started to loosen the soil, which is always more or less compacted during seeding. It is well-nigh impossible to produce a crop of onions without some hand weeding. During favorable seasons the strictly hand work may be reduced to but one or two weedings, but a greater number will be necessary during rainy seasons. The work of hand weeding may be facilitated by the use of some of the small hand tools designed for the purpose. Among these tools might be mentioned the onion hoe, the hand weeder, and the thinning or weeding hook.

_Irrigation._--Outside of the areas where irrigation methods are depended upon for the production of general crops it is not customary to use artificial watering in the growing of onions.

_Harvesting._--In the North the bulbs are allowed to become as ripe as possible before removing them from the soil. Growers prefer that the tops ripen down and shrivel and that the outer skin of the bulbs be dry before they are pulled. To the southward, where the onions are not cured so thoroughly, they are often pulled about the time that the tops begin to break and fall. The ripening process may often be hastened by rolling a very light roller or a barrel over the tops to break them down. This process is frequently spoken of as "barreling." Where the bulbs are practically upon the surface they may be pulled by hand and thrown in windrows consisting of eight or ten onion rows. If the onion bulbs are considerably covered with soil it will be necessary to employ a one-horse plow or a cultivator with a sweep attached for lifting them. In any case it will be necessary to gather them from the soil by hand. After lying in the windrows for several days and being stirred occasionally with wooden rakes they are gone over and the tops removed either by twisting or cutting with ordinary sheep shears. In cases where very bright color is important as with fancy White Globe onions, and this would be injured by exposure to the sun and rain, the bulbs are cured in long, narrow, low ricks formed by two rows of onions laid with the bulbs regularly to the center, tops to the outside, the rows a few inches apart at the bottom of the rick but coming together at the top, and the top of the rick covered by straw or boards to shed the rain. As the tops are removed the bulbs are generally placed in crates for drying. In some sections onion-topping machines are employed, the bulbs being hauled from the field to a central location and run through the topper. These machines remove the tops, grade the bulbs, and deliver them into the crates or bags. If crates are not employed for curing, the bulbs are allowed to lie in the windrows for some time, and are then either put into sacks or hauled to slat cribs, where they complete the curing process. Too long exposure to hot sunshine will injure the bulbs. Where the bulbs are extremely dry at the time of their removal from the soil, they may be allowed to lie in the windrows for a few days only, and then sorted and cleaned in the field ready for packing and marketing.

_Storage._--In order that onions should keep well when stored they must be well ripened and thoroughly cured. Those that are immature, soft, or "thick necks" should never be placed in storage but sold as soon as gathered for whatever price they will bring. Good storage onions will rattle almost like blocks of wood when poured from one crate to another. In order that the bulbs may remain bright and of attractive appearance they should not be allowed to lie exposed to the weather, but should be hauled and stored in open sheds just as soon as they may safely be placed in one-bushel crates. After the bulbs have remained in drying sheds or cribs for several weeks they will be ready for screening and removal to the storehouse. In handling onions it is the rule to pass them over a screen each time they are moved, as in this way the loose skins are removed and any soft or decaying bulbs may be sorted out. The essentials for the successful storage of onions are plenty of ventilation, storing in small quantities, a comparatively low temperature, dryness, and safety from actual freezing. Any building wherein the above conditions may be secured will answer.

_Marketing._--Large quantities of onions are sold and shipped direct from the fields where they are grown. A part of the crop is held in temporary storage until late autumn or early winter. During recent years the winter storage of onions has become of great importance and the finest stock is held for late winter deliveries. The Bermuda crop from the southwestern part of the country comes upon the market during April and May, so that most of the storage onions are disposed of before that time. In marketing onions the first essential is to properly grade and clean the bulbs, in order that they may present an attractive appearance when offered for sale. Ordinarily the bulbs are separated into three grades--primes, seconds, and picklers. The primes include all those of 1-1/4 inches, in diameter and larger, and the seconds consist of those from 3/4 inch to 1-1/4 inches in diameter, while all those that will pass through a 3/4-inch screen are sold for pickling purposes. The grading is generally done in the field during the cleaning process, but as onions shrink considerably while in storage it is necessary to regrade before placing upon the market.

_Weight of Onions._--The legal weight of onions per bushel varies somewhat in different States, but 56 pounds of dry onions are generally considered a standard bushel.

_Important Commercial Varieties._--The varieties of onions that have distinctively yellow, white, and red skins and are of the globular type are of greatest commercial importance. Among the varieties that belong to the yellow globe class are the Prizetaker, Yellow Danvers, Yellow Globe, Danvers, Southport Yellow Globe, and Ohio Yellow Globe. The principal white varieties are Southport White Globe, New Queen, Italian Tripoli, Silver Skin, and White Silver King. Among the more important red sorts are Red Globe, Red Wethersfield, and Australian Brown. The principal Bermuda varieties are Red Bermuda, White Bermuda and Crystal Wax. The Bermuda onions are all of the more or less flat type. The red coloration of the Bermuda onion is not distinctive like that of the Red Wethersfield or Red Globe varieties, but is lighter in color. The famous Denia onion is somewhat of the Prizetaker type, is light yellow in color, grows to a large size, and is mild in flavor. In the selection of varieties for any particular locality the soil conditions and market requirements should both be considered. Those adapted to the muck soils are the yellow and red sorts. For alluvial and prairie soils the red and brown varieties are to be preferred, while all kinds do well on the sandy loams and light soils. A cleaner, better grade of white onions can generally be produced on light or sandy soils than on muck or clay loams. Those of the Bermuda, Spanish, and Egyptian types flourish on the deep, rich alluvial soils of the river bottoms and delta regions. Certain of our markets show a decided preference for onions belonging to a particular type. The red and brown varieties find ready sale on the markets of the Middle West, while onions of the yellow and white varieties are preferred in the eastern cities. Onions will withstand long-distance shipment, those of the Red Globe type being generally more subject to injury than the yellow and brown sorts. Some of the white varieties also have a thin skin and are easily injured. It should be the aim of every grower to employ varieties that will withstand handling and at the same time find ready sale on the market. Other types of onions are top onions, multipliers, garlic, and leeks, which are planted to some extent for marketing purposes.

_Bermuda Onions._--The production of Bermuda onions in the United States is a comparatively new industry and has thus far been undertaken mainly in Texas and California. Soils of a silty or alluvial nature are suited to the production of Bermuda onions, and those containing considerable sand are most desirable. The Bermuda requires a very rich soil for the best results, and this can only be obtained by first selecting a good soil and then manuring heavily. The Bermuda onion as grown in this country is a winter crop; therefore, mild climatic conditions are required. While the plants would withstand considerable freezing, their growth is seriously checked by cold weather, and the crop will not mature in time for the early market if grown to the northward. The cultural methods employed in the growing of Bermuda onions are essentially the same as those for ordinary onions. As the greater portion of the crop is grown in a region which has no regular rainfall, irrigation methods are employed almost universally. The greater part of the crop is grown by the transplanting process and a great amount of hand labor is required. Bermuda onions are harvested as early as possible, generally before the tops have become fully ripened. Phenomenal yields of 34,000 and 35,000 pounds of Bermuda onions are frequently made on an acre of land, but this is far above the general average, which is in the neighborhood of 10,000 or 12,000 pounds to the acre. Many fields, especially when planted for the first time, do not yield as much as 10,000 pounds to the acre. On land that has been heavily manured and planted to onions for several years the yield averages about 16,000 pounds. The best Bermuda-onion farms are valued at $300 to $500 an acre. In order to prove profitable, the growing of Bermuda onions should be conducted on a comparatively large scale. The necessary land and irrigation facilities will require the initial outlay of from $10,000 to $30,000, and the running expenses are quite heavy. Labor can be secured at a low price, but is correspondingly inefficient and often not to be had in sufficient quantities. Furthermore, the markets are now pretty well supplied with Bermuda onions, and persons who desire to engage in their production are advised to investigate every phase of the industry before embarking too heavily in it. The expansion of the Bermuda-onion industry is limited by the facts that a large supply of bulbs can be grown on a comparatively small area, that the distance to market is great, that the product is perishable, and that the markets will consume only a limited quantity at the prices at which the crop can be sold with profit.

_Green Onions for Bunching._--Another phase of onion culture that is of considerable importance in certain localities is the production of young bunching onions for the early spring trade. In several sections along the South Atlantic coast the growing of this class of onions is quite an enterprise. Many persons who are engaged in other lines of work follow the practice of growing a small area of bunching onions as a side issue. The varieties known as multipliers and top onions are generally employed for this purpose; however, bunching onions are sometimes grown from ordinary sets, from inferior and damaged large onions, and from seed. The multipliers and top onions are the only kinds adapted for this work on a large scale. For growing bunching onions the bulbs or sets are planted during the autumn either in beds or in rows 12 or 14 inches apart with the bulbs quite close in the rows. The bulbs will start growing within a short time and make more or less growth during the winter. As soon as the weather becomes warm during the first months of spring the onions make a rapid growth and are ready for marketing about the time peach trees begin to bloom. In marketing this class of onions the young shoots are pulled, the roots trimmed, and the outside peeled off, leaving the stem white and clean. The onions are then tied in small bunches by means of a soft white string, the tops trimmed slightly, and the bunches packed in crates or baskets for shipment or sale on the local market. This phase of the onion industry is limited to small plantings and is well suited to the needs of the general market garden. During the springtime and early summer large quantities of ordinary young onions are pulled when the bulb is about the size of a fifty-cent piece, the roots and tops are trimmed, and they are then bunched and sold for stewing purposes. So far as known, this class of onions is not shipped to any great extent, but is sold mainly on local markets.

_Home Production of Onion Seed._--The bulbs, or "mother bulbs," as they are commonly called, for the production of onion seed should be grown in the same manner as those intended for marketing, except that more care should be taken throughout. Some seed growers prefer to use 6 pounds of seed to an acre for the production of seed bulbs instead of 4 pounds, as ordinarily used in growing for market, in order that the bulbs may crowd and not become too large. The planting, culture, and harvesting of the bulbs are practically the same as for first-class marketable stock. Onion-seed growing is a two-year process and two crops are constantly to be cared for. After growing the bulbs the first summer they must be stored over winter and replanted the following spring for the production of seed. Meantime the crop for the next year's planting must be coming on in order to have a crop of seed every year. The first requisite for the growing of the best seed is a clear-cut ideal of the exact shape, form, color, and general characteristics sought in the variety being grown. The second requisite is the growing of seed from bulbs of that exact type for the greatest possible number of generations. Two selections should be made, the first to include but a small number of the very finest and most ideal bulbs from which to produce the stock seed to be used the following year for the growing of the seed bulbs, and the second to include the bulbs from which to grow the supply of seed for the market. By keeping the very best stock separate and using the product for propagation the entire strain will be gradually improved. Bulbs a trifle below the ideal market size, or about 1-1/2 to 2 inches in diameter, are the most profitable for seed production.

Bulbs that are to be used for seed productions should be allowed to become thoroughly ripe in the field. After pulling they should be stored in crates under a roof where they will have plenty of ventilation and be protected from sun and rain. Before freezing weather begins the onions should be graded and removed to a house where both ventilation and temperature can be controlled. The temperature of the storage house should at no time be so low as to cause the bulbs to become frosted. A temperature of 32° F. for a short period will do no harm, but should not be allowed to continue. If the bulbs become frosted, heated, or sweated in storage they will sprout before planting time and be greatly injured for seed purposes. In general, the storage conditions should be the same as for marketable onions.

The proper time to gather the seed is when the inside of the grain has reached the dough stage. Onion seed assumes its black color very early; in fact, before it has passed the watery stage and formed milk in the grain. This change of color is no indication of ripeness and very often deceives the inexperienced grower. The heads should be harvested just before the first-formed seed begins to shatter in handling.

_Curing the Seed Heads._--Any building having a tight floor and in which a free circulation of air can be maintained will serve as a curing place for onion seed. In localities where rains do not occur during the curing period the seed heads are frequently dried on sheets of canvas stretched over frames or spread upon the ground. For curing the seed in houses, wire-bottomed racks or trays placed one above the other are generally employed. As the seed is stirred from time to time during the curing process considerable of it will be shattered and fall upon the tray below or finally upon the floor. The main essentials in the curing of onion seed are to spread the heads very thinly, not over two heads in depth, and to give free ventilation. Even at a depth of 3 inches in the trays it will be necessary to stir them very often, especially during damp weather.

_Thrashing and Cleaning the Seed._--The date for gathering the seed depends upon the locality and climate, but as a rule this will be about midsummer. The thrashing and cleaning of the seed are often deferred until quite late in the autumn, except where the curing is done in the open air. Where large quantities of seed are produced the thrashing is done with machines similar to regular grain thrashers, but when grown on a small scale the seed is removed by beating with a flail.

After the seed has been thrashed, there is still considerable danger of its heating or molding if left in too great bulk. The usual practice is to run it through a fanning mill to remove the dust and small particles of the heads or chaff that are broken up in thrashing. In former years the method of cleaning was to place the seed in a tank of water the heavy seed settling to the bottom of the tank while the chaff and lighter portions could be floated off. This process is no longer used to any great extent, owing to the improvement in cleaning machinery, and the danger of injuring the seed by the water. After the seed is fanned and most of the foreign matter removed, it should be spread thinly on the floor or canvas and stirred from time to time. About the only test that can be applied in order to detect moisture in the seed is that of feeling it with the hand, and anyone experienced in the handling of seed will soon become expert at determining when it is safe to bag it ready for storage or shipment.

_Production of Seed for Onion-Set Growing._--Frequently the seed for onion-set growing is produced from bulbs selected from the sets themselves; in other words, the bulbs or mother bulbs are the overgrown sets. Owing to the great quantity of seed employed in set growing it is desirable to secure it cheaply, and the bulbs selected from the sets, being small, will produce a larger quantity of seed per bushel from mother bulbs than when grown in the usual manner. The stock seed bulbs should, however, be well matured, small necked, uniform in size, and selected according to an ideal shape. Onion seed from undersized bulbs is not so desirable, even for set growing, as that from standard bulbs. The length of time that onion seed will retain its vitality depends largely upon maturity and climatic conditions. Well-matured seed will always keep better than poorly ripened and inferior seed. Under ordinary conditions onion seed loses its vitality very rapidly after the second year, especially if stored in a damp climate. It will often pay to ship the seed to a dry climate for storage.

_Production of Onion Sets._--The term "set," as applied to the onion, indicates a small, undersized bulb which, when replanted in the ground, will produce a large onion. This method of producing onions is perhaps the oldest and now the most universally employed for the growing of small areas of onions in the garden where an early crop is desired. The common method of producing sets is to plant a large quantity of seed on a small area of rather rich land and thus procure a great number of bulbs that are undersized, owing to crowding and lack of plant food. The greater number of these bulbs do not attain sufficient size or maturity to produce seed the following season and are really plants in which the process of growth has been arrested. The climatic conditions governing the production of onion sets are practically the same as those for standard onions, although it is not necessary to plant quite so early in the spring. As the essential feature of growing onion sets is the crowding together of the plants in the rows, a large quantity of seed is required to plant an acre. The quantity of seed required varies with the different localities. The ideal onion set is almost globular in shape and a trifle less than half an inch in diameter. The color should be bright and the surface free from smut or spots. The term "pickler" is applied to the onion just above sets in size, or, in other words, one-half to three-fourths of an inch in diameter. The term "boiler," or "stewer," is applied to the size next larger than picklers, which are too small for sale as standard onions, or from three-fourths of an inch to 1-1/4 inches in diameter.

_Varieties Used for Sets._--Seed of almost any variety of onion may be used for the production of sets, but a greater demand exists for the distinctly yellow, white, and red colors. In the trade the sets are recognized by their color rather than by actual varietal names. The demand for the yellow and the white sets is greater than for the red, and those of the globular type are generally preferred.

Onion sets are sometimes grown from left-over seed, in which case a large number of varieties may be included. In the principal set-growing districts, where the seed has been locally grown for many years, the varieties are more or less distinct from those of seedsmen's catalogues.--(F. B. 255, 354, 434; Ariz. E. S. Cir. 75; Colo. E. S. 81, Cir. 5; N. Mex. E. S. 52, 74; Oreg. E. S. 74; N. Y. E. S. 206; U. Id. E. S. 22; N. Dak. E. S. 12; S. Dak. 47; Mich. E. S. 6; Kans. E. S. 70.)

PARSLEY.

After soaking the seeds of parsley for a few hours in warm water, they may be sown in the same manner as celery seed and the plants transplanted to the open ground. At the North, parsley will live over winter in a cold frame or pit, and in the South it will thrive in the open ground during the winter, but it can not withstand the heat of summer. The plants should be set in rows 12 inches apart and every 4 inches in the row. The leaves of parsley are used for garnishings around meats and for flavoring soups.--(F. B. 255, 295; N. Car. E. S. 132; U. Id. E. S. 10.)

PARSNIP.

Sow the seeds of parsnip as early as convenient in the spring in drills 18 inches to 3 feet apart. Thin the plants to stand 3 inches apart in the rows. The parsnip requires a rich soil and frequent cultivation. The roots can be dug late in the fall and stored in cellars or pits, or allowed to remain where grown and dug as required for use. It is considered best to allow the roots to become frozen in the ground, as the freezing improves their flavor. As soon as the roots begin to grow the following spring they will no longer be fit for use. All roots not used during the winter should be dug and removed from the garden, as they will produce seed the second season and become of a weedy nature. When the parsnip has been allowed to run wild the root is considered to be poisonous.--(F. B. 255, 295; Mich. E. S. 20; U. Id. E. S. 10; N. Car. E. S. 132.)

PEAS.

Garden peas require a rather rich and friable soil with good drainage in order that the first plantings may be made early in the spring. Fertilizers that are high in nitrogenous matter should not be applied to the land immediately before planting, as they will have a tendency to produce too great growth of vines at the expense of pods. Land that has been well manured the previous year will be found satisfactory without additional fertilizer. A sandy loam is to be preferred for growing peas, but a good crop may be produced on clay soils; however, the pods will be a few days later in forming. Peas are easily grown and form one of the most palatable of garden products. For the best results peas should be planted in the bottom of a furrow 6 inches in depth and the seeds covered with not more than 2 or 3 inches of soil. If the soil is heavy the covering should be less than 2 inches. After the plants attain a height of 4 or 5 inches the soil should be worked in around them until the trench is filled. The rows for peas should be 3 feet apart for the dwarf sorts and 4 feet apart for the tall kinds. A pint of seed will plant about 100 feet of single row. Many growers follow the practice of planting in a double row with a 6-inch space between. The double-row method is especially adapted for the varieties that require some form of support, as a trellis can be placed between the two rows. Brush stuck in the ground will answer for a support for the peas to climb upon. Three-foot poultry netting makes a desirable trellis. If peas are planted for autumn use, the earliest varieties should be employed. The first plantings should be of such varieties as Alaska or Gradus, which make a small but quick growth, and may or may not be provided with supports. The dwarf sorts like American Wonder come on later, require very little care, and produce peas of fine quality. The tall-growing sorts of the Telephone type are desirable for still later use on account of their large production and excellent quality. Sugar peas have tender pods and if gathered very young the pods may be eaten in the same manner as snap beans. In order to maintain a continuous supply of fresh peas, plantings should be made every ten days or two weeks during the spring months, beginning as soon as the ground can be worked. In the extreme South peas may be grown during the entire winter.--(F. B. 255; N. C. E. S. 132; Mich. E. S. 20, 190; S. Dak. E. S. 85, 91; Del. E. S. 41; Colo. E. S. 172.)

PEPPERS.

Plant the seed of peppers in a hotbed, and transplant to the open ground as soon as it is warm, or sow the seeds in the garden after all danger of frost is past. When grown in the garden the plants should be in rows 3 feet apart and 15 to 18 inches apart in the row. The plants require about the same treatment as the tomato. Peppers are divided into two classes--the sweet varieties, which are eaten as vegetables, and the pickling varieties, which are used for pickles or dried and powdered, in which form they are much used in Mexico. Of the sweet peppers the varieties Sweet Mountain, Ruby King, and Large Bell are good standard varieties; and of the pickling peppers, the Cayennes and Chilies are largely used. The pickling varieties are all more or less pungent and should never be prepared with bare hands, because the burning sensation is very difficult to eliminate.--(F. B. 255; B. P. I. 6; P. Rico 7; Iowa, E. S. 47; N. C. E. S. 132.)

PHYSALIS.

The physalis is also known as the ground-cherry or husk-tomato. Sow the seed in a hotbed or cold frame and transplant to the garden after danger of frost is past, or the seeds may be sown in the row where the plants are to remain and thinned to 12 or 18 inches. No particular care is required except to keep them free from weeds. There are a large number of varieties of the physalis, and the fruits vary in size and color. The variety commonly used in gardens produces a bright-yellow fruit, which is about the size of an ordinary cherry. Toward fall the fruits will drop to the ground and will be protected for some time by their husks. If gathered and placed in a cool place the fruits will keep for a long time. The physalis will self-sow and may become a weed, but it is easily controlled. A few of the volunteer plants may be lifted in the spring and placed in rows instead of making a special sowing of seed. Ten plants will produce all the husk-tomatoes desired by the average family. The fruits are excellent for making preserves and marmalade.--(F. B. 255; S. Dak. E. S. 68.)

POTATO.

The term "potato," when not modified by an adjective, suggests to the mind of an American the so-called potato (_Solanum tuberosum_). When the name is modified by the word "sweet," reference is made to a different plant, belonging to the morning-glory family and known botanically as _Ipomoea batatas_. Attention is here directed entirely to the Irish potato.

_Soil and Rotation._--The potato is grown in every State and Territory, and naturally on a great variety of soils. Indeed, it has been grown on nearly every class of soils, but this fact does not minimize the importance of selecting for the potato the kind of soil best adapted to it. The ideal soil for this crop should be one so light as to offer no great resistance to the enlargement of the tubers, so supplied with organic matter as to be rather moist without being wet, and so rich as to furnish an unfailing supply of fertilizing ingredients. A rich, sandy loam abundantly supplied with organic matter and naturally well drained is preferable. Stiffer soils may be rendered suitable for the potato by drainage and by the incorporation of farm manures; or better, by plowing under green crops. Very heavy clay should be avoided if the farm contains any lighter soil. Recently cleared ground suits the potato. Sandy soils, if not too subject to drought, may be fitted for this plant by the addition of organic matter. It is claimed that potatoes grown on sandy land are of better quality than those grown on stiffer soil.

The potato requires a rich soil, but even more important than natural fertility is a proper mechanical condition of the soil. Artificial fertilizers may be substituted in part for natural fertility, but they are effective only when the soil is in such a condition as to furnish a constant supply of water. The potato should have the best soil on the farm, since it is more exacting in this respect than the other staple crops and since the product of an acre is generally of greater value. The success of the potato is largely dependent on the crops preceding it in the rotation. If clover, cowpeas, or other leguminous plant is grown just preceding potatoes, its stubble furnishes organic matter and adds to the store of available nitrogen in the soil. Corn after sod frequently precedes potatoes, and this is generally regarded as the best rotation.