Chapter XL: Part 40

One of the vegetable wonders of the world, is the immense tree discovered, a year or two since, in California. The first reports concerning this huge giant of the forest seemed fabulous, so extraordinary were the particulars; but it is found that the largest statement did not exceed the truth. The tree is a cedar, of the species called _arbor vitæ_, and was first discovered by some miners in the mountains of Calaveras, California, in a forest called the Redwoods, on Trinidad bay, some twenty or thirty miles from the mouth of Klamath river, on the northern sea-coast of the state, a region that has been but very little explored. A correspondent of the Sonora Herald, who recently made an excursion to see it, thus describes it. “At the ground its circumference was ninety-two feet; four feet above that, it was eighty-eight; and ten feet above that, it was sixty-one feet in circumference; and the tapering of the shaft was very gradual. Its hight, to the end of the trunk, is two hundred and eighty-five feet; or, if we include the topmost branches, three hundred and twenty-five feet. This tree is by no means a deformity, as most trees with large trunks are. It is throughout one of perfect symmetry, while its enormous proportions are inseparable concomitants of its grandeur. I have said that this is the largest tree yet discovered in the world. It is so. The celebrated tree of Fremont would have to grow many centuries before it could pretend to be called anything but a younger brother. It is said that a tree was once found in Senegal, in Africa, whose trunk measured ninety feet in circumference. But nobody has been able to find it since its first discovery. There is a tree in Mexico called the _taxodium_, which is said to be one hundred and seventeen feet in circumference, but this is said to be formed by the union of several trees. The hight of all these foreign trees is not more, in any case, than seventy feet; and none of the trunks are more than ten feet. The age of this mammoth cedar of California, if each zone may be reckoned one year, is about twenty-five hundred and twenty years. A section of the wood which I brought home with me, exclusive of the sap, which is only about one inch thick, numbers about fourteen zones or grains to the inch. At that rate, if it were permitted to grow, it would increase its diameter one-seventh of an inch every year. In eighty-four years its diameter would be increased one foot; in eight hundred and forty years, ten feet; and in twenty-five hundred and twenty years, it would be forty feet in diameter, and one hundred and twenty in circumference.

“It seems like an act of desecration to cut down such a noble tree, such a magnificent specimen of the growth of the primeval forest. But it has been done, not, however, without a vast deal of labor. It was accomplished by first boring holes through the body with long augers, worked by machinery, and afterward sawing from one to the other. Of course, as the sawing drew to a close, the workmen were on the alert to notice the first sign of toppling, but none came; the tree was so straight and evenly balanced on all sides that it retained its upright position after it had been sawed through. Wedges were then forced in, and a breeze happening to spring up, over went the monster with a crash which was heard for miles around. The bark was stripped from it for the length of fifty feet from the base, and is from one to two feet in thickness. It was taken off in sections, so that it can be placed, relatively, in its original position, and thus give the beholder a just idea of the gigantic dimensions of the tree. So placed, it will occupy a space of about thirty feet in diameter, or ninety feet in circumference, and fifty feet in hight. A piece of the wood will be shown, which has been cut out from the tree across the whole diameter. We are told that this piece of wood shows a vestige of bark near the middle, and that this bark was evidently charred many centuries ago, when the tree was comparatively a sapling.”

Since the above was written, the section of this huge tree alluded to, has been exhibited in Stockton and San Francisco, and thence brought to the United States, so that some of our readers may be able to get a view of this monster of the California woods for a trifling admission fee. In its natural condition, rearing its majestic head toward heaven, and waving in all its native vigor, strength and verdure, it was a sight worth a pilgrimage to see; and it will still be a rich gratification to look upon the section of it, though that will give but a faint idea of what the whole was in its native forest.

Notwithstanding the calculation given above by the writer in the Sonora Herald, it is supposed that this tree can not be less than three thousand years old; for, for a large space on the outer surface next to the bark, the rings of growth are so thin as not to be distinguishable from each other. Add one-third to the hight of Bunker-hill monument, and the outward dimensions of the main trunk of this tree would be about the same. From actual measurement it contained more than three hundred cords of wood. One hundred men could easily stand within the hollow of it at the same time, and a six-foot man rode a full-sized horse through it without touching his hat to the upper surface.

OTHER MAMMOTH TREES.

A California paper says, that in the neighborhood of the mammoth tree just described, within a circumference of half a mile, there are twelve immense trees, which rival, or even surpass that huge giant of the forest. One of these is called the Father Pine. This is dead, and has fallen to the earth. Its dimensions are as follows: length, four hundred feet; circumference, one hundred and ten feet. The trunk of this tree is hollow, and it has been traced for a distance of two hundred and fifty feet. There is a little pond of water in the center of this cavity, four feet in depth. This tree, two hundred and fifty feet from the stump, is no less than twelve feet in diameter. The cluster called the Three Sisters, taken together, is ninety-two feet in circumference, and three hundred feet in hight. The center one is bare of branches for two hundred feet above the ground. The Mother Tree is ninety-one and a half feet in circumference, and three hundred and twenty-five feet high. The Mother and Son are ninety-two feet in circumference and three hundred feet in hight, united at the base. The Twin Sisters, one hundred feet in circumference and three hundred feet in hight. The Pioneer’s Cabin is a remarkable curiosity. This tree has been partially burned; the result of the scorching is the dividing of the trunk into several compartments, which are known as the parlor, bedroom and kitchen. The hollow, which is two hundred feet in hight, is called the chimney. This tree is eighty-five feet in circumference. The Siamese Twins is ninety feet in circumference, three hundred and twenty-five feet in hight. Guardian of the Times, eighty-five feet in circumference, three hundred and twenty-five feet in hight. Uncle Tom’s Cabin, ninety-four feet in circumference, three hundred feet in hight. Pride of the Forest, eighty-seven feet in circumference, three hundred feet in hight. Beauty of the Forest, seventy-two feet in circumference, three hundred feet in hight. Two Friends, eighty-five feet in circumference, three hundred feet in hight. The above trees are all embraced in an area not exceeding half a mile in extent. The surrounding country is exceedingly picturesque and beautiful, and the scenery, at many points along the road, is said to be unsurpassed for sublimity and grandeur.

THE PALM-TREE.

Passing from California to the countries of the east, let us next glance at the palm-tree. This tree, which is called by Linnæus, from its noble and stately appearance, “the prince of the vegetable kingdom,” is of several kinds, the chief of which are the doum-palm, and the date-palm. They are chiefly found in the tropics. The doum or Theban palm, the same that is found in Florida, differs from the columnar date-palm in the form of its leaves, which are fan-like, and so thickly set as to resemble a huge bushy mop, though they are always gracefully disposed, and also in having a branching trunk. The main stem divides a few feet from the root, each of the branches again forming two, and each of these two more, till the tree receives a broad, rounded top. The fruit hangs below in clusters, resembling small cocoa-nuts, (or, says a late traveler, still more of the size, shape, and appearance of a yellowish-white potato, of full growth,) and has a sort of gingerbread flavor, which is not disagreeable. When fully dry and hard, it takes a polish like ivory, and is manufactured by the Arabs into beads, pipe-bowls and other small articles.

The more common, or date-palm, a view of which is given in the cut, produces the sweet fruit which is brought to us from Smyrna, and other ports of the Mediterranean, with which all are familiar, under the name of the date. In the regions between Barbary and the great desert, the soil, which is of a sandy nature, is so much parched by the intense heat of the sun’s rays, that none of the corn-plants will grow; and in the arid district, called the _land of dates_, the few vegetables that can be found are of the most dwarfish description. No plants arise to form the variety of food to which we are accustomed; and the natives of these districts live almost exclusively upon the fruit of the date-tree. A paste is made of this fruit by pressing it in large baskets. This paste is not used for present supply, but is intended for a provision in case of a failure in the crops of dates, which sometimes occurs, owing to the ravages committed by locusts. The date, in its natural state, forms the usual food; and the juice yielded by it when fresh, contains so much nutriment as to render those who live upon it extremely fat. As, by the Moors, corpulence is esteemed an indispensable requisite of beauty, the ladies belonging to the families of distinction among them, nourish themselves, during the season, solely with the fresh fruit, and by continuing this regimen during two or three months, they become of an enormous size! The date-palm flourishes very generally on sandy soils in the hot countries of Asia and Africa. Not always, however, is the soil that supports it so barren as the one we have described. It is frequently found by streams, and as the tired traveler sees its foliage waving afar, he hastens toward it, hoping to find a stream of water. Sometimes its tall stem is surrounded by beautiful climbing plants, and the most brilliant flowers flourish beneath. This kind of palm not only rises to a great hight, often sixty or eighty feet, but is also frequently of great diameter and strength; being unlike in this respect, some other species of palm, whose slight forms yield to the winds. It was to this tree that the psalmist alluded when he said, “The righteous shall grow as the palm-tree;” firm and unmoved by the shocks of temptation and the storms of adversity.

The clusters of dates are sometimes five feet in length, and when ripe are of a bright gold color, surrounded from above with the deep, rich leaves, as with a crown. This kind of the palm is trained to its high growth, without a single branch on its solitary, upright trunk, by trimming off the leaves every year from the young stalk; so that its strength shoots upward; and by this process, also, the bark is formed into a succession of steps or notches, by which the barefooted Arab easily mounts to the top. From the very top of the tree, the long, pointed leaves curl gracefully on every side, like the close-set frame of a parachute; and just where the broad, ridge-shaped base of the leaf adheres to the tree, the fruit hangs in clusters, all around the trunk. When its early training is neglected, the palm-tree grows less gracefully; sometimes dividing at the root into several trunks, which grow without branches to various hights, and then spread out their leafy crests. The palm-tree looks most majestic and picturesque, when it stands alone upon some broad plain or gentle bluff, and when its leaves are gently stirred by the wind. The eye then takes it in at one view, measures it by some mental standard, or disdaining all mathematical proportions, dreamily contemplates the waving lines of beauty, and the straight, slender, yet stately stalk that stands in bold relief against the stainless sky. The date-palm is unknown in the United States, except in rare garden culture; but in Egypt it grows everywhere, and is to the people food, shelter, shade, fuel, raiment, timber, divan, cordage, basket, roof, screen. Its fruit is found in perfection on the confines of Nubia.

THE BAMBOO-TREE.

Nature, or rather the great Author of nature, has conferred on the inhabitants of hot countries few gifts more valuable than the bamboo-tree, a view of which is given over the leaf. To such a multitude of useful purposes are its light, strong and graceful stems applied, that almost any other production of the vegetable world might more easily be spared than this. These stems spring from a strong-jointed, subterraneous root-stalk, which is the trunk of the tree, the shoots being the branches. They are hollow, and jointed, and of a hard, woody texture, the outside being coated with silex, and the inside consisting of a close, fibrous and very hard wood. The bamboo grows with great rapidity; and the shoots, when quite young, are sometimes cut and boiled like asparagus: but when full grown and vigorous, it becomes a large and strong tree. Its shoots vary in size, from six to one hundred and fifty feet in length. When fully grown, the bamboo is a straight rod, bearing a number of stiff branches, which shoot at nearly right angles from the main stem. It seems, at first, difficult to imagine how such a stem elevates itself through the dense mass of rigid branches, which cross each other in every direction. This is, however, arranged in a very simple manner. The young shoot, when it is first produced, is nothing but a sucker, as already said, like a shoot of asparagus; but, having a sharp point, it easily pierces the dense and overhanging branches. It is only when it has arrived at its full length, and has penetrated through all obstacles, that it forms its lateral shoots, which readily interpose themselves amid the stems. There are many species of the bamboo, all of which are useful. The young shoots, as mentioned above, are sometimes eaten as food; the full-grown stems, when ripe and hard, are converted into bows, arrows, quivers, fishing-rods, masts of vessels, bed-posts, walking-sticks, floors, supporters of rustic bridges, chairs, and a variety of other purposes. By notching their sides, the Malays form wonderfully light ladders. Bruised and crushed in water, the leaves and stems form Chinese paper; some species are used for lining tea-chests; cut into lengths, and the partitions knocked out, they form durable water-pipes. Slit into strips, they form excellent materials for weaving mats, baskets, window-blinds, and even the sails of boats. It is, however, for the purposes of building, that the bamboo is most important. The frame-work of the houses in Sumatra is chiefly composed of this material. The floors are made of the whole canes, laid close to each other. The sides are made of the stems, split and flattened, and the roof is formed of a thatch split into various strips. Great hopes are entertained of introducing this most useful tree into other countries; and, as it grows in dry and stony places, where nothing else flourishes, its introduction would be of great importance. A few species of the bamboo are found in the tropical parts of America.

THE MANNA-TREE.

Manna, in our version of the Bible, is a term applied to the food that God gave the Israelites in the wilderness. But what we now call manna, is a saccharine substance that exudes from the bark of a species of ash-tree found in the southern parts of Europe, and especially in Sicily and Calabria. At the warmest season, the tree most abounds in sap, and, accordingly, in August, the people make incisions into the bark. These are two inches long horizontally, and half an inch in depth. On incision, the manna immediately begins to flow, at first in the form of water, but it gradually becomes thicker. A leaf is inserted into the incision, which conducts the juice into a vessel placed at the foot of the tree. The liquor does not harden till it has remained some time. It has an unpleasant taste, but after the watery parts have evaporated, it is sweeter, but slightly nauseous. Manna is used in medicine as a mild aperient. It differs remarkably from common sugar, in not being susceptible of what is called vinous fermentation; so that if mixed with common sugar and yeast, and subjected to the process of fermentation, while the sugar is converted into alcohol, the manna remains unaltered in the liquor.

CONTINENTAL MONEY.

One of the curiosities, if not wonders of the world, is afforded in the Continental money, or Continental bills, issued by congress in the early stages of the Revolutionary struggle, a specimen of which may be seen in the cut. These bills were of various denominations, and were issued by thousands on thousands. But from the very great extent of their issue, and the fact that the government could not redeem them in silver and gold, they rapidly depreciated in value, till at last they became almost worthless. As they are now almost never seen, except it be in some museum, or collection of old curiosities, the _fac-simile_ given above can not fail to be of interest.

THE MILK-TREE.

That singular production of nature called the _masseranduba_, or milk-tree, is found in the tropical regions of South America, and is thus described by Wallace, in his “Travels on the Amazon.” Speaking of the various interesting objects of the journey he was making, he says: “What most interested us, however, were several large logs of the _masseranduba_, or milk-tree. On our way through the forest, we had seen some trunks much notched by persons who had been extracting the milk. It is one of the noblest trees of the forest, rising with a straight stem to an enormous hight. The timber is very hard, fine-grained, and durable, and is valuable for works which are much exposed to the weather. The fruit is eatable and very good, the size of a small apple, and full of a rich and very juicy pulp. But strangest of all is the vegetable milk, which exudes in abundance when the bark is cut. It has about the consistence of thick cream, and, but for a very slight peculiar taste, could scarcely be distinguished from the genuine product of the cow. Mr. Leavens ordered a man to tap some logs that had lain nearly a month in the yard. He cut several notches in the bark with an ax, and in a minute the rich sap was running out in great quantities. It was collected in a basin, diluted with water, strained, and brought up at tea-time, and at breakfast next morning. The peculiar flavor of the milk seemed rather to improve the quality of the tea, and gave it as good a color as rich cream. In coffee it is equally good. Mr. Leavens informed us that he had made a custard of it, and that, though it had a curious dark color, it was very well tasted. The milk is used for glue, and is said to be as durable as that made use of by carpenters. As a specimen of its capabilities in this line, Mr. Leavens showed us a violin he had made, the belly-board of which, formed of two pieces, he had glued together with it applied fresh from the tree, without any preparation. It had been done two years. The instrument had been in constant use; and the joint was now perfectly good and sound throughout its whole length. As the milk hardens by exposure to air, it becomes a very tough, slightly elastic substance, much resembling gutta percha; but not having the property of being softened by hot water, it is not likely to become so extensively useful as that article.”

THE TELEGRAPH.

Tho old-fashioned telegraph, which was in common use before the wonderful invention of the electro-magnetic telegraph by Morse, was an arrangement for the communication of intelligence by signals, or movements, previously agreed upon; which signals represented letters, words, or ideas, which could thus be transmitted from one station to another, as far as the signals could be seen. It was first devised in France, about 1793 or 1794, and soon became extensively adopted and used in other nations. A good idea of its appearance may be formed from the cut below. It consisted of a mast, or frame, in connection with shutters, or sliding-boards, worked by ropes pulled like bell-ropes, and exhibiting, in all, sixty-three signals; by which were represented the nine digits, the letters of the alphabet, and several generic words: and, sometimes, to these were added other signals, expressive of entire phrases. The observers at these telegraphs were not expected to keep their eye constantly at the glass, but to look only every five minutes for the signal to make ready. The telescopes used for observation, were commonly what are called Dolland’s achromatics, which possess no recommendation but their enlarged field, and their freedom from prismatic colors in that field; points of no consequence in looking through a fixed glass at a fixed and circumscribed object. Sometimes a common and powerful spy-glass was found sufficient. In the use of this kind of telegraph, dead flats or levels were found to be universally unfavorable; and generally stations were found to be useless nearly in the proportion of the miles of dead flat looked over. On the contrary, stations between hill and hill, looking across a valley, or a series of valleys, were found to be mostly clear; and water surfaces were found to produce fewer obscure days than land in any situation. The period least favorable of the same day was an hour or two before and after the sun’s passage of the meridian, particularly on dead levels, where the play of the sun’s rays on the rising exhalations, renders distant vision exceedingly obscure. The tranquillity of the morning and evening were ascertained to be the most favorable hours for observation.

The old line of this kind of telegraph between London and Portsmouth, had twelve stations; and another chain from London to Yarmouth, had nineteen stations. The distances of the stations averaged about eight miles, yet some of them extended to twelve or fourteen; and the lines were often increased by circuits, for want of commanding hights. After about twenty years’ experience, they found they could calculate on about two hundred days on which signals could be transmitted throughout the day; about sixty others on which they could pass only part of the day, or at particular stations; and about one hundred days in which few of the stations were visible to each other. A message from London to Portsmouth, was usually transmitted in about fifteen minutes; but, by an experiment tried for the purpose, a single signal has been transmitted to Plymouth and back again in _three minutes_, which, by the telegraph route, is at least five hundred miles. In this instance, however, notice had been given to make ready, and every captain was at his post to receive and return the signals. The progress was at the rate of one hundred and seventy miles in a minute, or three miles a second, or three seconds at each station; a rapidity truly wonderful for so imperfect an apparatus! And yet, clumsy and slow-moving as all this now seems to us, it was the best telegraph known before the invention of Morse. In contrast to it, let us turn to the latter.

THE ELECTRO-MAGNETIC TELEGRAPH.

The invention of this wonderful instrument, it is now universally admitted, is due to Professor S. F. B. Morse, of whom some one has well said, that “_if Franklin brought the lightning from heaven, Morse both tamed it, and taught it the English language_.” So early as 1822, Mr. Morse described his invention to reliable witnesses; and having obtained an appropriation from Congress, for the purpose of testing it on an extended scale, he set up the wires from Washington to Baltimore, a distance of about forty miles, and thus established the first electro-magnetic telegraph ever known, and the parent of that wonderful system that now threads every continent, conveying messages literally on the lightning’s wing. A view of the instrument used for transmitting messages, is given in the cut below. By this instrument connecting with the wires, messages are either written or printed; by the system of House, in actual letters, and by the systems of Morse and Bain, in a cipher.

The telegraphic wires having been extended throughout the United States and the continent of Europe, it is now proposed to carry them _under the Atlantic_, and so connect America and Europe. The plan now is, to carry the cable from the northernmost point of the Highlands of Scotland to Iceland, by way of the Orkney, Shetland and Ferroe islands; to lay it from Iceland across to the nearest point in Greenland, thence down the coast to Cape Farewell, where the cable would again take to the water, span Davis’s straits, and then go across Labrador and Upper Canada to Quebec. Here it would lock in with the North American meshwork of wires, which hold themselves out like an open hand for the European grasp. This plan seems quite feasible, for in no part of the journey would the cable require to be more than nine hundred miles long; and as it seems pretty certain that a sand-bank extends, with good soundings, all the way to Cape Farewell, there would be little difficulty in mooring the cable to a level and soft bottom.

Among the most startling wonders in connection with electricity and the telegraph, is the announcement that M. Bonelli, of Turin, has invented a new electric telegraph, by which trains _in motion_ on a railway are enabled to communicate with each other at all rates of velocity, and, at the same time, with the telegraphic stations on the line; while the latter are, at the same time, able to communicate with the trains. It is added, that M. Bonelli is in possession of a system of telegraphic communication by which wires are entirely dispensed with.

THE ART OF PRINTING.

From the telegraph, to printing, and the printing-press, is but a step; and one that is naturally suggested. The origin of printing is involved in mystery. Some think it was practiced as far back as the building of Babylon. The Romans, we know, had metal stamps with which they marked words and names on their various articles; but having no paper, they could hardly be said to _print_. Printing from engraved blocks of wood, was practiced by the Chinese nearly fifty years before the Christian era. But the credit of first introducing movable types, is commonly attributed to John Fust, or Faust, of Mentz, who is represented, in the cut on the next page, as looking, with his associates, at the first proof taken from movable types. This was supposed to be not far from the year 1450. Between 1450 and 1455, the celebrated “Mentz Bible” appeared, without date; and this was the occasion of the art being discovered by the public. Next followed the “Psalter,” in 1457; and from this time, printing rapidly spread throughout Europe. William Caxton was the first to introduce printing into England, about 1474. The first book in which Greek types appear, was printed in 1465; and the first using the Roman character, in 1467.

Printing-presses were gradually improved. The old-fashioned press was made of wood, with an iron screw that had a bar fitted in it; and to the lower end of this screw was attached, horizontally, a flat piece of wood, called the _platen_, which was brought down by means of the screw, and pressed the paper on the face of the types, and thus the impression was given. This kind of presses, however, soon gave place to those made of iron. The Stanhope press was a great improvement on anything that had gone before it; and the Caledonian press, invented by George Clymer, an American, was a great improvement, in many respects, on the latter. The press represented in the cut on the following page, on which Franklin printed, was one of these old-fashioned hand-presses, on which it would have been a hard day’s work to print twenty-five hundred impressions, or twelve hundred and fifty sheets on both sides, in a day. After a time, a plan was devised of obtaining impressions from types by means of cylinders; and in 1804, the idea was started, of applying steam-power to printing-presses. It was not, however, till after years of experiments, and an immense outlay of capital, that the invention was brought to a successful issue, so as to be advantageously applied in practice. When, however, in 1814, the machine was completed, it was adopted in the office of the London Times newspaper, and was thus spoken of in the papers of the day.

“A new printing-press, or printing-engine, has recently excited the attention of the typographical world. It is wrought by the power of steam, and, with the aid of three boys, perfects nearly a thousand sheets per hour. A common press, worked by two men, takes off but two hundred and fifty impressions on one side, and requires eight hours to _perfect_ a thousand sheets. Hence, three boys in one hour are enabled, by this new application of the power of steam, to perform the labor of two men for eight hours. Such are the present capabilities of this engine: but as there is no limit to its required powers, and the size of the _form_ is no obstacle to its perfect performance, it is proposed to take impressions on double-demy, in which case three boys will, in one hour, perform the labor of thirty-two men. This engine is now at work at the printing-office of Bensley & Sons, near Fleet street, and another on a similar (but less perfect) construction, has for some time past been employed on a morning newspaper. In its general analogy, this press is not unlike the rolling-press of copper-plate printers. The forms being fixed on the _carriage_, are drawn under a cylinder, on which the sheet being laid, and the ink distributed by an arrangement of rollers, the impression is taken on one side. The sheet is then conveyed off by bands to a second cylinder, around which it is conveyed on the _second form_, and the _reiteration_ is produced in _perfect register_, without the aid of _points_. All the manual labor is performed by a boy, who lays the sheet of paper on the first cylinder, by one who takes it off from the second cylinder, and by a third, who lays the sheets even on the _bank_. As a further instance of economy in the materials, we may mention, that the waste steam from the copper is carried in tubes round the entire suit of offices, with a view to warm them.”

Passing on, over various improvements, we come, last of all, to what thus far is the perfection of all printing-machines, _viz._, _Hoe’s eight-cylinder power-press_, a view of which is given in the cut on the following page. This immense printing-machine is thirty-three feet long, fourteen feet and eight inches high, and six feet wide. It has one large central cylinder on which the type is secured, and eight smaller cylinders arranged around it, at convenient distances. Eight persons supply the eight small cylinders with the sheets, and at each revolution of the large cylinder, eight impressions are given off, the sheets being delivered in neat order by the machine itself. The limit to the speed is in the ability of the eight persons to supply the sheets. At the rate of twenty-five hundred sheets to each, the press would give off the unparalleled number of twenty thousand printed impressions per hour. The press is thus far used exclusively for newspaper and similar printing. What it may next be applied to, or what will be the next stride in the rapidity and perfection of printing, only the future can reveal.

Before leaving the subject of printing, it may not be uninteresting to mention, that a _composing_, or type-setting machine, is said to have been recently invented, in Denmark. One who has seen it in operation, says: “It is now in actual operation in the office of the Fædrelandet. Instead of the usual cases and composing-sticks, and the compositor standing at his work, we see a person sitting before a machine with keys like a piano, which he plays on incessantly, and every touch on the tangent is followed by a click; the letter already in its place in the long mahogany channel prepared for it. The whole is excessively ingenious. In fact it is fairy work. The most wonderful part is that it distributes the already used types at the same time that it sets the new page, and with an exactness perfectly sure. No mistake can ever occur. The compositor, by this machine, does four times as much work as another workman; but as he requires an assistant to line and page the set type, this brings it to twice the amount of type set. The whole is so clean and pleasant, that it will probably soon be a favorite employment for women. The machine occupies a very small space, not more than a large chair, and is beautifully made of hard woods, brass and steel. Its success is now beyond all doubt. The proprietors of the Fædrelandet are so gratified by the one they now have, that they have ordered another. The price is twenty-four hundred Danish dollars. It will last, apparently, for a century or two without repair. Mr. Sorenson, the inventor, himself a compositor all his life, kindly shows the machine to any visitor. Of course, a compositor can not set with this machine at once; it will take a short time, a few days, for him to become familiar with the details, but he is then a gentleman compared to his old comrades.”

THE INDIA-RUBBER TREE.

India-rubber, called, also, _caoutchouc_, is produced from several different trees, all of them of the _ficus_, or fig species. The _ficus elasticus_ is the tree from which it is chiefly obtained. This is a native both of India and of South America; and its general appearance may be seen in the cut below. When the bark is cut or broken, it gives forth a milky liquid, which, being exposed to the air, produces the gum elastic which is so much in use among us. It is now about a hundred years since it was first introduced into Europe. For a long time it was only used to erase the marks of lead-pencils. The natives of South America had, however, long employed it, as we do now, for boots and shoes. They also smear the inside of baskets with it, thus providing a tough and tight lining. In the vicinity of Quito, they make it into a kind of cloth. Its multiplied uses in the United States and Europe, are familiar to every reader. In a volume lately published in New York, entitled “Scenes and Adventures on the Banks of the Amazon,” is found the following account of this singular and most useful tree.

“A number of blacks, bearing long poles on their shoulders, thickly strung with India-rubber shoes, also attracted our attention. These are for the most part manufactured in the interior, and are brought down the river for sale by the natives. It has been estimated that at least two hundred and fifty thousand pairs of shoes are annually exported from the province, and the number is constantly increasing. A few words here respecting the tree itself, and the manufacture of the shoes, may not be out of place. The tree is quite peculiar in its appearance, and sometimes reaches the hight of eighty and even a hundred feet. The trunk is perfectly round, rather smooth, and protected by a bark of a light color. The leaves grow in clusters of three together, are thin, and of an ovate form, and are from ten to fifteen inches in length. The center leaf of the cluster is always the longest. This remarkable tree bears a curious fruit of the size of a peach, which, although not very palatable, is eagerly sought after by different animals. It is separated into three lobes, which contain each a small black nut. The trees are tapped in the same manner that the New Englanders tap maple-trees; the trunk having been perforated, a yellowish liquid, resembling cream, flows out, which is caught in small clay cups fastened to the tree. When these become full, their contents are emptied into large earthen jars, in which the liquid is kept until desired for use. The operation of making the shoes is as simple as it is interesting. Imagine yourself in one of the seringa groves of Brazil. Around you are a number of good-looking natives of low stature and olive complexions. One is stirring, with a long wooden stick, the contents of a caldron, placed over a pile of blazing embers. This is the liquid as it was taken from the rubber tree. Into this a wooden ‘last,’ covered with clay, and having a handle, is plunged. A coating of the liquid remains. Another native then takes the ‘last,’ and holds it in the smoke arising from the ignition of a species of palm fruit, for the purpose of causing the glutinous substance to assume a dark color. The ‘last’ is then plunged again into the caldron, and this process is repeated as in dipping candles, until the coating is of the required thickness. You will moreover notice a number of Indian girls engaged in making various impressions, such as flowers, &c., upon the soft surface of the rubber, by means of their thumb-nails, which are especially pared and cultivated for that purpose. After this final operation, the shoes are placed in the sun to harden, and large numbers of them may be seen laid out on mats in exposed situations. The aboriginal name of the rubber is _cahchu_, from which the formidable word of _caoutchouc_ is derived.”

THE ROUND TOWER AT NEWPORT.

“The tower”—“the old round tower”—“the old stone tower,” at Newport, Rhode Island, if not one of the wonders of the world, has at least excited wonder enough in some of its inhabitants, and been a monument of deep interest to the traveler, the antiquarian, the controversialist, and the poet. Its appearance may be seen in the cut below, which is taken from a drawing made on the spot. For a long time it was the prevailing belief, that it was built by the Northmen, who, it was supposed, coasted along the New England shores as early as the twelfth century. Even the society of Danish antiquaries, gravely came to this conclusion, from some drawings and accounts that were sent them; and the discovery of a “skeleton in armor,” on the main land, near Newport, gave currency to this impression. Later investigations, however, have settled the point that it was originally built _for a windmill_, about 1676. It is about seventy-five feet above high-water level in the harbor, and about one hundred and twenty rods from the shore. Thus has been dissipated the foundation of many a wild theory, and many a joyous hoax of other days.

DIVING ARMOR.

The mention of the India-rubber tree, on a previous page, suggests the application of the valuable substance derived from it, to one of its many important uses, _viz._, to the _submarine_ or _diving armor_. This is represented in the cut below, where the diver, or person about to descend into the sea, is seen encased with a water-proof dress, made chiefly of India rubber. His feet are heavily loaded with boots which have soles made of thick plates of lead. On his head is a helmet-shaped covering, made of iron, from which rises a hose, through which fresh air is forced to him, by powerful air-pumps, when he is under the water. This helmet, which is well padded, is furnished with two glass eyes, which are protected by wire gratings. Around the waist is a strong girdle provided with iron rings, one on each side, from which ascend cords to the persons in the boat from which the diver descends, for the purpose not only of aiding to guide him over the rocks, and helping him to an upright position, but to serve for signalizing in case of sudden danger or accident, and as a means of hauling him up when required. Thus although the diver is at perfect liberty to direct his own movements, he is still held in leading-strings from the boat, and all his motions are vigilantly watched and cared for by his companions above. To aid him in keeping under water, the diver also wears two heavy plates of lead, one in front and the other behind, which are so adjusted as to leave his arms at liberty, and at the same time give equilibrium to his submerged body. In this case, he also has a bag in front, into which he may put valuables of small size picked up in the deep, such, for example, as pearls, or amber, both of which have been sought for by persons thus equipped.

The method of exploring with this armor, is seen in the second cut, where the diver is represented as below the water, while his companions are in the boat above, some of them holding the ropes, some pumping down air, and others holding the ladder, while the diver himself is picking up some object of value from the bottom of the sea. This armor has been used in searching for amber, pearls, lost treasure, &c., &c. And when, some years since, the United States steam-frigate Missouri was sunk in Gibraltar harbor, so as to obstruct navigation, and all attempts by distinguished English engineers to raise her had proved in vain, an American, going down in the above-described armor, explored her position, and then contracted to blow her to pieces, which he successfully accomplished, though she was in twenty-six feet water, and covered by fifteen feet of sand. In doing this, he consumed forty-three thousand pounds of powder, raised sixteen hundred tuns of iron, and some eight hundred tuns of oysters that had grown to the iron. All his men were clothed in the submarine armor, and so perfect was the management, that not a life was lost, and not an accident happened during the whole of the operation.

In this connection, the recently invented “Nautilus diving-bell” is worthy of notice. This bell is provided with air-tight compartments, which hold either air or water, as ascent or descent is required: and is so ballasted that, when filled with water, buoyancy is destroyed, and the machine gradually sinks. Expel the water from the tanks, and the machine comes of course at once to the surface. By opening a valve near the bottom of the bell, the water enters through a pipe into the tanks; the air at the same time escaping through a valve at the top, opened or closed by the operator at will. Descent is thus effected. On the contrary, let air be turned into the tanks, escape at top be closed, and valves at bottom opened, water is expelled and ascent secured. To raise heavy weights, a greater or less amount of water is expelled. Suspension-chains attached to weight, immediately tighten; machine and weight become buoyant, and then by cables attached to anchors working through stuffing-boxes, windlasses may be transported to any desired spot, and there deposited. Free communication may be held with the bottom through an opening of between twelve and fifty square feet, according to size of bell, closed by an iron door, and secured by bolts. By throwing the door back, an equilibrium between air and water may be attained at any depth, by greater or less amounts of air, as determined by suitable gauges permanently fastened in the bell. Such is the ingenious mechanism of this wonderful contrivance.

TREE-HOUSE IN CAFFRARIA.

In Caffraria, in Africa, there is an “inhabited tree,” which travelers thus describe: “It stands at the base of a range of mountains, due east from Kurrichaine, in a place called ‘Ongorutcie Fountain.’ Its gigantic limbs contain seventeen conical huts. These are used as dwellings, being beyond the reach of the lions, which, since the incursion of the Mantates from the adjoining country, when so many thousands of persons were massacred, have become very numerous in the neighborhood, and destructive to human life. The branches of the tree are supported by forked sticks, or poles, and there are three tiers, or platforms, on which the huts are constructed. The lowest is nine feet from the ground, and holds ten huts; the second, about eight feet high, has three huts; and the upper story, if it may be so called, contains four. The ascent to these is made by notches cut in the supporting poles; and the huts are built with twigs, thatched with straw, and will contain ten persons, conveniently.”

A view of one of these trees is given in the cut on the previous page. Other villages have been seen by travelers, built somewhat similarly to the above; but these were erected on stakes, instead of trees, about eight feet above the ground, about forty feet square, larger in some places, and containing about seventy or eighty huts. The inhabitants sit under the shade of these platforms during the day, and retire at night to the huts above.

THE RAINING-TREE.

The island of Fierro is one of the most considerable of the Canaries, and some suppose its name to have been given upon this account: that its soil, not affording so much as a drop of fresh water, seems to be of iron; and, indeed, there is in this island neither rivulet, nor well, nor spring, save that only toward the seaside there are some wells; but they lie at such a distance from the city, that the inhabitants can make no use thereof. But the great Preserver and Sustainer of all, remedies this inconvenience by a way so extraordinary, that we can but sit down and acknowledge that he gives in this, undeniable demonstration of his goodness and infinite providence. For in the midst of the island, says a late traveler, there is a tree, which is the only one of the kind, insomuch that it hath no resemblance to those mentioned by us in this relation, nor to any other known to us in Europe. The leaves of it are long and narrow, and continue in constant verdure, winter and summer; and its branches are covered with a cloud, which is never dispelled, but resolved into a moisture, causing to fall from its leaves a very clear water, and that in such abundance, that the cisterns, which are placed at the foot of the tree to receive it, are never empty, but contain enough to supply both man and beast.

THE TRAVELER’S FRIEND.

Somewhat like the tree last mentioned, is one which is found in Madagascar, and which, from its property of yielding water, is called “the traveler’s friend.” It differs from most other trees in having all its branches in one plane, like the sticks of a fan or the feathers of a peacock’s tail. At the extremity of each branch grows a broad double leaf, several feet in length, which spreads itself out very gracefully. These leaves radiate heat so rapidly after sunset, that a copious deposition of dew takes place upon them, which, soon collecting into drops, forms little streams, which run down the branches to the trunk. Here it is received into hollow spaces of considerable magnitude, one of which is found at the root of every branch. These branches lie one over the other alternately, and when a knife, or, which is better, a flat piece of stick (for it is not necessary to cut the tree) is inserted between the parts which overlap, and slightly drawn to one side, so as to cause an opening, a stream of water gushes out as if from a fountain. Hence the appropriate name of “the traveler’s friend.”

THE CAMPHOR-TREE.

The camphor-tree, a view of which is given in the cut below, grows naturally in the woods of Japan, and in many of the islands of the far distant Pacific ocean. The part which smells stronger of camphor than any other, is the root, which yields it in great quantities. The bark of the stalk has outwardly rather a rough appearance; the inner surface is smooth and mucous, and is very easily separated from the wood, which is dry in its nature, and white in its color. The leaves stand upon slender, delicate foot-stalks, having an entire undulating margin running out into a point; the upper surface of the leaf is of a lively, shining green, and the lower, herbaceous and silky. The flowers are produced on the tops of footstalks, which proceed from the arm-pits of the leaves, but not till the tree has attained considerable age and size. The flower-stalks are slender, branched at the top, and divided into very short pedicles, each supporting a single flower; these flowers are white, and consist of six petals, which are succeeded by a shining purple berry, of the size of a pea. This is composed of a soft, pulpy substance, of a purple color, having the taste of cloves and camphor, and of a kernel of the size of a pepper, which is covered with a black, shining skin, of an insipid taste.

The _camphor_ is a solid concrete juice, extracted from the wood of the camphor-tree. Pure camphor is very white, clear, and unctuous to the touch: the taste is bitterish-aromatic, and accompanied with a sense of coolness: the smell is particularly fragrant, something like that of rosemary, but much stronger. It has been long esteemed for its medicinal qualities, and has been justly celebrated in fevers, malignant and epidemic distempers. In delirium, where opiates failed in procuring sleep, but rather increased and aggravated the symptoms, this medicine has been often found to procure it. Physicians attribute these effects to its sedative qualities. It is a powerful medicine, capable of doing great good or harm. It is said to be poisonous to animals, often putting them into a sleep from which they never waken.

THE CINNAMON-PLANT.

This plant grows most abundantly in Ceylon, and is thus described by Bishop Heber. After speaking of the visits of a forenoon, he adds: “In the afternoon we drove through the far-famed cinnamon-gardens, which cover upward of seventeen thousand acres of land on the coast, the largest of which are near Colombo. The plant thrives best in a poor, sandy soil, in a damp atmosphere. It grows wild in the woods to the size of an apple-tree, but when cultivated is never allowed to grow more than ten or twelve feet in hight, each plant standing separate. The leaf is something like the laurel in shape, but of a lighter color. When it first shoots out it is red, and changes gradually to green. It is now out of blossom, but I am told the blossom is white, and spreads, when in full blossom, to cover the garden. After hearing so much of the spicy gales from this island, I was much disappointed at not being able to discover any scent, at least from the plants. In passing through the gardens, there is a very fragrant-smelling flower growing under them, which at first led us into the belief that we smelt the cinnamons, but we were soon undeceived. On pulling off a leaf or twig, you perceived the spicy odor very strongly, but I was surprised to hear that the flower had little or none. As the cinnamon forms the only considerable export of Ceylon, it is of course preserved with care. By the old Dutch law the penalty for cutting a branch was no less than the loss of a hand; at present a fine expiates the offense. The neighborhood of Colombo is particularly favorable to its growth, being well sheltered, with a high, equable temperature, and as showers fall frequently, the ground is never parched.”

THE TREE TEMPLE.