Chapter XVII: Part 17

Thousands of years ago, when barbaric races began to adapt themselves to civilized life, they had a concern for their bodily health and strength. In classic antiquity the care of the body by baths, gymnastic exercises, etc., was greatly developed, and connected with religious ceremonies. The splendid aqueducts and baths of Greece and Rome show how much importance they attached to the external and internal use of water. The Middle Ages brought reaction in this province like so many others. As Christianity depreciated this life and said it was merely a preparation for the life to come, it led to a disdain of culture and of nature; and as it regarded man's body only as the temporary prison of his immortal soul, it attached no importance to the care of it. The frightful plagues that swept away millions of men in the Middle Ages were only fought with prayer, processions, and other superstitious devices, instead of with rational hygienic and sanitary measures. We have only gradually learned to discard this superstition. It was not until the second half of the nineteenth century that a sound knowledge of the physiological functions and environment of the organism induced people once more to have a concern for bodily culture. All that modern hygiene now does for the public health, especially the improvement of the dwellings and food of the poorer classes, the prevention of disease by healthier habits, baths, athletics, etc., can be traced to the monistic teaching or reason, and is altogether opposed to the Christian belief in Providence and the dualism connected therewith. The maxim of modern hygiene is: God helps those who help themselves.

The remarkable progress of technical science in the nineteenth century, which has stamped our age as "an age of machinery," is a direct consequence of the immense advance of theoretical science. All the privileges and comforts which modern life gives us are due to scientific discoveries, especially in physics and chemistry. We need only recall the enormous importance of steam and electric machinery, modern mining, agriculture, and so on. If by these means modern industry and international commerce have prospered beyond all expectations, we owe this to the practical application of empirical truths. "Mental science" and metaphysical speculation have had nothing to do with it. There is no need of further proof that all the technical sciences have a purely monistic character, like their exact sources, physics and chemistry.

The scientific development of education is one of the greatest tasks of modern civilization. The ideas that are impressed on the mind in early youth are most persistent, and generally determine the direction of thought and conduct for the whole of life. Hence we find the struggle between the two philosophic tendencies assuming the greatest practical importance in this department. As the priests were, thousands of years ago, in the first stages of civilization, the sole trainers of the growing mind, they had charge of the school as well as of medicine. Religion was made the chief foundation of instruction, and its doctrines were the moral guide for the whole of life. The isolated attempts that were made by monistic philosophy in ancient times to destroy this theistic superstition had no effect on the education of the young. In this the dualistic principles of Plato and Aristotle prevailed, their metaphysical theories being blended with the teaching of the Church. In the Middle Ages the power of the Roman priesthood enforced them everywhere. And, although a good deal of this teaching lost its prestige at the Reformation, the influence of the Church on the school was maintained down to our own time. The spiritual power of the Church finds a useful ally in this in the conservative attitude of most governments. Throne and altar support each other; both dread the advance of scientific inquiry. In face of this powerful dualistic alliance, supported by the mental apathy of the masses and a convenient blind submission to authority, the monistic system has a difficult position to maintain. It will only gain solid ground in education when the school is divorced from the Church and scientific knowledge is made the foundation of the curriculum. I have pointed out in the nineteenth chapter of the _Riddle_ the guiding principles to be followed in this reform of education in opposition to the influence of Church and state.

As we have dealt in the eighteenth chapter with morals and their development from habit and adaptation, we need only mention here the contradiction that we still find between the monistic claims of pure reason and the dualistic claims of practical reason. This has been largely sustained by Kant's teaching, but his categorical imperative has been completely refuted by modern science. The metaphysical grounding of morality on free will and ethical intuitions (_a priori_) must be replaced by a physiological ethic, based on monistic psychology. As this can no more recognize a moral order of the world in history than a loving Providence in the life of the individual, the monistic morality of the future must be reducible to the laws of biology, and especially of evolution.

The great importance that attaches to the new science of sociology is due to its close relations to theoretical anthropology and psychology on the one hand, and to practical politics and law on the other. When we take it in the wider sense, human sociology joins on to that of the nearest mammals. The family life, marriage, and care of the young in the mammals, the formation of herds in the carnivora and ungulates and of troops in the social apes, lead on to the looser associations of savages and barbarians, and from these to the beginnings of civilization. The history of these associations is connected with the social rules that govern the intercourse of smaller and larger communities. In the biological reduction of social rules to the natural laws of heredity and adaptation, dynamic sociology (as Lester Ward has called it) proceeds on purely monistic lines, while in social intercourse itself we still find a good deal of dualism. How little truth and nature count for in our cultured society, how much hypocrisy and insincerity have to do with social rules, has been well shown by Max Nordau in his _Conventional Lies of Civilization_.

Politics is closely connected with sociology on the one hand and law on the other. As internal politics it controls the organization of the state by a constitution; as external or foreign politics it directs the relations of states to each other. In my opinion, pure reason should prevail in both departments; the relations of the citizens to each other and to the whole should be regulated by the same ethical principles that we recognize in personal intercourse. We are, unfortunately, very far from this ideal in the life of a modern state. Brutal egoism rules in foreign politics; every nation thinks only of its own advantage, and furthers it with all its military and other resources. Domestic politics is still largely directed by the barbaric prejudices of the Middle Ages. Great struggles are in progress between the central government and the mass of the people. Both parties spend themselves in fruitless conflicts; yet reason in the life of the state suffers more than its special political complexion. "Whether the state shall be a monarchy or a republic, aristocratic or democratic, are subordinate questions. The great question is: Shall the modern state be spiritual or secular? Shall it be governed _theocratically_ by irrational beliefs and clerical arbitrariness, or _nomocratically_ by rational laws and civic right?" (_Riddle_, chapter i.).

In the science of law, too, we find the prevalence of the dualistic principles that have come down from the Middle Ages and antiquity, and have acquired a certain sacredness by blending with the teaching of the Church. Kant's dualism is again found to be at work, influencing the ideas of jurists and statesmen. With it we find in our codes many carefully preserved relics of mediæval superstition. A great deal of harm is done by this religious influence. Every day we read in the papers of curious deliverances in the lower and higher courts at which every thoughtful man can only shake his head. Here also there will be no solid improvement until the education of jurists includes a thorough training in anthropology and psychology as well as in the code.

Theology has stood at the head of the four venerable "faculties" at our universities for centuries. It still holds this place of honor, as the Church, the organ of practical theology, continues to exercise a profound influence on life. In fact, most of the other branches of applied science--especially jurisprudence, politics, ethics, and pedagogics--are still more or less affected by religious prejudices. The chief of these is the idea of God conceived in some form or other as the Supreme Being; as Goethe says, "Every one calls the best he knows his God." However, the idea of God is not the chief feature of all religions. The three greatest Asiatic religions--Buddhism, Brahmanism, and Confucianism--were at first purely atheistic; Buddhism was at once idealistic and pessimistic, whence Schopenhauer regarded it as the highest of all religions. On the other hand, belief in a personal God is the central feature of the three great Mediterranean religions. This anthropomorphic God is conceived in a hundred forms in the various sects of the Mosaic, Christian, and Mohammedan religions, but his existence remains one of the chief articles of faith. No evidence of his existence is to be found; this was very ably shown by Kant, although he thought that practical reason postulated it. All that revelation is supposed to teach us on the matter belongs to the region of fiction. The whole field of theology, especially dogmatic theology, and the whole of the Church teaching based on it, are based on dualistic metaphysics and superstitious traditions. It is no longer a serious subject of scientific treatment. On the other hand, comparative religion is a very important branch of theoretical theology. It deals with the origin, development, and significance of religion on the basis of modern anthropology, ethnology, psychology, and history. When we study without prejudice the results of these sciences bearing on religion, theology turns out to be pantheism, in the sense of Spinoza and Goethe, and thus monism becomes a connecting link between religion and science.

This brief survey of the twenty chief branches of modern science and their relation to monism and dualism shows that we are face to face with great contradictions, and that we are still far from the harmonious and successful adjustment of these differences. They are partly due to a real antinomy of reason in the Kantist sense--an antithesis in ideas, in which the positive seems to be just as capable of proof as its contradictory. But, for the most part, this unfortunate antinomy in the sciences is connected with their historical development. Pure reason, the highest quality of civilized man, was gradually evolved from the intelligence of the savage, and this in turn from the instincts of the apes and lower mammals; and many relics of its former lower condition remain to-day, and have, through practical reason, a most prejudicial influence on science. These dualistic prejudices and irrational dogmas--intellectual residua of the primitive condition of the race, fossil ideas and rudimentary instincts--still pervade the whole of modern theology, jurisprudence, politics, ethics, psychology, and anthropology. If we glance at the whole field of modern science at the beginning of the twentieth century in this connection, we can distribute its twenty sections into three groups--rational (purely monistic), semi-dogmatic (half-monistic), and dogmatic (predominantly dualistic) disciplines.

The following may be classed as rational or purely monistic sciences, in which no competent and thoroughly expert representative now admits dualistic considerations: of the pure or theoretical sciences, physics, chemistry, mathematics, astronomy, and geology; of the applied or practical sciences, medicine, hygiene, and technology. On the other hand, in the semi-dogmatic sciences we still find a mixture of monistic and dualistic ideas in the appreciation of their aims and objects, one or the other prevailing according to the party position or personal training of the individual representative. This is the case with most of the biological sciences, biology (in the broadest sense), anthropology, psychology, philology, history, psychiatry; and of the applied sciences, pedagogics and ethics. The two latter sciences form a transition to the four purely dogmatic sciences in which the traditional dualism is still paramount: sociology, politics, jurisprudence, and theology. In these branches of science mediæval traditions retain a good deal of their power. Most of their official representatives cling to prejudices and superstitions of all sorts, and very slowly and gradually admit the acquisitions of pure reason as embodied in monistic anthropology and psychology. The intellectual life was in many respects more advanced at the beginning of the nineteenth than of the twentieth century.

This classification of the chief branches of knowledge in their relation to philosophy, the comprehensive science of general truths, is naturally only a provisional and personal sketch. It is especially difficult from the circumstance that all the sciences have very complex relations to each other, and have undergone many changes as to their aims and subjects in the course of their historical development. I will only point out that a good deal of science--in fact, the rational sciences with exact mathematical basis--have now been completely won over to monism; and in the semi-dogmatic sciences it is gaining ground from day to day, so that we may hope sooner or later to see the four dogmatic sciences also, the strong bulwarks of dualism--sociology, politics, jurisprudence, and theology--succumb to monism. For the ultimate aim of all the sciences can only be the unity of their underlying principles, or their harmonious unification by pure reason.

It is now more and more generally acknowledged in educated countries that a complete reform of our educational curriculum is needed, both in elementary and secondary schools and at the universities. The great struggle between two different tendencies assumes larger proportions every day. On the one hand, most governments, following their conservative instinct, cling as far as possible to mediæval traditions, and find support in the dogmatic teaching of theology and jurisprudence. On the other hand, the representatives of pure reason seek to get rid of these fetters, and to introduce the empirical and critical methods of modern science and medicine into what are called the mental sciences. The opposition between the two parties is accentuated by their different sociological tendencies. Liberal humanists claim that the freedom and education of all men is the aim of progressive evolution, in the conviction that the free development of the personality of each individual is the surest guarantee of happiness. To conservative governments this is a matter of indifference; they look on the individual citizens, in accordance with the manifold division of labor, merely as so many screws and wheels in the great organism of the state. The "upper ten thousand" naturally think of their own welfare first, and desire to keep all higher education to themselves. But in the light of pure reason the state is not an end in itself; it is a means to insure the prosperity of the citizens. To each of these, whatever their condition, the opportunity should be afforded of acquiring the higher education and developing their talents. Hence in education we should impart a general outlook on all the sides of human life. Each should acquire the elements of science, not only of physics and chemistry, but also of biology and anthropology. On the other hand, the predominance of the classical training over modern ought to be restricted. Every student and every faculty should be occupied with only philosophy and science in the first sessions, and not take up special studies until afterwards.

At the close of the _Riddle_ I brought out in clear relief the antagonism between modern monism and traditional dualism, but also pointed out that

this strenuous opposition may be toned down to a certain degree on clear and logical reflection--may, indeed, be converted into a friendly harmony. In a thoroughly logical mind, applying the highest principles with equal force in the entire field of the cosmos--in both organic and inorganic nature--the antithetical positions of theism and pantheism, vitalism and mechanism, approach until they touch each other. Unfortunately, consecutive thought is a rare phenomenon in nature.

This conciliatory disposition has grown stronger and stronger in me. Every year increases my belief that the dualism of Kant and the prevalent metaphysical school must give way to the monism of Goethe and the rising pantheistic tendency. In this we do not lose sight of our ideals. On the contrary, our "realist philosophy of life" teaches us that they are rooted deep in human nature. While occupying ourselves with the ideal world in art and poetry, and cultivating the play of emotion, we persist, nevertheless, in thinking that the real world, the object of science, can be truly known only by experience and pure reason. Truth and poetry are then united in the perfect harmony of monism.

INDEX

Abiogenesis, 339-358;
may still occur, 357.

Abiology, 27, 78.

Abortion, 325.

Abstraction, power of, 316.

Achromin, 140, 142.

Acquired characters, inheritance of, 367-369, 376.

Actinal beauty, 185.

Active movements in organisms, 262.

Adaptation, 415.

Æsthesis, 296, 308.

Æsthetal cells, 14.

Æsthetic selection, 422.

Agassiz on the creation of species, 30.

Agnostic position on the origin of life, 338.

Albumin, 39, 126, 128.

Albuminoids, the, 39, 125, 126.

Algæ, 161, 195, 220.

Alimentary system, the, 227.

Allopola, 174.

Alternation of generations, 253.

Altmann on the structure of plasm, 134.

Altruism, sources of, 115.

Ambulacral system, 280.

Amœboid movements, 268.

Amphigony, 240.

Amphimixis, 244.

Amphithecta, 176.

Angiophyta, 220.

Animal states, 36, 148, 150, 168.

Animals, kindness to, 115;
younger than plants, 216.

Animism, 58.

Annelids, motor apparatus of the, 281.

Antheridia, 249.

Anthophyta, 162, 220.

_Anthropogeny, The_, 283, 320.

Anthropogeny, the science of, 321, 332.

Anthropologists and evolution, 321.

Anthropology, 86, 478.

Antivitalism, 50.

Ape, mind in the, 332, 333.

Apes and men, common structure of, 285.

Aphanocapsa, 32, 130, 182, 196, 205.

Apostles' Creed, the, 60-65.

Apotelia, 163.

Apposition, 42.

Archegonia, 249.

Archigony, 341-358;
formulation of, 355, 356;
repetition of, 356;
statement of grounds, 341;
theories of, 343-348.

Archiplasm, 129, 142, 158.

Aristotle, 66.

Art, modern development of, 407.

Articulates, motor apparatus of the, 282.

Articulation, 281.

Asexual generation, 241-244.

Assimilation, 42, 211.

Association-centres, 12, 13.

Associational beauty, 185.

Astrolarva, 279.

Astronomy, monism of, 457.

Astrozoon, 280.

Asymmetrical types, 179.

Auditory vesicles, 311.

Autogony, 341.

Autonomous movement, 262.

Bacilli, 200, 201, 202.

Bacon, the founder of empiricism, 7.

Bacteria, the, 157, 198-206, 218, 234, 235;
absence of nucleus in the, 200, 201.

Bacteriology, 198.

Baptism, 425, 426.

Barbarians, higher, 395;
life of, 394;
lower, 394;
mental life of, 58;
middle, 395;
religion of, 58.

Baræsthesis, 309.

Barotaxis, 309.

Bathybius Haeckelii, 207.

Beauty, evolution of the sense of, 188;
sources of, 184;
stages of, 184-187.

Beggiatoa, 199, 205, 218.

Berzelius on catalysis, 44.

Bilateral-radial types, 177.

Bilateral symmetry, 177.

Bioblasts, 134.

Bio-crystals, 41.

Biogen-hypothesis of Verworn, 46, 137, 138.

Biogens, 102, 128, 137, 192.

Biogenetic law, the, 380-382, 384.

Biogeny, 94, 360.

Biology, division of, 94;
sphere of, 27, 78.

Bionomy, 78, 95.

Bionta, 149, 151;
virtual, 151;
partial, 151.

Biophora, 137.

Biotonus, 103.

Blastoderm, the, 161.

Botanists and zoologists, divergence of, 374.

Brain, as an organ of mind, 25;
evolution of the, 22, 327, 328.

Brownian movement, 260.

Bryophyta, 162.

Budding, 242, 243.

Bunge, as vitalist, 50.

Bütschli on the monera, 31;
on the structure of plasm, 132.

Calymma, the, 270.

Canon law, the, 324, 325.

Carbon assimilation, 34, 130, 212, 213, 342.

Carbon, importance of, 37, 38.

Caryokinesis, 139, 267.

Caryolymph, 141, 142.

Caryolysis, 268.

Child, mind of the, 90, 323.

Child-soul, study of the, 20.

Children, destruction of incurable, 21, 120.

Chitine, 282.

Chlorophyll, 33, 141, 195, 214.

Chorology, 95.

Chromacea, 32, 130, 137, 157, 182, 194-197;
description of the, 194;
structure of the, 197.

Chromatella, 33, 343.

Chromatin, 140, 142.

Chromatophora, 33, 343.

Chromoplasts, 141, 196.

Chroococcacea, the, 32, 182.

Chroococcus, 32, 130, 182, 196, 197, 208.

Ciliary movement, 272, 276.

Circulation of the blood, 228.

Civilization, characteristics of, 58-59;
evils of, 114;
growth of, 334;
modern, 335, 402;
shades of, 401, 408;
stages of, 398;
progress of, 469;
value of, 309.

Civilized races, higher, 397;
life of, 396;
lower, 396;
middle, 396;
mind in, 334.

Cleanliness in antiquity, 464.

Clothing, beginning of, 423;
fashions in, 430.

Cnidaria, 224;
generation of the, 250, 253.

Cœlenteria, 166, 221, 223, 225.

Cœloma, the, 223, 225.

Cœlomaria, 166, 221, 225.

Cœnobia, 160, 161.

Colloids, nature of, 39.

Colon, the, 226.

Coloring methods, 208.

Conjugation, 246.

Consciousness a function of the brain, 331;
development of, 331;
nature of, 19, 23, 290, 291.

Conservatism of governments, 73.

Contact-action, 45.

Copulation, 251.

Cormophyta, 165, 167.

Cormus, 36, 148, 150, 154, 168, 184.

Corset, the, 430.

Cortex of the brain, 12, 323, 327, 329.

Cosmic intelligence, 30;
monism, 37.

Cosmogony, 360.

Cosmokinesis, 266.

Craniota, mind in the, 326.

Creationism, 337.

Crustacea, parasitic, 237.

Crystals, 41;
forms of, 172;
growth of, 42, 43;
life of, 41;
and organisms compared, 35, 40, 41, 43, 44;
reproduction of, 44.

Crystallization, 265, 266.

Crystalloids, nature of, 39.

Culmus, the, 165, 183.

Cultivated races, definition of, 397;
higher, 400;
lower, 398;
middle, 399.

Custom, tyranny of, 421.

Cuticle, 146.

Cyanogen, 346.

---- theory, 347.

Cytodes, 33, 157, 192, 194.

Cytology, 128, 190.

Cytophyta, 220.

Cytoplasm, 35, 122, 138, 139, 142, 158, 191.

Cytosoma, 122, 138.

Cytotheca, 145.

Cytula, 244.

Darwin on the origin of life, 338.

Darwinism, 50, 80, 361, 363, 364, 373.

De Bries on heredity, 373.

Death, nature of, 98;
of the unicellulars, 99;
of the histona, 100;
real cause of, 101;
total and partial, 105.

Decomposability of plasm, 345.

Descartes' idea of the soul, 16, 18.

Descriptive science, 4, 5, 6.

Design, argument for, 388.

Dialysis, 39.

Diatomes, 41, 182.

Diclinism, 247.

Diœcia, 248.

Disassimilation, 212.

Disease, nature of, 106.

Dissogony, 252.

Division of labor, 35;
in the cell, 143, 158;
in the organism, 149, 167;
in the state, 150, 169.

Divorce, 428, 429.

Dogmatic sciences, 470.

Dominants, the, of Reinke, 264.

Driesch, as vitalist, 51.

Dualism, 81, 91, 433.

Dualistic view of life, 337, 348, 366;
of the mind, 332;
of morality, 411;
of sensation, 446, 447.

Dumas, Louis, as vitalist, 47.

Duty an evolved sense, 413.

Dwarf races, 422.

Dynamism, 85, 110.

Ear, canals in the, 311;
the, 312.

Echinoderms, motor organs of the, 279-281.

Ectogenesis, 369.

Education, reform of, 471;
struggle over, 465.

Egoism, 115, 403;
and altruism, 419.

Elasticity, 310.

Eleatic philosophers, the, 66.

Electric organs, 313.

Electricity, sensation of, 312, 313.

Elements, chemical, 37, 38.

Embryo, legal view of the, 325, 326;
mind in the, 325.

Embryology, 20, 21;
mechanical, 383.

End of life, 387.

Energism, 85.

Energy as attribute of substance, 446, 449;
definition of, 449.

Enzyma, 46, 128.

Epicureanism, 83.

Epitelia, 163.

Epithelium, ciliated and flagellated, 276.

Erect posture, the, 285.

Ergology, 95.

Ergonomy, 35, 150.

Erotic chemotropism, 306.

Eternity hypothesis of life, 338.

Ethic, the perfect, 400.

Ethics, 411.

Eucharist, the, 426.

Excretion, 232, 233.

Experience, importance of, 3, 4.

Experiment, limited use of, 352, 353, 383;
nature of, 7, 8.

Experimental science, 4, 8.

Extension, 446, 448.

Eye, the, 298;
evolution of, 298, 299.

Faith, 437, 439;
natural and supernatural, 54.

Family, evolution of the, 402.

Fashion, 422.

Fechner on sensation, 295;
on the universality of life, 340.

Feeling, 296, 308.

Fetichism, 57, 58.

Filar theory of plasm, 134.

Fistella, 344.

Flagelliform movement, 271, 276.

Flame, analysis of the, 28.

Flat-fishes, metamorphosis of, 178.

Flechsig, discoveries of, 13.

Flemming on the structure of plasm, 113.

Food, artificial production of, 400.

Forms of organic structure, 173-184.

Frommann on plasm, 133.

Frothy theory of plasm, 132, 133.

Fungi, 162, 204, 215, 234, 236.

Fungilli, 204, 235.

Gameta, the, 244.

Gastræa theory, the, 223.

Gastræads, 223.

Gastric canal, 228.

Gastro-canal system, 222, 223.

Gastrula, the, 166.

Gemmation, 242, 243.

Genealogy of organisms, 304, 305, 376.

Generation, sexual and asexual, 241-251.

Geogeny, 360.

Geology, historical nature of, 378;
monism of, 458.

Geotropism, 310.

Germ-plasm, 143;
the theory of, 367, 372.

German mind, Janus character of, 441.

Gills, 229, 230.

Globular shape, origin of, 34.

Glœocapsa, 32, 196, 205.

Goethe, monism of, 442;
realism of, 440;
scientific studies of, 440, 441.

Gonades, 249.

Gonochorism, 246.

Gonoducts, 250.

Granular theory of plasm, 134.

Gravitation, sensation in, 309.

Growth, 241.

Growth movements, 264.

Habit, 415-417;
in inorganic bodies, 417.

Heart, the, 228;
work of the, 277.

Heat, sensation of, 300, 301.

Heaven, 109.

Hedonism, 84.

Heliotropism, 298.

Helmholtz on the origin of life, 339.

Heraclitus on life, 28.

Heredity, conservative and progressive, 368;
cumulative, 369;
theories of, 135, 136, 366.

Hermaphrodism, 245, 246, 258, 259.

Hermaphroditic glands, 249.

Hertwig, O., on the biogenetic law, 382;
on the monera, 31.

Heterogenesis, 254.

His, W., theories of, 383.

Histolysis, 106.

Histona, the, 36.

Histonals, 165, 166, 171, 182.

Historical waves, 389.

History, 461;
nature of, 9;
sources of, 9.

Hofmeister on organic chemistry, 45.

Holosphæra, 173.

Honor, false sense of, 430.

Huxley on organic individuality, 152.

Hyaloplasm, 130, 143.

Hybrids, 255, 256;
fertility of, 255.

Hydrostatic movements, 270.

Hygiene, 401, 464.

Hylonism, 82.

Hylozoism, 81, 86, 451.

Hypogenesis, 255.

Hypotheses, nature of, 54;
necessity for, 86, 87, 89, 378, 439.

Idealism, theoretical and practical, 84, 92.

Idiocy, 20.

Idioplasm theory, the, 136, 137, 366, 367.

Ileum, the, 226.

Imagination, function of the, 87.

Imbibition energy of plasm, 39.

Imbibition in organisms, 261.

Immaterial world, the, 436, 437.

Immortality, the belief in, 64, 65, 71, 108;
of the unicellulars, 99-101.

Incurables and suicide, 118, 119.

Individuality, organic, 149, 152.

Infusoria, movement in the, 268, 269, 272.

Inoculation, 204.

Insanity, increase of, 114, 118, 119.

Insectivorous plants, 304, 305.

Instinct, 418.

Intelligence, 316, 317.

Intercellular matter, 145.

Intussusception, 42.

Ionic philosophers, the, 66.

Irritability, 287, 288, 291, 293.

Isopola, 174.

Kant as natural historian, 9;
biological ignorance of, 11, 318, 319;
critical views of, 438;
contradictory views of, 68, 434, 444;
influence of, 25;
mechanical views of, 435;
moral philosophy of, 412, 413;
mystic training of, 443;
narrow life of, 443;
philosophy of, 68, 69, 74, 434-440;
popularity of, 444;
theory of knowledge of, 9, 10, 69, 317-319, 332.

Kassowitz on archigony, 355.

Kelvin, Lord, on the origin of life, 339.

Kidneys, the, 233.

Kirchhoff on the work of science, 6.

Knowledge, _a priori_ and _a posteriori_, 11, 24, 317;
and faith compared, 54;
dualistic
theory of, 24;
monistic theory of, 12-14.

Kusamaul on the child-soul, 30.

Lamarck, 79.

Lamarck's transformism, 363.

Landscape beauty, 187.

Lange on Kant, 439.

Larvæ, 253.

Law, beginning of idea of, 420;
reaction in science of, 401.

Leibnitz, philosophy of, 110.

Leucocytes, 228;
and bacteria, 305.

Lichens, 238.

Life, artificial production of, 352, 358;
as a flame, 28, 29;
constant change of, 386, 387;
evolution of, 360-365;
length of, 101;
nature of, 27, 343;
origin of, 337-358;
value of, 386-410.

Light, action of, 297-300.

Living substance, 36, 123.

Lobmonera, 206.

Localization of functions, 17, 19, 20;
of mental functions, 328, 329.

Locomotion, 275-285;
modern progress in, 404.

Lord's Supper, the, 426.

Love, progressive refinement of, 402.

Luminous animals, 312.

Lungs, 230, 231.

Machine-theory of life, the, 29, 30, 102.

Macrogameton, 244.

Mammals, common descent of the, 284;
motor apparatus of the, 283.

Manners and morals, 421.

Marriage, development of, 402, 403;
evolution of, 427;
priestly control of, 428.

Materialism, 82, 451.

Mathematics, 456.

Matrimony, 427, 428.

Matter as attribute of substance, 448.

Mechanical embryology, 103.

Mechanics, 259.

Medicine, development of, 462.

Membranes, cellular, 144, 145, 155, 157, 194.

Memory, 416.

Mental disease, evidential value of, 19.

Metabolism, 28,38, 44, 46, 103, 130, 210, 211, 217;
a mechanical process, 259, 260;
in the metaphyta, 219-221;
in the metazoa, 221, 233;
in the protophyta, 217-219;
in the protozoa, 219, 220.

Metagenesis, 253.

Metamerism, 167, 168, 281.

Metamorphology, 94.

Metaphysicians disdain physical science, 16.

Metaphysics, nature of, 10, 88, 89.

Metaphyta, 161, 165.

Metaplasm, 106, 129.

Metaplasmosism, 107.

Metasitism 217.

Metazoa, 163.

Micella, 137, 344.

Micrococcus, 201, 202.

Microgameton, 244.

Middle Ages, thought in the, 66, 67.

Mimicry, 421, 422.

Mind, the, 315, 316;
a function of the brain, 328-330;
evolution of the, 319, 320, 322, 323, 326.

Miracles, 60;
in biology, 55;
nature of, 54.

Mohl, Hugo, 122.

Molecular structure of the monera, 34, 137;
theories of plasm, 342-346.

Molecules, 126, 127.

Monaxonia, 174.

Monera, the, 31-33, 40, 157, 182, 190-209, 342.

Monism, 81, 433-445.

Monobia, 160, 196.

Monoclinism, 247.

Monœcia, 248.

Monogamy, 240.

Morality, 411, 412;
a social instinct, 419, 420;
conventional, 430;
evolution of, 413, 414, 430-432;
a form of adaptation, 414.

Morphology, 94, 171.

Morphonta, 149, 152.

Motion in metabolism, 259.

Müller, Johannes, on the nature of life, 49;
on sensation, 288.

Muscles, the, 273, 276-279;
forms of in lower animals, 278;
striated and non-striated, 277.

Muscular cells, 277.

Mutation theory, the, 365, 373.

Myophæna, 269.

Nägeli on evolution, 365;
on plasm, 137;
on the origin of life, 343, 344, 354, 356;
on universality of sensation, 450.

Natural history, 9.

Naturalism, 86, 87.

Necrobiosis, 106, 349.

Neo-Darwinism, 375, 376.

Neo-Lamarckism, 375, 376.

Neovitalism, 48;
sceptical and dogmatic, 50.

Neurona, 12, 13, 328.

Nitrobacteria, 201, 215, 218.

Nuclein, 156.

Nucleolus, 140.

Nucleus of the cell, 122, 139, 155.

Nutrition, progress in supply of, 401.

Observation, subjective and objective, 7.

Occultism, 74, 75.

Œcology, 78, 95.

Oken, Lorentz, 79, 80.

Olfactory region, 303.

Ontogeny, 94, 361, 376, 379.

Optimism, 109, 110.

Organella, 35, 130, 159, 163, 191.

Organic chemistry, 37;
and inorganic, differences between, 27, 28, 40;
meaning of, 37;
sensations, 302, 308.

Organism, nature of an, 29, 30, 36.

Organization, nature of, 29;
progress of, 338;
stages of, 149, 150, 151.

Organs, 159, 163;
apparatus of, 164;
systems of, 164;
of sense and thought, 12.

Osmosis, 39.

Ostwald, as a monist, 38;
on enzyma, 46;
on growth, 44;
on mental energy, 330;
system of, 85.

Ovary, 325.

Ovoplasm, 245.

Ovulum, the, 245, 247, 250.

Pædogenesis, 253.

Palavitalism, 48, 49.

Palingenesis, 382.

Pangenesis theory, the, 366.

Panpsychism, 340.

Pantheism, 82.

Paranuclein, 141.

Parasites, 235-238.

Parasitology, 235.

Paratonic movement, 262, 274.

Parthenogenesis, 251, 252.

Passive movements in organisms, 262.

Pasteur disproves spontaneous generation, 350-352.

Paulospores, 244.

Peptones, 45.

Perception of stimuli, 292, 293, 296.

Perigenesis of the plastidules, 136.

Perpetual motion of universe, 258.

Persons, 36, 148, 150, 154, 166, 183.

Pessimism, 109, 110, 111.

Pflüger on origin of life, 345, 346, 356.

Philology, 461.

Philosophy, history of, 81;
modern, defects of, 453;
nature of, 2, 3, 453, 454.

Phoronomy, 259.

Photo-synthesis, 214, 217.

Phototaxis, 298.

Phronema, the, 14, 15-17;
structure of the, 329.

Phroneta, the, 13, 329, 331.

Phronetal cells, 14, 17.

Phylogeny, 94, 361, 376, 379;
sources of, 377.

Physicians, liberal views of, 116-118.

Physics, monism of, 455; nature of, 89, 454.

Physiologists, dualism of, 18.

Physiology, 93.

Phytomonera, 193.

Phytoplasm, 213, 217.

Piano theory of the soul, 16.

Pineal gland, the, 16.

Planospores, 244.

Plants, spontaneous movement in, 274, 275.

Plasm, 121, 123, 128-146;
chemical constituents of, 125, 126;
differentiation of the, 138;
molecules of, 136;
nature of, 27, 28, 159;
structure of, 128, 129, 130-138.

Plasma products, 144.

Plasmodomism, 33, 34, 130, 193, 197, 212, 213, 343, 357.

Plasmogony, 354.

Plasmophaga, 193, 196, 200, 212.

Plasson, 158.

Plassonella, 355, 358.

Plastids, 138, 192.

Plastidules, 136.

Plastin, 141.

Plate on Darwinism, 364.

Platnosphæra, 174.

Plato, dualism of, 436;
philosophy of, 66.

Platodes, 225.

Pleuronectides, 178.

Poetry, pedagogical value of, 439.

Poisonous bacteria, 221, 305;
fungi, 236.

Polioplasm, 130, 143.

Politics, 467.

Polytomy, 243.

Powder, 31.

Pressure, sense of, 310.

Preyer on the child-soul, 20;
on the earth as an organism, 37;
on universality of life, 340.

Principle of individuation, 153.

Probionta, 354.

Promorphology, 94, 172.

Protamœba, 206.

Proteids, 126, 127.

Protestants, liberalism among, 73.

Protists, the, 34, 35, 131, 160, 171, 182, 190-209;
can endure extreme temperatures, 300;
movements of the, 267, 271;
science of the, 92, 93;
sensitiveness to electricity, 313.

Protoplasm, 32;
nature of, 121, 122, 125.

Providence, belief in, 107, 108.

Pseudopodia, 268.

Psychiatry, 19, 329, 463.

Psychogenesis, 21.

Psychology, 461;
comparative, 21, 22;
modern, errors of, 71;
monistic, 322;
nature of, 18.

Psycho-monism, 92.

Psychophysics, 330.

Pteridophyta, 162, 220.

Ptomaines, 203.

Purposive movement, 264, 265.

Pyramidal types, 176.

Radiolaria, 41, 156, 172, 181;
movement in the, 322.

Ranke, J., on evolution, 322.

Rational sciences, 470.

Reaction, 293.

Realism, 90, 91.

Reason, 316, 317;
pure and practical, 317.

Reason and authority, 423.

Redemption, dogma of, 62.

Reflex movement, 262, 263.

Regeneration, organic, 101-105.

Reinke, as vitalist, 51;
dualism of, 30;
on the monera, 31;
on the origin of life, 337;
theory of dominants, 264;
works of, 80, 81.

Release of energy, 294.

Religion, evolution of, 57-65, 420, 421, 424.

Reproduction a monistic process, 257;
by division, 242;
nature of, 241.

Respiration, 228-232.

Resurrection, the, 64.

Resurrection plants, 262.

Rhizomonera, 206.

Rhizopods, 129, 192, 193, 219;
movement in the, 270.

Rhodocytes, 228.

Rhumbler, L., on the cell-life, 132.

Rhythmic beauty, 185.

Richter, H. E., on life, 339.

Rindfleisch, as vitalist, 51.

Romanes, conversion of, 22, 23.

Romanism, 63, 425, 426.

Sacraments, 425, 426.

Saposites, 234.

Saprobiosis, 349, 350.

Sarcode, 155.

Savage, mind in the, 56, 57, 90, 333, 391, 405, 406, 424;
religion of the, 57;
sense-life in the, 406, 407;
views of the, 390.

Savages, higher, 394;
life of the, 392-394;
lower, 398;
middle, 393.

Schiller, idealism of, 439, 440-442.

Schizpphyta, 201.

Schleiden, 154.

Schleiermacher, 72.

Schopenhauer, as pessimist, 111, 112;
on the categorical imperative, 412;
on suicide, 114.

Schultze, Max, on the cell, 155.

Schwann, 154.

Science, confusion in, 77;
nature of, 4;
schools of, 4;
work of, 5, 6;
value of, 407, 408.

Science and tradition, conflict of, 70, 71.

Secretory movement, 271.

Selection, theory of, 361, 363.

Self-cleavage, 242.

Self-consciousness, beginning of, 323, 324.

Semi-dogmatic sciences, 470.

Senility, causes of, 106.

Sensation and consciousness, 290, 291, 295.

Sensation as attribute of substance, 447, 448;
analysis of, 293;
common to all bodies, 295, 296, 309;
evolution of, 450;
in atoms, 83;
in plants, 292, 304; nature of, 287-293;
neglected by physiologists, 289, 292;
of matter, 302;
universal, 449.

Sensations in savage and civilized man, 405, 406;
organic, 302, 308.

Sense-centres, 13, 329.

Senses, finer development of the, 406.

Sensibility, 287, 288, 293.

Sensitiveness, 293.

Sensorium, the, 14.

Sensualism, 4, 14, 15.

Sentiment and reason, 120.

Sex sense, the, 245.

Sexual beauty, 186.

---- characters, secondary, 251.

---- generation, 244-253.

---- selection, 251.

---- sense, the, 306, 307.

Shame, feeling of, 423.

Sight, evolution of, 24.

Silicon, 40.

Skeletal theory of plasm, 113.

Skeleton, common type of the, 371.

---- the, 278, 279, 283, 284.

Sleep of flowers, 274.

Smell, 303, 304.

Snails, evolution of the, 279;
muscles of the, 278.

Sociology, 467.

Soul, the, 315, 324;
dualistic idea of the, 15, 16;
found in all substance, 397;
seat of the, 15-18.

Space, nature of, 70;
sense of, 311.

Spallanzani and spontaneous generation, 350.

Spartan selection, 22, 119.

Specialism, dangers of, 92.

Species, nature of the, 204.

Speech, 461.

Sperm-plasm, 245.

Spermatozoon, the, 245;
movement of the, 271, 272.

Spinoza, system of, 82;
monism of, 445.

Spirilla, 202.

Spiritism, 74, 75,

Spiritualism, 451.

Spontaneous generation, 348;
conflict over, 349, 350;
older belief in, 349.

Sporangia, 244.

Spores, 244.

Sporozoa, 235.

Sprouts, 36, 148, 151, 154, 165, 183.

State and the individual, the, 409.

States, modern, defects of, 409, 410.

Stationary life in animals, 275.

Stauraxonia, 175.

Stimuli, acoustic, 311;
action of, 295;
chemical, 301-309;
conduction of, 295, 396;
electric, 312, 313;
gravitational, 309-312;
optic, 297-300;
thermic, 299-302.

Stock, the, 168, 184.

Strauss, D. F., 72.

Strophogenesis, 254.

Substance, attributes of, 446, 448;
eternity, of, 97;
the problem of, 2.

Suicide, contradictory views of, 112;
occasional justice of, 112, 113, 116.

Sun-dew, action of the, 304.

Supernatural, the, 87, 88.

Superstition, 56.

Sutherland, A., on morality, 392.

Swimming-bladder, the, 231.

Symbiosis, 238.

Symmetry, 171, 172.

Sympathy, 115.

Tailor theory, the, 383.

Tape-worms, 237.

Taste, 302, 303.

Technical science, progress of, 465.

Tectology, 94.

Teleology, 181, 366.

Teleology in movement, 265.

Teleology, mechanical, 362, 363.

Temperature, perception of, 299-301.

Thallophyta, 161, 165.

Thallus, the, 165, 195.

Theology, 468.

Thermotaxis, 301.

Thigmotaxis, 310.

Thought as attribute of substance, 445.

Thought centres, 13, 329.

Time, nature of, 70.

Tissue animals, 163;
plants, 162.

Tissues, primary and secondary, 161, 162.

Tocogony, 240.

Touch, sense of, 309;
in plants, 300, 310.

Tracheata, the, 231.

Tradition, power of, 423.

Transgressive growth, 42, 44, 240, 241.

Transubstantiation, 426.

Treviranus, 79.

Tropesis, 296, 308.

Trophoplasts, 143.

Truth, nature of, 1, 2, 4.

Tübingen school, the, 72.

Turgescence movements, 274, 275.

Turgor, 273-275.

Types of organic structure, 173-184.

Unequal value of life, 390.

Value of modern life, 408, 409.

Variability in species, 373.

Variation movements, 274.

Veddahs, the, 393.

Vegetal diet, 227.

Vertebrates, mind in the, 328;
motor apparatus of the, 283, 284;
succession of the, 327.

Verworn, Max. on enzyma, 46;
on the nature of life, 28;
on the origin of life, 348.

Vibratory movement, 271.

Virchow and evolution, 322;
on the aim of science, 5.

Vital force, the, 47-51.

---- movement, 266-286.

Vitalism, 47-51, 459.

Voluntary movement mechanical, 262-264.

War, 400, 409.

Watch compared with organism, 30.

Water-feet, 280.

Water-vessels, 230.

Weismann on immortality, 90-101;
on selection, 364;
on the structure of plasm, 137.

Will, freedom of the, 263, 265, 286.

Wind-pipe, the, 232.

Woman, improvement in position of, 402.

Zehnder on the origin of life, 344.

Ziegler on instinct, 418.

Zoomonera, 193, 219.

Zooplasm, 213.

THE END

FOOTNOTES:

[1] The English translation met with almost equal success. Nearly one hundred thousand copies of the cheap edition have already been sold.--TRANS.

[2] Further particulars about the relations of the thought-centres to the sense-centres will be found in the tenth chapter of _The Riddle of the Universe_.

[3] English readers who are acquainted with Romanes's posthumous _Thoughts on Religion_ will recognize the justice of this analysis. Romanes speaks expressly of the acceptance of Christianity entailing "the sacrifice of his intellect."--TRANS.

[4] This refers almost entirely to Germany. The reader will remember that, when Lord Kelvin endeavored to make theosophic capital out of this temporary confusion in German science, he was immediately silenced by the leading biologists of this country, Professor E. Ray-Lankester (for zoology), Sir W. T. Thiselton-Dyer (for botany), and Sir J. Burdon-Sanderson (for physiology), who sharply rejected vitalism.--TRANS.

[5] The German word _wunder_ corresponds equally to the English "miracle" and "wonder." It has seemed necessary to translate it "wonder" in the title of the work, but frequently as "miracle" in this chapter.--TRANS.

[6] The English reader may usefully be reminded that Professor Loofs, Haeckel's chief critic, and one of the foremost German theologians, rejects these articles of the Creed no less than Haeckel does. A glance at the pertinent articles in the _Encyclopædia Biblica_ will show how widely theologians now discard these beliefs.--TRANS.

[7] Compare the opinion of the distinguished American psychologist, Münsterberg "Science opposes to any doctrine of individual immortality an unbroken and impregnable barrier" (_Psychology and Life_, p. 85).--TRANS.

[8] A translation of the latest edition of the _Anthropogenie_, with the full number of fresh illustrations (thirty plates and five hundred and twelve wood-cuts), will be issued very shortly by the Rationalist Press Association, under the title of _The Evolution of Man_.

[9] I may remind the English reader that the chosen ecclesiastical champion against Haeckel in this country, the Rev. F. Ballard, made this extraordinary fallacy the very pith of his "scientific" attack on monism.--TRANS.

[10] As already stated, it will presently appear in England with the title, _The Evolution of Man_.--TRANS.

[11] At the moment I translate this, telegrams from Germany announce that, by the emperor's orders, a number of ladies were excluded from the opera for not observing this custom.--TRANS.

[12] The English reader will find in this a reply to the foolish notion which has been circulated that the recent discovery of radioaction and the composition of the atom from electrons has affected Haeckel's position. His monism is completely indifferent to changes in the physicist conception of the nature of matter.--TRANS.

TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES:

--Obvious print and punctuation errors were corrected.

--The large tables at pages 96 and 189 have been splitted into two parts.

--Original work has "CHAPTER I" instead of "CHAPTER VI" at page 121.
Corrected.

--Original work does not have "XI" at the beginning of chapter (page 239).
Added.