Chapter IV: Part 4

[1] Most fruitful among these were those given by Plato in the _Timæus_. See, also, Grote on Plato's doctrine of the rotundity of the earth. Also _Sir G. C. Lewis's Astronomy of the Ancients_, London, 1862, chap. iii., sec. i. and note. Cicero's mention of the antipodes and reference to the passage in the _Timæus_ are even more remarkable than the original, in that they much more clearly foreshadow the modern doctrine. See _Academic Questions_, ii., xxxix. Also, _Tusc. Quest._, i., xxviii., and v., xxiv.

[2] See _Eusebius_, _Præp. Ev._, xv., 61.

[3] See _Lactantius_, _Inst._, 1., iii., chap. 3. Also, citations in _Whewell_, _Hist. Induct. Sciences_, Lond., 1857, vol. i., p. 194. To understand the embarrassment thus caused to scientific men at a later period, see _Letter of Agricola to Joachimus Vadianus_ in 1514. Agricola asks Vadianus to give his views regarding the antipodes, saying that he himself does not know what to do, between the Fathers on one side and learned men of modern times on the other. On the other hand, for the embarrassment caused to the Church by this mistaken zeal of the Fathers, see Kepler's references and Fromund's replies; also _De Morgan_, _Paradoxes_, p. 58. Kepler appears to have taken great delight in throwing the views of Lactantius into the teeth of his adversaries.

[4] _Another germ idea_, etc. See _Plato_, _Timæus_, 62 C., Jowett's translation, N. Y. ed. Also _Phædo_, pp. 449, _et seq._ Also _Cicero_, _Academic Quest._, and _Tusc. Disput._, _ubi supra_. For citations and summaries, see _Whewell_, _Hist. Induct. Sciences_, vol. i., p. 189, and _St. Martin_, _Hist. de la Géog._, Paris, 1873, p. 96. Also _Leopardi_, _Saggio sopra gli errori popolari degli antichi_, Firenze, 1851, chap. xii., p. 184, _et seq._

[5] For opinion of Basil, Ambrose, and others, see _Lecky_, _Hist. of Rationalism in Europe_, New York, 1872, vol. i., p. 279, note. Also, _Letronne_, in _Revue des Deux Mondes_, March, 1834.

[6] For Lactantius, see _Instit._, iii., 24, translation in the Ante-Nicene Library; also, citations in _Whewell_, i., 196, and in _St. Martin_, _Histoire de la Géographie_, pp. 216, 217. For St. Augustine's opinion, see the _Civ. D._, xvi., 9, where this great Father of the Church shows that the existence of the antipodes "nulla ratione credendum est." Also, citations in _Buckle's Posthumous Works_, vol. ii., p. 645. For a notice of the views of Cosmas in connection with those of Lactantius, Augustine, St. John Chrysostom, and others, see _Schoell_, _Histoire de la Littérature Grecque_, vol. vii., pp. 37, _et seq._

[7] Isaiah xl. 22.

[8] Job xxvi. 11.

[9] Genesis i. 6.

[10] Psalm cxlviii. 4.

[11] Genesis vii. 11.

[12] See _Montfaucon_, _Collectio Nova Patrum_, Paris, 1706, vol ii., p. 188; also pp. 298, 299. The text is illustrated with engravings showing walls and solid vault (firmament), with the whole apparatus of "fountains of the great deep," "windows of heaven," angels, and the mountain behind which the sun is drawn. For an imperfect reduction of one of them, see article _Maps_ in _Knight's Dictionary of Mechanics_, New York, 1875. For still another theory, very droll, and thought out on similar principles, see Mungo Park, cited in _De Morgan_, _Paradoxes_, 309. For Cosmas's joyful summing up, see _Montfaucon_, _Collectio Nova Patrum_, vol. ii., p. 255.

[13] Virgil of Salzburg. See _Neander's History of the Christian Church_, Torrey's translation, vol. iii., p. 63. Since Bayle, there has been much loose writing about Virgil's case. See _Whewell_, p. 197; but for best choice of authorities and most careful winnowing out of conclusions, see _De Morgan_, pp. 24-26. For very full notes as to pagan and Christian advocates of doctrine of rotundity of the earth and of antipodes, and for extract from Zachary's letter, see _Migne_, _Patrologia_, vol. vi., p. 426, and vol. xli., p. 487. For Peter of Abano, or Apono, as he is often called, see _Tiraboschi_; also, _Ginguené_, vol. ii., p. 293; also _Naudé_, _Histoire des Grands hommes accusés de Magie_. For Cecco d'Ascoli, see _Montucla_, _Histoire des Mathématiques_, i., 528; also, _Daunou_, _Études Historiques_, vol. vi., p. 320. Concerning Orcagna's representation of Cecco in flames of hell, see _Renan_, _Averroès et l'Averroisme_, Paris, 1867, p. 328.

[14] For Columbus before the Junta of Salamanca, see _Irving's Columbus_, Murray's edition, vol. ii., pp. 405-410. _Figuier_, _Savants du Moyen Age_, etc., vol. ii., p. 394, _et seq._ Also, _Humboldt_, _Histoire de la Géographie du Nouveau Continent_.

[15] See _Daunou_, _Études Historiques_, vol. ii., p. 417.

[16] For effect of Magalhaens's voyages, and the reluctance to yield to proof, see _Henri Martin_, _Histoire de France_, vol. xiv., p. 395; _St. Martin's Histoire de la Géog._, p. 369; _Peschel_, _Geschichte des Zeitalters der Entdeckungen_, concluding chapters; and for an admirable summary, _Draper_, _Hist. Int. Dev. of Europe_, pp. 451-453.

[17] For general statement as to supplementary proof by measurement of degrees, and by pendulum, see _Somerville_, _Phys. Geog._, chapter i, § 6, note. Also _Humboldt_, _Cosmos_, vol. ii., p. 736, and v., pp. 16, 32. Also _Montucla_, iv., 138.

[18] _Respectability of Geocentric Theory_, _Plato's Authority for it_ etc., see _Grote's Plato_, vol. iii., p. 257. Also, _Sir G. C. Lewis_, _Astronomy of the Ancients_, chap, iii., sec. i., for a very thoughtful statement of Plato's view, and differing from ancient statements. For plausible elaboration of it, see _Fromundus_, _Anti-Aristarchus_, Antwerp, 1631. Also _Melanchthon_, _Initia Doctrinæ Physicæ_.

[19] For supposed agreement of Scripture with Ptolemaic theory, see Fromundus, _passim_, Melanchthon, and a host of other writers.

[20] See _St. Thomas Aquinas_, _Liber de Cœlo et Mundo_, sec. xx.

[21] For _Germs of Heliocentric Theory planted long before_, etc., see _Sir G. C. Lewis_; also, _Draper_, _Intellectual Development of Europe_, p. 512; and for a succinct statement of the claims of Pythagoras, Philolaus, Aristarchus, and Martianus Capella, see _Hœfer_, _Hist. de l'Astronomie_, 1873, p. 107, _et seq._ For germs among thinkers of India, see _Whewell_, vol. i., p. 277. Also, _Whitney_, _Oriental and Linguistic Studies_, New York, 1874; _Essay on the Lunar Zodiac_, p. 345.

[22] For general statement of De Cusa's work, see _Draper_, _Intellectual Development of Europe_, p. 512. For skillful use of De Cusa's view in order to mitigate censure upon the Church for its treatment of Copernicus's discovery, see an article in the _Catholic World_ for January, 1869. For a very exact statement, in a spirit of judicial fairness, see _Whewell_, _History of the Inductive Sciences_, p. 275 and pp. 379, 380. In the latter, Whewell cites the exact words of De Cusa in the _De Docta Ignorantia_, and sums up in these words: "This train of thought might be a preparation for the reception of the Copernican system; but it is very different from the doctrine that the sun is the centre of the planetary system." In the previous passage, Whewell says that De Cusa "propounded the doctrine of the motion of the earth, more, however, as a paradox than as a reality. We cannot consider this as any distinct anticipation of a profound and consistent view of the truth." For Aristotle's views and their elaboration by St. Thomas Aquinas, see the treatise _De Cœlo et Mundo_. It is curious to see how even such a biographer of St. Thomas as Archbishop Vaughan slurs over the angelic doctor's errors. See _Vaughan's Life and Labors of St. Thomas of Aquin_, pp. 459, 460.

[23] For improvement of mathematical processes, see _Draper_, _Intellectual Development of Europe_, 513. In looking at this and other admirable summaries, one feels that Prof. Tyndall was not altogether right in lamenting, in his farewell address at New York, that Dr. Draper has devoted so much of his time to historical studies.

[24] Kopernik's danger at Rome. The _Catholic World_ for January, 1869, cites a recent speech of the Archbishop of Mechlin before the University of Louvain, to the effect that Copernicus defended his theory, at Rome, in 1500, before two thousand scholars; also, that another professor taught the system in 1528, and was made Apostolic Notary by Clement VIII. All this, even if the doctrines taught were identical with those of Copernicus, as finally developed, which idea Whewell seems utterly to disprove, avails nothing against the overwhelming testimony that Copernicus felt himself in danger--testimony which the after-history of the Copernican theory renders invincible. The very title of Fromundus's book, already cited, published within a few miles of the archbishop's own cathedral, and sanctioned expressly by the theological Faculty of that same University of Louvain in 1630, utterly refutes the archbishop's idea that the Church was inclined to treat Copernicus kindly. The title is as follows:

"Anti-Aristarchus | Sive | Orbis-Terræ | Immobilis | In quo decretum S. Congregationis S. R. E. | Cardinalium | IƆC. XVI adversus Pytha | gorico-Copernicanos editum defenditur | Antwerpiæ MDCXXXI."

_L'Epinois_, _Galilée_, Paris, 1867, lays stress, p. 14, on the broaching of the doctrine by De Cusa, in 1435, and by Widmanstadt, in 1533, and their kind treatment by Eugenius IV. and Clement VII., but this is absolutely worthless in denying the papal policy afterward. _Lange_, _Geschichte des Materialismus_, vol. i., pp. 217, 218, while admitting that De Cusa and Widmanstadt sustained this idea and received honors from their respective popes, shows that, when the Church gave it serious consideration, it was condemned. There is nothing in this view unreasonable. It would be a parallel case to that of Leo X., at first inclined toward Luther and the others, in their "squabbles with the begging friars," and afterward forced to oppose them. That Copernicus felt the danger, is evident, among other things, by the expression in the preface, "_Statim me explodendum cum tali opinione clamitant_."

[25] For dangers at Wittenberg, see _Lange_, _Geschichte des Materialismus_, vol. i., p. 217.

[26] Osiander, in a letter to Copernicus, dated April 20, 1541, had endeavored to reconcile him to such a procedure, and ends by saying, "Sic enim placidiores reddideris peripatheticos et theologos quos contradicturos metuis." See _Apologia Tychonis_ in _Kepleri Opera Omnia_, Frisch's edition, vol. i., p. 246. Kepler holds Osiander entirely responsible for this preface. Bertrand, in his _Fondateurs de l'Astronomie Moderne_, gives its text, and thinks it possible that Copernicus may have yielded "in pure condescension toward his disciple." But this idea is utterly at variance with expressions in Copernicus's own dedicatory letter to the pope, which follows the preface. For a good summary of the argument, see _Figuier_, _Savants de la Renaissance_, pp. 378, 379. See, also, citation from Gassendi's life of Copernicus, in _Flammarion_, _Vie de Copernic_, p. 124. Mr. John Fiske, accurate as he usually is, in his recent _Outlines of Cosmic Philosophy_, appears to have followed Laplace, Delambre, and Petit into the error of supposing that Copernicus, and not Osiander, is responsible for the preface.

[27] _Figuier_, _Savants de la Renaissance_, p. 380. Also, _Flammarion_, _Vie de Copernic_, p. 190.

[28] The "proper authorities" in this case were the "Congregation of the Index," or cardinals having charge of the "Index Librorum Prohibitorum." Recent desperate attempts to fasten the responsibility on them as individuals seem ridiculous in view of the simple fact that their work is sanctioned by the highest Church authority, and required to be universally accepted by the Church. Three of four editions of the "Index" in my own possession declare on their title-pages that they are issued by order of the pontiff of the period, and each is prefaced by a special papal bull or letter. See, especially, Index of 1664, issued under order of Alexander VII., and that of 1761, under Benedict XIV. Copernicus's work was prohibited in the Index "_donec corrigatur_." Kepler said that it ought to be worded "_donec explicetur_." See _Bertrand_, _Fondateurs de l'Astronomie Moderne_, p. 57. _De Morgan_, pp. 57-60, gives the corrections required by the Index of 1620. Their main aim seems to be to reduce Copernicus to the groveling level of Osiander, making of his discovery a mere hypothesis; but occasionally they require a virtual giving up of the whole Copernican doctrine, e. g., "correction" insisted upon for cap. 8, p. 6. For scholarly account of the relation of the Prohibitory and Expurgatory Indexes to each other, see _Mendham_, _Literary Policy of the Church of Rome_.

[29] See Fromundus's book, cited above, _passim_, but especially the heading of chapter vi., and the argument in chaps, x. and xi. For interesting reference to one of Fromundus's arguments, showing by a mixture of mathematics and theology, that the earth is the centre of the universe, see _Quetelet_, _Histoire des Sciences Mathématiques et Physiques_, Bruxelles, 1864, p. 170.

[30] See _Luther's Tischreden_, _Irmischer's Ausgabe_. Also, _Melanchthon's Initia Doctrinæ Physicæ_. This treatise is cited under a mistaken title by the _Catholic World_, September, 1870. The correct title is as given above. It will be found in the _Corpus Reformatorum_, ed. _Bretschneider_, Halle, 1846. (For the above passage, see vol. xiii., pp. 216, 217.) Also, _Lange_, _Geschichte des Materialismus_, vol. i., p. 217. Also, _Prowe_, _Ueber die Abhängigkeit des Copernicus_, Thorn, 1865, p. 4. Also, note, pp. 5 and 6, where text is given in full.

[31] For treatment of Copernican ideas by the people, see _Catholic World_, as above.

[32] See title-page of Fromundus's work cited in note at bottom of p. 392; also, Melanchthon, _ubi supra_.

[33] See _Bartholmess_, _Vie de Jordano Bruno_, Paris, 1846, vol. i., pp. 121 and 212, _et seq._ Also _Berti_, _Vita di Giordano Bruno_, Firenze, 1868, chapter xvi. Also _Whewell_, i., 294, 295. That Whewell is somewhat hasty in attributing Bruno's punishment entirely to the _Spaccio della Bestia Trionfante_ will be evident, in spite of Montucla, to any one who reads the account of the persecution in Bartholmess or Berti; and, even if Whewell be right, the _Spaccio_ would never have been written, but for Bruno's indignation at ecclesiastical oppression. See _Tiraboschi_, vol. xi., p. 435.

[34] _Delambre_, _Histoire de l'Astronomie moderne_, discours préliminaire, p. xiv. Also _Laplace_, _Système du Monde_, vol. i., p. 326, and for more careful statement, _Kepleri Opera Omnia_, edit. Frisch, tom. ii., p. 464.

[35] _Cantu_, _Histoire Universelle_, vol. xv., p. 473.

[36] A very curious example of this sham science is seen in the argument, frequently used at the time, that, if the earth really moved, a stone falling from a height would fall back of the point immediately below its point of starting. This is used by Fromundus with great effect. It appears never to have occurred to him to test the matter by dropping a stone from the topmast of a ship. But the most beautiful thing of all is that Benzenburg has experimentally demonstrated just such an aberration in falling bodies as is mathematically required by the diurnal motion of the earth. See _Jevons_, _Principles of Science_, vol. i., p. 453, and ii., pp. 310, 311.

[37] See Delambre as to the discovery of the satellites of Jupiter being the turning-point with the heliocentric doctrine. As to its effects on Bacon, see _Jevons_, _Principles of Science_, vol. ii., p. 298.

[38] For argument drawn from the candlestick and seven churches, see Delambre.

[39] _Libri_, vol. iv., p. 211. _De Morgan_, _Paradoxes_, p. 26, for account of Father Clavius. It is interesting to know that Clavius, in his last years, acknowledged that "the whole system of the heavens is broken down, and must be mended."

[40] _Cantu_, _Histoire Universelle_, vol. xv., p. 478.

[41] For Caccini's attack, see _Delambre_, _Hist. de l'Astron._, disc. prélim., p. xxii.; also, _Libri_, _Hist. des Sciences Math._, vol. iv., p. 232; also, _Martin_, _Galilée_, pp. 43, 44.

[42] For Bellarmin's view, see _Quinet_, _Jesuits_, vol. ii., p. 189. For other objectors and objections, see _Libri_, _Histoire des Sciences Mathématiques en Italie_, vol. iv., pp. 233, 234; also, _Martin_, _Vie de Galilée_.

[43] See Trouessart, cited in _Flammarion_, _Mondes Imaginaires et Réels_, sixième édition, pp. 315, 316.

[44] _Initia Doctrinæ Physicæ_, pp. 220, 221.

[45] See _Ticknor_, _Hist. of Span. Literature_, vol. iii.

[46] See _Th. Martin_, _Galilée_, pp. 34, 208, and 266.

[47] See _Martin_, _Galilée_, pp. 34 and 208; also a curious note in the earlier English editions, _Lyell_, _Principles of Geology_, Introduction.

[48] For curious exemplification of the way in which these weapons have been hurled, see lists of persons charged with "infidelity" and "atheism," in _Le Dictionnaire des Athées_, Paris, An. viii. Also, _Lecky_, _History of Rationalism_, vol. ii., p. 50. For case of Descartes, see _Saisset_, _Descartes et ses précurseurs_, pp. 103, 110.

[49] See the original documents in _Epinois_, pp. 34-36. Martin's translation does not seem exactly correct.

[50] See full official text in _Epinois_.

[51] See proofs of this in _Martin_. The reader should be reminded that the archives exposed within the past few years have made the statements of early writers untrustworthy on very many of the nicer points.

[52] See _Inchofer's Tractatus Syllepticus_, cited in Galileo's letter to Deodati, July 28, 1634.

[53] It is not probable that torture in the ordinary sense was administered to Galileo, though it was threatened. See _Th. Martin_, _Vie de Galilée_, for a fair summing up of the case. For text of the abjuration, see _Epinois_; also, _Private Life of Galileo_, Appendix.

[54] _Martin_, p. 227.

[55] _Martin_, p. 243.

[56] For the persecution of Galileo's memory, see _Th. Martin_, chaps. ix and x. For documentary proofs, see _de l'Epinois_. For a collection of the slanderous theories invented against Galileo, see _Martin_, final chapters and appendix. Both these authors are devoted to the Church, but, unlike Monsignor Marini, are too upright to resort to the pious fraud of suppressing documents or interpolating pretended facts.

[57] See _Martin_, pp. 401, 402.

[58] See _de l'Epinois_, p. 35, where the document is given in its original Latin.

[59] See translation of the abjuration in appendix to _Private Life of Galileo_, London, 1870.

[60] See _Marini_, who manipulated the original documents to prove this. Even Whewell appears to have been somewhat misled by him; but Whewell wrote before de l'Epinois had shown all the documents, and under the supposition that Marini was an honest man.

[61] See _Marini_.

[62] See _Epinois_ and _Th. Martin_, _passim_.

[63] See pages 136, 144, and elsewhere in _Martin_, who, much against his will, is forced to allow this.

[64] _Martin_, pp. 146, 147.

[65] See Martin, p. 145.

[66] See note on condemnation of Kopernik.

[67] For the attempt to make the crime of Galileo a breach of etiquette, see _Dublin Review_, as above. _Whewell_, vol. i., 393. Citation from _Marini_: "Galileo was punished for trifling with the authorities to which he refused to submit, and was punished for obstinate contumacy, not heresy." The sufficient answer to all this is, that the words of the inflexible sentence designating the condemned books are: "Libri omnes qui affirmant telluris motum." See _Bertrand_, p. 59. As to the idea that "Galileo was punished not for his opinion, but for basing it on Scripture," the answer may be found in the Roman Index of 1704, in which are noted for condemnation "Libri omnes docentes mobilitatem terræ et inmobilitatem solis." For the way in which, when it was found convenient in argument, Church apologists insisted that it _was_ "the Supreme Chief of the Church, by a pontifical decree, and not certain cardinals," who condemned Galileo and his doctrine, see Father Lecazre's letter to Gassendi in _Flammarion_, _Pluralité des Mondes_, p. 427, and Urban VIII.'s own declarations as given by Martin. For the way in which, when necessary, Church apologists asserted the very contrary of this, declaring that "it was issued in a doctrinal decree of the Congregation of the Index, and _not_ as the Holy Father's teaching," see _Dublin Review_, September, 1865. And for the most astounding attempt of all, to take the blame off the shoulders of both pope and cardinals, and place it upon the Almighty, see the article above cited, in the _Dublin Review_, September, 1865, p. 419. For a good summary of the various attempts, and for replies to them in a spirit of judicial fairness, see _Th. Martin_, _Vie de Galilée_, though there is some special pleading to save the infallibility of pope and Church. The bibliography at the close is very valuable.

[68] For Baronius's remark, see _De Morgan_, p. 26. Also, _Whewell_, vol. i., p. 394.

[69] For an exceedingly striking statement, by a Roman Catholic historian of genius, as to popular demand for persecution, and the pressure of the lower strata, in ecclesiastical organizations, for cruel measures, see _Balmès_, _Le Protestantisme comparé au Catholicisme_, etc., 4th ed., Paris, 1855, vol. ii. Archbishop Spaulding has something of the same sort in his Miscellanies. _L'Epinois_, _Galilée_, pp. 22, _et seq._, stretches this as far as possible, to save the reputation of the Church in the Galileo matter.

[70] _Humboldt_, _Cosmos_, London, 1851, vol. iii., p. 21. Also, _Lange_, _Geschichte des Materialismus_, vol. i., p. 222, where the letters of Descartes are given, showing his despair, and the giving up of his best thoughts and works to preserve peace with the Church. Also, _Saisset_, _Descartes et ses précurseurs_, pp. 100, _et seq._ Also, _Jolly_, _Hist, du Mouvement Intellectuel au XVI^e Siècle_, vol. i., p. 390

[71] _Libri_, pp. 149, _et seq._

[72] Fromundus, speaking of Kepler's explanation, says: "Vix teneo ebullientem risum." It is almost equal to the _New York Church Journal_, speaking of John Stuart Mill as "that small sciolist," and of the preface to Dr. Draper's recent work as "chippering." How a journal generally so fair in its treatment of such subjects can condescend to use such weapons, is one of the wonders of modern journalism. For Protestant persecution of Kepler, see vol. i., p. 392. Among other things, Kepler's mother was declared a witch, and this was followed by a reminder of the Scriptural injunction, "Ye shall not suffer a witch to live."

[73] For Cassini's position, see _Henri Martin_, _Hist. de France_, vol. xiii., p. 175.

[74] _Daunou_, _Études Historiques_, vol. ii., p. 439.

[75] Bossuet, see _Bertrand_, p. 41.

[76] For Hutchinson, see _Lyell_, _Principles of Geology_, Introduction.

[77] Boscovich. This was in 1746, but in 1785 Boscovich seemed to feel his position in view of history, and apologized abjectly. _Bertrand_, pp. 60, 61. See also Whewell's notice of Le Sueur and Jacquier's introduction to their edition of _Newton's Principia_. For a clear statement of Bradley's exquisite demonstration of the Copernican theory by reasonings upon the rapidity of light, etc., and Foucault's exhibition of the rotation of the earth by the pendulum experiment, see _Hoefer_, _Hist. de l'Astronomie_, pp. 492, _et seq._ For the most recent proofs of the Copernican theory, by discoveries of Bunsen, Bischoff, Benzenburg, and others, see _Jevons_, _Principles of Science_.

[78] See note in introduction to _Lyell's Principles of Geology_; also, _Buckle, Hist. of Civ. in England_, vol. i., chap. i.

[79] _Bertrand_, _Fondateurs de l'Astron. Mod._, p. 61. _Flammarion_, _Vie de Copernic_, chap. ix. As to the time when the decree of condemnation was repealed, various authorities differ. Artaud, p. 307, cited in an apologetic article in _Dublin Review_, September, 1865, says that Galileo's famous dialogue was published in 1744, at Padua, entire, and with the usual approbations. The same article also declares that in 1818 the ecclesiastical decrees were repealed by Pius VII., in full Consistory. Whewell says that Galileo's writings, after some opposition, were expunged from the _Index Expurgatorius_ in 1818. Cantu, an authority rather favorable to the Church, says that Copernicus's work remained on the _Index_ as late as 1835. _Cantu_, _Histoire Universelle_, vol. xv., p. 483; and with this Th. Martin, not less favorable to the Church, but exceedingly careful as to the facts, agrees.

[80] See _Weld_, _History of the Royal Society_, vol. ii., p. 56, for the facts and the admirable letter of Priestley upon this rejection.

[81] _Bruhns_ and _Lassell_, _Life of Humboldt_, London, 1873, vol. ii., p. 411.

[82] For the very amusing details of the English attempt, and of the way in which it was met, see _De Morgan_, _Paradoxes_, p. 42. For Pastor Knak and his associates, see _Revue des Deux Mondes_, 1868.

[83] For a striking account, gathered from eye-witnesses of this frightful scene at the execution of Bruno, see letter of Scioppius in appendix to vol. iv. of _Libri_, _Hist. des Mathématiques_.

[84] As a pendant to this ejaculation of Kepler may be cited those wondrous words of Linnæus: "Deum omnipotentem a tergo transeuntem vidi et obstupui."

[85] For papal bull representing the earth as a flat disk, see _Daunou_, _Études Historiques_, vol. ii., p. 421.

[86] For Bruno's conjecture (in 1591), see _Jevons_, vol. ii., p. 299. For Kant's part in the nebular hypothesis, see _Lange_, _Geschichte des Materialismus_, vol. i., p. 266. For value of Plateau's beautiful experiment very cautiously estimated, see _W. Stanley Jevons_, _Principles of Science_, London, 1874, vol. ii., p. 36. Also, _Elisée Réclus_, _The Earth_, translated by Woodward, vol. i., pp. 14-18, for an estimate still more careful. For a general account of discoveries of nature of nebulæ by spectroscope, see _Draper_, _Conflict between Religion and Science_. For a careful discussion regarding the spectra of solid, liquid, and gaseous bodies, see _Schellen_, _Spectrum Analysis_, pp. 100, _et seq._ For a very thorough discussion of the bearings of discoveries made by spectrum analysis upon the nebular hypothesis, ibid., pp. 532-537. For a presentation of the difficulties yet unsolved, see article by Plummer, in London _Popular Science Review_ for January, 1875. For excellent short summary of recent observations and thought on this subject, see _T. Sterry Hunt_, _Address at the Priestley Centennial_, pp. 7, 8. For an interesting modification of this hypothesis, see Proctor's recent writings.

[87] For a very careful discussion of Albert's strength in investigation and weakness in yielding to scholastic authority, see _Kopp_, _Ansichten über die Aufgabe der Chemie von Geber bis Stahl_, _Braunschweig_, 1875, pp. 64, _et seq._ For a very extended and enthusiastic biographical sketch, see _Pouchet_. For comparison of his work with that of Thomas Aquinas, see _Milman_, _History of Latin Christians_, vol. vi., 461. _Il était aussi très-habile dans les arts mécaniques, ce que le fit soupçonner d'être sorcier._ _Sprengel_, _Histoire de la Médecine_, vol. ii., p. 389.

[88] For the charge of magic against scholars and others, see _Naudé_, _Apologie pour les grands hommes accusés de Magie_, _passim_. Also, _Maury_, _Hist. de la Magie_, troisième édit., pp. 214, 215. Also, _Cuvier_, _Hist. des Sciences Naturelles_, vol. i., p. 396.

[89] See _Études sur Vincent de Beauvais par l'Abbé Bourgeat_, chaps. xii., xiii., xiv. Also, _Pouchet_, _Histoire des Sciences Naturelles au Moyen Age_, Paris, 1853, pp. 470, _et seq._

[90] For work of Aquinas, see _St. Thomas Aquinas_, _Liber de Cœlo et Mundo_, section xx. Also, _Life and Labors of St. Thomas of Aquin_, by _Archbishop Vaughan_, pp. 459, _et seq._ For his labors in natural science, see _Hoefer_, _Histoire de la Chimie_, Paris, 1843, vol. i., p. 381. For theological views of science in middle ages, and rejoicing thereat, see _Pouchet_, _Hist. des Sci. Nat. au Moyen Age_, _ubi supra_. Pouchet says: "En général au milieu du moyen âge les sciences sont essentiellement chrétiennes, leur but est tout-à-fait religieux, et elles semblent beaucoup moins s'inquiéter de l'avancement intellectuel de l'homme que de son salut eternel." Pouchet calls this "conciliation" into a "harmonieux ensemble" "la plus glorieuse des conquêtes intellectuelles du moyen âge." Pouchet belongs to Rouen, and the shadow of the Rouen Cathedral seems thrown over all his history. See, also, _L'Abbé Rohrbacher_, _Hist. de l'Église Catholique_, Paris, 1858, vol. xviii., pp. 421, _et seq._ The abbé dilates upon the fact that "the Church organizes the agreement of all the sciences by the labors of St. Thomas of Aquin and his contemporaries." For the theological character of science in middle ages, recognized by a Protestant philosophic historian, see the well-known passage in _Guizot_, _History of Civilization in Europe_; and by a noted Protestant ecclesiastic, see _Bishop Hampden's Life of Thomas Aquinas_, chaps. xxxvi., xxxvii. See, also, _Hallam_, _Middle Ages_, chap. ix. For dealings of Pope John XXII., and kings of France and England, and republic of Venice, see _Figuier_, _L'Alchimie et les Alchimistes_, pp. 140, 141, where, in a note, the text of the bull _Spondent Pariter_ is given.

[91] The _Novum Organon_, translated by the Rev. G. W. Kitchin, Oxford, 1855, chap. lxv.

[92] _Novum Organon_, chap. lxxxix.

[93] _Novum Organon_, chap. xciii.

[94] _Bacon, The Advancement of Learning_, edited by W. Aldis Wright, London, 1873, pp. 47, 48.

[95] For a very contemptuous statement of Lord Bacon's claim to his position as a philosopher, see _Lange_, _Geschichte des Materialismus_, Leipsic, 1874, vol. i., p. 219. For a more just statement, see _Brewster_, _Life of Sir Isaac Newton_. See, also, _Jevons_, _Principles of Science_, London, 1874, vol. ii., p. 298.

[96] Kopp, in his _Ansichten_, pushes criticism even to some skepticism as to Roger Bacon being the _discoverer_ of many of the things generally attributed to him; but, after all deductions are carefully made, enough remains to make Bacon the greatest benefactor to humanity during the middle ages.

[97] For an account of Bacon's treatise, _De Nullitate Magiæ_, see _Hoefer_.

[98] _Kopp_, _Geschichte der Chemie_, Braunschweig, 1843, vol. i., p. 63; and for a somewhat reactionary discussion of Bacon's relation to the progress of chemistry, see a recent work by the same author, _Ansichten über die Aufgabe der Chemie_, Braunschweig, 1874, pp. 85, _et seq._ Also, for an excellent summary, see _Hoefer_, _Hist. de la Chimie_, vol. i., pp. 368, _et seq._ For summaries of his work in other fields, see _Whewell_, vol. i., pp. 367, 368. _Draper_, p. 438. _Saisset_, _Descartes et ses Précurseurs_, deuxième édition, pp. 397, _et seq._ _Nourrisson_, _Progrès de la pensée humaine_, pp. 271, 272. _Sprengel_, _Histoire de la Médecine_, Paris, 1865, vol. ii., p. 397. _Cuvier_, _Histoire des Sciences Naturelles_, vol. i., p. 417. As to Bacon's orthodoxy, see _Saisset_, pp. 53, 55. For special examination of causes of Bacon's condemnation, see _Waddington_, cited by Saisset, p. 14. On Bacon as a sorcerer, see Featherstonaugh's article in _North American Review_. For a good example of the danger of denying full power of Satan, even in much more recent times, and in a Protestant country, see account of treatment of _Bekker's Monde Enchanté_ by the theologians of Holland, in _Nisard_, _Histoire des Livres Populaires_, vol. i., pp. 172, 173.

[99] _Henri Martin_, _Hist. de France_, vol. iv., p. 283.

[100] On Bacon as a "Mahometan," see _Saisset_, p. 17.

[101] For proofs that the world is steadily working toward great discoveries as to the cause and prevention of zymotic diseases and of their propagation, see _Beale's Disease Germs_, _Baldwin Latham's Sanitary Engineering_, _Michel Lévy_, _Traité d'Hygiène Publique et Privée_, Paris, 1869. And for very thorough summaries, see President Barnard's paper read before Sanitary Congress in New York, 1874, and _Dr. J. C. Dalton's Anniversary Discourse on the Origin and Propagation of Disease_, New York, 1874.

[102] Antonio de Dominis, see _Montucla_, _Hist. des Mathématiques_, vol. i., p. 705. _Humboldt_, _Cosmos._ _Libri_, vol. iv., pp. 145, _et seq._

[103] For Porta, see _Hoefer_, _Hist. de la Chemie_, vol. ii., pp. 102-106. Also, _Kopp_. Also, _Sprengel_, _Hist. de la Médecine_, iii., p. 239. Also, _Musset-Parthay_.

[104] _Henri Martin_, _Histoire de France_, vol. xii., pp. 14, 15.

[105] _Napier_, _Florentine History_, vol. v., p. 485. _Tiraboschi_, _Storia della Literatura_. _Henri Martin_, _Histoire de France_. _Jevons Principles of Science_, vol. ii., pp. 36-40. For value attached to Borelli's investigations by Newton and Huyghens, see _Brewster's_ _Life of Sir Isaac Newton_, London, 1875, pp. 128, 129. Libri, in his _Essai sur Galilée_, p. 37, says that Oliva was summoned to Rome, and so tortured by the Inquisition that, to escape further cruelty, he ended his life by throwing himself from a window.

[106] For this syllogism, see _Figuier_, _L'Alchimie et les Alchimistes_, pp. 106, 107. For careful appreciation of Becher's position in the history of chemistry, see _Kopp_, _Ansichten über die Aufgabe der Chemie_, etc., _von Geber bis Stahl_, Braunschweig, 1875, pp. 201, _et seq._

[107] For Tertullian's views, see the _De Anima_, chap. x. For views of St. Augustine, see the _De Civ. Dei_, book xxii., chap. 24.

[108] For Boniface VIII. and his interdiction of dissections, see _Buckle's Posthumous Works_, vol. ii., p. 567. For injurious effects of this ecclesiastical hostility to anatomy upon the development of art, see _Woltman_, _Holbein and His Time_, pp. 266, 267. For an excellent statement of the true relation of the medical profession to religious questions, see _Prof. Acland_, _General Relations of Medicine in Modern Times_, Oxford, 1868. For thoughtful and witty remarks on the struggle at a recent period, see _Maury_, _L'Ancienne Académie des Sciences_, Paris, 1864, p. 148. Maury says: "La faculté n'aimait pas à avoir affaire aux théologiens qui procèdent par anathèmes beaucoup plus que par analyses."

[109] For uncritical praise of Arnold de Villa Nova, see _Figuier_, _L'Alchimie et les Alchimistes_, 3ème edit. For undue blame, see _Hoefer_, _Histoire de la Chimie_, Paris, 1842, vol. i., p. 386. For a more broad and fair judgment, see _Kopp_, _Geschichte der Chemie_, Braunschweig, 1843, vol. i., p. 66, and vol. ii., p. 185. Also, _Pouchet_, _Histoire des Sciences Naturelles au Moyen Age_, Paris, 1853, pp. 52, _et seq._ Also, _Draper_, _Int. Dev. of Europe_, p. 421. _Whewell_, _Hist. of the Induct. Sciences_, vol. i., p. 235; vol. viii., p. 36. _Frédault_, _Hist. de la Médecine_, vol. i., p. 204.

[110] _Renan_, _Averroès et l'Averroisme_, Paris, 1867, pp. 327, 333, 335. For a perfectly just statement of the only circumstances which can justify the charge of "atheism," see Dr. Deems's article in POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY, February, 1876.

[111] _Whewell_, vol. iii., p. 328, says, rather loosely, that Mundinus "dissected at Bologna in 1315." How different his idea of dissection was from that introduced by Vesalius, may be seen by Cuvier's careful statement that the entire number of dissections by Mundinus was three. The usual statement is that it was two. See _Cuvier_, _Hist. des Sci. Nat._, tome iii., p. 7; also, _Sprengel_, _Frédault_, and _Hallam_; also, _Littré_, _Médecine et Médecins_, chap. on anatomy. For a very full statement of the agency of Mundinus in the progress of anatomy, see _Portal_, _Hist. de l'Anatomie et de la Chirurgérie_, vol. i., pp. 209-216.

[112] For a similar charge against anatomical investigations at a much earlier period, see _Littré_, _Médecine et Médecins_, chapter on anatomy.

[113] The original painting of Vesalius at work in his cell, by Hamann, is now at Cornell University.

[114] For a curious example of weapons drawn from Galen and used against Vesalius, see _Lewes_, _Life of Goethe_, p. 343, note. For proofs that I have not over-estimated Vesalius, see _Portal_, _ubi supra_. Portal speaks of him as "_le génie le plus droit qu'eut l'Europe_;" and again, "_Vesale me paraît un des plus grands hommes qui ait existé_."

[115] See _Sprengel_, _Histoire de la Médecine_, vol. vi., pp. 39-80. For the opposition of the Paris Faculty of Theology to inoculation, see the _Journal de Barbier_, vol. vi., p. 294. For bitter denunciations of inoculation by the English clergy, and for the noble stand against them by Maddox, see _Baron_, _Life of Jenner_, vol. i., pp. 231, 232, and vol. ii., pp. 39, 40. For the strenuous opposition of the same clergy, see _Weld_, _History of the Royal Society_, vol. i., p. 464, note. Also, for the comical side of this matter, see _Nichols's Literary Illustrations_, vol. v., p. 800.

[116] For the opposition of conscientious men in England to vaccination, see _Duns_, _Life of Sir James Y. Simpson, Bart._, London, 1873, pp. 248, 249; also, _Baron_, _Life of Jenner_, _ubi supra_, and vol. ii., p. 43; also, _Works of Sir J. Y. Simpson_, vol. ii.

[117] See _Duns_, _Life of Sir J. Y. Simpson_, pp. 215-222.

[118] _Ibid._, pp. 256-259.

[119] _Ibid._, p. 260; also, _Works of Sir J. Y. Simpson_, _ubi supra_.

[120] _Morley_, _Life of Palissy the Potter_, vol. ii., pp. 315, _et seq._

[121] _Audiat_, _Vie de Palissy_, p. 412. _Cantu_, _Hist. Universelle_, vol. xv., p. 492.

[122] For ancient beliefs regarding giants, see _Leopardi_, _Saggio_ _sopra gli errori popolari_, etc., chapter xv. For accounts of the views of Mazurier and Scheuchzer, see _Büchner_, _Man in Past, Present, and Future_, English translation, pp. 235, 236. For Increase Mather's views, see _Philosophical Transactions_, xxiv., 85. For similar fossils sent from New York to the Royal Society as remains of giants, see _Weld_, _History of the Royal Society_, vol. i., p. 421. For Father Torrubia and his _Gigantologia Española_, see _D'Archiac_, _Introduction à l'Étude de la Paléontologie stratiographique_, Paris, 1864, p. 202. For admirable summaries, see _Lyell_, _Principles of Geology_, London, 1867; _D'Archiac_, _Géologie et Paléontologie_, Paris, 1866; _Pictet_, _Traité de Paléontologie_, Paris, 1853; _Vezian_, _Prodrome de la Géologie_, Paris, 1863; _Haeckel_, _History of Creation_, New York, 1876, chapter iii.

[123] See _Voltaire_, _Dissertation sur les Changements arrivés dans notre Globe_; also, _Voltaire_, _Les Singularités de la Nature_, chapter xii., near close of vol. v. of the Didot edition of 1843; also, _Jevons_, _Principles of Science_, vol. ii., p. 328.

[124] For a candid summary of the proofs from geology, astronomy, and zoölogy, that the Noachian Deluge was not universally or widely extended, see _McClintock and Strong_, _Cyclopædia of Biblical Theology and Ecclesiastical Literature_, article _Deluge_. For general history, see _Lyell_, _D'Archiac_, and _Vezian_. For special cases showing bitterness of the conflict, see the _Rev. Mr. Davis's Life of Rev. Dr. Pye Smith_, _passim_.

[125] For comparison between conduct of Italian and English ecclesiastics, as regards geology, see _Lyell_, _Principles of Geology_, tenth English ed., vol i., p. 33. For a philosophical statement of reasons why the struggle was more bitter, and the attempt at deceptive compromises more absurd in England than elsewhere, see _Maury_, _L'Ancienne Académie des Sciences_, second edition, p. 152.

[126] For these citations, see _Lyell_, _Principles of Geology_, introduction.

[127] See _Pye Smith, D. D._, _Geology and Scripture_, pp. 156, 157, 168, 169.

[128] _Wiseman_, _Twelve Lectures on the Connection between Science and Revealed Religion_, first American edition, New York, 1837.

[129] See _Silliman's Journal_, vol. xxx., p. 114.

[130] Prof. Goldwin Smith informs me that the papers of Sir Robert Peel, yet unpublished, contain very curious specimens of these epistles.

[131] See _Personal Recollections of Mary Somerville_, Boston, 1874, pp. 139 and 375. Compare with any statement of his religious views that Dean Cockburn was able to make, the following from Mrs. Somerville: "Nothing has afforded me so convincing a proof of the Deity as these purely mental conceptions of numerical and mathematical science which have been, by slow degrees, vouchsafed to man--and are still granted in these latter times, by the differential calculus, now superseded by the higher algebra--all of which must have existed in that sublimely omniscient mind from eternity."--See _Personal Recollections_, pp. 140, 141.

[132] For another great error of the Church in political economy, leading to injury to commerce, see _Lindsay_, _History of Merchant-Shipping_, London, 1874, vol. ii.

[133] See _Murray_, _History of Usury_, Philadelphia, 1866, p. 25; also, _Coquelin and Guillaumin_, _Dictionnaire de l'Économie Politique_, articles _Intérêt_ and _Usure_; also, _Lecky_, _History of Rationalism in Europe_, vol. ii., chapter vi.; also, _Jeremy Bentham's Defence of Usury_, Letter X.; also, _Mr. D. S. Dickinson's Speech in the Senate of New York_, vol. i. of his collected writings. Of all the summaries, Lecky's is by far the best.

[134] The texts cited most frequently were Leviticus xxv. 36, 37; Deuteronomy xxiii. 19; Psalms xv. 5; Ezekiel xviii. 8 and 17; St. Luke vi. 35. See _Lecky_; also, _Dickinson's Speech_, as above.

[135] See _Dictionnaire de l'Économie Politique_, articles _Intérêt_ and _Usure_ for these citations. For some doubtful reservations made by St. Augustine, see _Murray_.

[136] See citation of the Latin text in _Lecky_.

[137] For this moral effect, see _Montesquieu_, _Esprit des Lois_, lib. xxi., chap. xx.

[138] See citation in _Lecky_.

[139] See _Coquelin and Guillaumin_, article _Intérêt_.

[140] See _Craik's History of British Commerce_, chapter vi. The statute cited is _3 Henry VII._, chapter vi.

[141] See _Lecky_.

[142] See citation from the _Tischreden_, in _Guillaumin and Coquelin_, article _Intérêt_.

[143] See _Craik's History of British Commerce_, chapter vi.

[144] For citation, as above, see _Lecky_. For further account, see _Œuvres de Bossuet_, edition of 1845, vol. xi., p. 330.

[145] See citation from _Concina_ in _Lecky_; also, acquiescence in this interpretation by _Mr. Dickinson_, in _Speech in Senate of New York_, above quoted.

[146] See _Réplique des douze Docteurs_, etc., cited by Guillaumin and Coquelin.

[147] _Burton_, _History of Scotland_, vol. viii., p. 511. See, also, Mause Headrigg's views in Scott's _Old Mortality_, chapter vii. For the case of a person debarred from the communion for "raising the devil's wind" with a winnowing-machine, see _Works of Sir J. Y. Simpson_, vol. ii. Those doubting the authority or motives of Simpson may be reminded that he was, to the day of his death, one of the strictest adherents of Scotch orthodoxy.

[148] See _Journal of Sir I. Brunel_, for May 20, 1827, in _Life of I. K. Brunel_, p. 30.

[149] This scene will be recalled, easily, by many leading ethnologists in America, and especially by Mr. E. G. Squier, formerly minister of the United States to Central America.

[150] The meteorological battle is hardly fought out yet. Many excellent men seem still to entertain views almost identical with those of over two thousand years ago, depicted in _The Clouds_ of Aristophanes.

[151] These texts are Ezekiel v. 5 and xxxviii. 12. The progress of geographical knowledge, evidently, caused them to be softened down somewhat in our King James's version; but the first of them reads, in the Vulgate, "Ista est Hierusalem, in medio gentium posui eam et in circuitu ejus terras;" and the second reads in the Vulgate "in medio terræ," and in the Septuagint _ἑπι τὁν ὁμφαλὁν τἡς γἡς_. That the literal centre of the earth was meant, see proof in St. Jerome, Commentar. in Ezekiel, lib. ii., and for general proof, see Leopardi, "Saggio sopra gli errori popolari degli antichi," pp. 207, 208. For an idea of orthodox geography in the middle ages, see _Wright's Essay on Archæology_, vol. ii., chapter "On the Map of the World in Hereford Cathedral." For an example of the depth to which this idea of Jerusalem as the centre had entered into the thinking of the great poet of the middle ages, see _Dante_, _Inferno_, _Canto xxxiv._:

"E se' or sotto l'emisperio giunto,
Ch' è opposito a quel, che la gran secca
Coverchia, e sotto 'l cui colmo consunto
Fu l'uom che nacque e visse senza pecca."

[152] See _Michaelis_, _Commentaries on the Laws of Moses_, 1874, vol. ii., p. 3. The writer of the present article himself witnessed the reluctance of a very conscientious man to answer the questions of a census marshal, Mr. Lewis Hawley, of Syracuse, N. Y., and this reluctance was based upon the reasons assigned in II. Samuel chapter xxiv. 1, and I. Chronicles, chapter xxi. 1, for the numbering of the children of Israel.

[153] See _De Morgan_, _Paradoxes_, pp. 214-220.

[154] For _Dupanloup_, _Lettre à un Cardinal_, see the _Revue de Thérapeutique_, 1868, p. 221.

[155] For general account of the Vulpian and See matter, see _Revue des Deux Mondes_, 31 Mai, 1868. _Chronique de la Quinzaine_, pp. 763-765. As to the result on popular thought, may be noted the following comment on the affair by the _Revue_, which is as free as possible from anything like rabid anti-ecclesiastical ideas: "_Elle a été vraiment curieuse, instructive, assez triste et même un peu amusante._" For Wurtz's statement, see _Revue de Thérapeutique_ for 1868, p. 303.

[156] _De Morgan_, _Paradoxes_, pp. 421-428; also, _Daubeny's Essays_.

[157] See the Berlin newspapers for the summer of 1868, especially _Kladderadatsch_.

[158] In the _Church Journal_, New York, May 28, 1874, a reviewer, praising Rev. Dr. Hodge's book against Darwinism, says: "Darwinism--whether Darwin knows it or not; whether the clergy, who are half prepared to accept it in blind fright as 'science,' know it or not--is a denial of every article of the Christian faith. It is supreme folly to talk as some do about accommodating Christianity to Darwinism. Either those who so talk do not understand Christianity, or they do not understand Darwinism. If we have all, men and monkeys, women and baboons, oysters and eagles, all 'developed' from an original monad and germ, then St. Paul's grand deliverance--'All flesh is not the same flesh. There is one kind of flesh of men, another of beasts, another of fishes, and another of birds. There are bodies celestial and bodies terrestrial'--may be still very grand in our funeral-service, but very untrue to fact." This is the same dangerous line of argument which Caccini indulged in in Galileo's time. Dangerous, for suppose "Darwinism" _be proved true_! For a soothing potion by a skillful hand, see _Whewell_ on the consistency of evolution doctrines with teleological ideas; also, _Rev. Samuel Houghton, F. R. S._, _Principles of Animal Mechanics_, London, 1873, preface, and page 156, for some interesting ideas on teleological evolution.

[159] For some excellent remarks on the futility of such attempts and outcries, see the _Rev. Dr. Deems_, in POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY for February, 1876. To all who are inclined to draw scientific conclusions from Biblical texts, may be commended the advice of a good old German divine of the Reformation period: "Seeking the milk of the Word, do not press the teats of Holy Writ too hard."

[160] In an eloquent sermon, preached in March, 1874, Bishop Cummins said, in substance: "The Church has no fear of Science; the persecution of Galileo was entirely unwarrantable; but Christians should resist to the last Darwinism; for that is evidently contrary to Scripture." The bishop forgets that Galileo's doctrine seemed to such colossal minds as Bellarmin, and Luther, and Bossuet, "evidently contrary to Scripture." Far more logical, modest, sagacious, and full of faith, is the attitude taken by his former associate, Dr. John Cotton Smith: "For geology, physiology, and historical criticism have threatened or destroyed only particular forms of religious opinion, while they have set the spirit of religion free to keep pace with the larger generalizations of modern knowledge."--_Picton_, _The Mystery of Matter_, London, 1873, p. 72.

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"Mr. Darwin's little volume on the habits and instincts of earth-worms is no less marked than the earlier or more elaborate efforts of his genius by freshness of observation, unfailing power of interpreting and correlating facts, and logical vigor in generalizing upon them. The main purpose of the work is to point out the share which worms have taken in the formation of the layer of vegetable mould which covers the whole surface of the land in every moderately humid country. All lovers of nature will unite in thanking Mr. Darwin for the new and interesting light he has thrown upon a subject so long overlooked, yet so full of interest and instruction, as the structure and the labors of the earth-worm."--_Saturday Review._

_Ants, Bees, and Wasps._

A Record of Observations on the Habits of the Social Hymenoptera.
By Sir JOHN LUBBOCK, Bart., M. P., F. R. S., etc., author of
"Origin of Civilization, and the Primitive Condition of Man,"
etc., etc. With Colored Plates. 12mo, cloth, $2.00.