Chapter I: Part 1

Cyphocrania Goliath (reduced). [_Frontispiece._]

THE YOUNG COLLECTOR'S

HANDBOOK

OF

Ants, Bees, Dragon Flies, Earwigs,
Crickets, and Flies

(_HYMENOPTERA_, _NEUROPTERA_, _ORTHOPTERA_,
_HEMIPTERA_, _DIPTERA_).

BY

W. HARCOURT BATH.

SECOND EDITION.

LONDON:
SWAN SONNENSCHEIN & CO.,
PATERNOSTER SQUARE.

1890.

Printed by Hazell, Watson, & Viney, Ld., London and Aylesbury.

PREFACE.

Most boys have a fondness for forming collections of various objects, such as Foreign Stamps, Crests, and Coins; but very few comparatively collect Natural Objects. Now it will be admitted by all that the collecting of Natural Objects, such as Insects, Shells, Plants, Fossils, Minerals, etc., possesses immense advantages over that of Foreign Stamps and the like; for the former, besides satisfying the collecting ambitions, also cultivates the observant and intellectual faculties, while at the same time affording healthful recreation in the fields and woods.

Again, a mere collector's province may be exhausted in a few years, whereas the study and observation of Natural History, which are the usual "fruits" of collecting Natural Objects, are practically inexhaustible.

Another great advantage which Natural History possesses, is that it may be prosecuted with very little expense, and is therefore a subject which even the poorest person may conveniently undertake.

This little handbook is intended to be a "Guide to Collecting Insects," which by way of Natural History, we may remark, is becoming more popular every day in this country. Hitherto, however, there have been very few books published on Entomology for beginners, but for those who wish to go more deeply into the subject than the present brief manual can pretend, we would strongly recommend them to obtain Mr. Kirby's excellent illustrated "Text-Book of Entomology" (Swan Sonnenschein & Co.), to which work we are greatly indebted for much valuable and interesting information.

CONTENTS

PAGE

INTRODUCTION 9

ORDER HYMENOPTERA 13

ORDER NEUROPTERA 34

ORDER ORTHOPTERA 52

ORDER HEMIPTERA 64

ORDER DIPTERA 86

THE YOUNG COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK

OF

Ants, Bees, Dragon Flies, Earwigs, Crickets and Flies.

INTRODUCTION.

By the Linnæan system insects are divided into seven great Natural Orders--namely, Coleoptera, Orthoptera, Neuroptera, Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, Hemiptera, and Diptera.

Of these, the Lepidoptera or Butterflies and Moths, and the Coleoptera or Beetles, have hitherto received the lion's share of attention, though this is less exclusively the case than it was some few years ago.

Any one who wishes to commence the study of these two orders now will have to work very hard indeed before he can hope to put anything new on record concerning them. There is, however, a very wide field for research and discovery open to all who will turn their attention to the other groups, and it is with the intention of encouraging the study of these "Neglected Orders" that we have written the present little handbook.

* * * * *

The orders which we here intend to treat of are the following:--

_The Hymenoptera_, including the Bees, Wasps, Ants, Saw Flies, Gall Flies, Ichneumon Flies, and their allies.

_The Neuroptera_, including the Dragon Flies, Day Flies, Lacewing Flies, Stone Flies, Caddis Flies, and their allies.

_The Orthoptera_, including the Grasshoppers, Locusts, Crickets, Cockroaches, Earwigs, and their allies.

_The Hemiptera_, including the Bugs, Skaters, Lantern Flies, Frog Hoppers, Aphides, and their allies.

_The Diptera_, including the Gnats, Midges, Crane Flies, Hawk Flies, Bee Flies, Breeze Flies, Bot Flies, and their allies.

The number of insects is so large (about 13,000 different kinds are found in our own country alone) that it will be found impossible by any one to collect the whole at once; and to study them all is completely out of the question. A single insect, indeed, is ample to occupy a whole lifetime in the elucidation of its life history. Most persons, when they commence to study insects, collect indiscriminately everything which comes in their way; but they soon find the subject too immense for them to grasp as a whole, and they either give up collecting altogether, or else confine their attention to a single group or order of insects. We would recommend every young person to make up his mind at the first which group or groups of insects he has a special fondness or liking for. Having done so, he will require to know the best means of attaining his object--namely, the formation of a collection. A few hints, therefore, as to the mode of collecting and preserving insects in general may be of assistance to the young collector.

First of all, as to the apparatus necessary for collecting insects.

This will be found very simple and inexpensive. A butterfly net is, perhaps, the most useful requisite. An ordinary cane-gauze net will do well. A good stock of chip pill-boxes will also be needed. These can be purchased from the shop of any Natural History dealer at about 3_d._ per dozen, nested (in four sizes).

For collecting aquatic insects and their _larvæ_ we shall require a water net, made of fine zinc-gauze, about six inches in diameter, to group about among stones and other rubbish at the bottom of pools and ditches. This instrument should be made so as to slip on and off a walking-stick when required.

A killing bottle charged with cyanide of potassium or with chopped laurel leaves completes the outfit.

Little need be said as regards the mode of collecting insects, as their habits may be gathered from the following pages.

They may be found almost everywhere, in woods, fields, gardens, in pools, ditches, canals, and rivers, under dead leaves and the bark of trees, among moss and stones, etc., etc. They may also be found at all times of the year; even in the depth of winter some species may be met with.

Most insects may be preserved in the same manner as Butterflies and Moths. They should be set on flat setting-boards, and left to dry thoroughly before being removed.

The smaller species may be gummed to cardboard in a similar way to Beetles.

In the arrangement of the insects in the cabinet the classification and order given in these pages may be followed. About half-a-dozen of each species will be found a convenient number to collect.

ORDER HYMENOPTERA.

INCLUDING THE BEES, WASPS, ANTS, ICHNEUMON FLIES, SAW FLIES, GALL FLIES, AND THEIR ALLIES.

The _Hymenoptera_ belongs to one of the most interesting and extensive orders of insects. The structure and habits of the different species which it includes are very various. Their marvellous instincts have excited the admiration and wonderment of the philosophers of all ages. They are, indeed, by far the most intelligent of insects, being greatly in advance of any other group known to exist. The _Hymenoptera_ are mandibulate insects, their mouths being formed for biting, and they undergo complete metamorphoses. Perhaps the most striking external distinctive character is to be found in the structure of the wings, both pairs of which are membranous; and another peculiarity of equal importance is the condition of the prothorax, which is reduced to very small dimensions. In the majority of the _Hymenoptera_ the females are provided with stings, which serve many purposes, independently of weapons of defence. Many families, however, do not possess stings.

Many of the _Hymenoptera_ feed on plants and trees, but probably the greater number are parasitic on other insects.

This order includes the bees, wasps, ants, saw flies, gall flies, ichneumon flies, and many other familiar insects.

The following will show the principal characteristics of each group into which the order has been divided.

_Tribe 1, Aculeata._--Generally social insects, consisting of males, females, and neuters. Ovipositor modified into a sting. _Larvæ_, footless grubs.

_Tribe 2, Entomophaga._--Mostly parasitic on the eggs and larvæ of other insects. Ovipositor used as a borer. _Larvæ_, footless grubs.

_Tribe 3, Phytophaga._--Principally vegetable feeders. Ovipositor used as a borer. _Larvæ_ having six or more legs.

TABULAR VIEW

OF THE

PRINCIPAL FAMILIES OF THE HYMENOPTERA.

TRIBE I. ACULEATA.

_Section 1. Anthophila._

Family 1. Aphidæ or Honey Bees.
Family 2. Andrenidæ or Burrowing Bees.

_Section 2. Diploptera._

Family 3. Vespidæ or Social Wasps.
Family 4. Eumenidæ or Bramble Wasps.
Family 5. Masaridæ or Solitary Wasps.

_Section 3. Fossores._

Family 6. Philanthidæ or Bee-eating Wasps.
Family 7. Crabronidæ or Sand Wasps.
Family 8. Nyssonidæ or Fly-eating Wasps.
Family 9. Larridæ or Black Wasps.
Family 10. Sphegidæ or Grasshopper-eating Wasps.
Family 11. Pompilidæ or Burrowing Wasps.
Family 12. Bembecidæ or Scented Wasps.
Family 13. Sapygidæ or Bees' Nest Wasps.
Family 14. Scoliidæ or Beetle-eating Ants.
Family 15. Thymidæ or Stout-bodied Ants.
Family 16. Mutillidæ or Solitary Ants.

_Section 4. Heterogyna._

Family 17. Formicidæ or Social Ants.

TRIBE II. ENTOMOPHAGA.

Family 18. Cympidæ or Gall Flies.
Family 19. Chalcididæ or Little Gall Flies.
Family 20. Proctotrypidæ or Bee Parasites.
Family 21. Braconidæ or Butterfly Parasites.
Family 22. Ichneumonidæ or Ichneumon Flies.
Family 23. Evaniidæ or Beetle Parasites.
Family 24. Chrysididæ or Golden Wasps.

TRIBE III. PHYTOPHAGA.

Family 25. Sericidæ or Tailed Wasps.
Family 26. Tenthredinidæ or Saw Flies.

TRIBE I.--ACULEATA.

The _Aculeata_ contains the great majority of the _Hymenoptera_. Their principal characteristic is that the ovipositor of the female in most of the groups is modified into a sting. The _larvæ_ are footless grubs. This tribe is divided into four sections, which are again subdivided into seventeen families, each of which it is our intention to discuss in their proper order.

_Section 1.--Anthophila._

_Family 1, Aphidæ._--This family contains the numerous species of honey bees which are familiar to all of us. They are very varied in their structure, colours, and habits. Many species are social, while many others are solitary. The common Hive Bee (_Apis mellifica_) belongs to the former class. There is, perhaps, no insect which has attracted so much notice as this species. Volumes have been written respecting it, and philosophers in all ages of the world's history have spent their whole lifetime in the elucidation of its economy.

In southern Europe, notably in Italy, a much brighter-coloured and finer insect is found, distinguished especially by having yellow transverse bands on the abdomen. This bee was long supposed to be a distinct species, and was described under the name of _Apis ligustica_, but it is now regarded as merely a variety. This bee has been introduced into all the northern parts of Europe.

Several species of Humble Bees are very common in this country. One of the best known is the _Bombus terrestris_, the large females of which may attain a length of nearly an inch. This is a large black insect with the extremity yellow.

In another rather smaller species, _Bombus lucorum_, the extremity of the abdomen is white. Both these species are subterranean bees, forming their nests in banks, etc.

Of the moss-builders, the best known, perhaps, is the _Bombus muscorum_, the largest specimens of which measure about two-thirds of an inch long.

Another species, _Bombus lapidarius_, is so called from a preference it shows for making its nests under stones. The end of the abdomen of this bee is bright orange-red.

Of the solitary bees a very common black species is _Anthophora acervorum_, which is usually found in abundance in the spring in the neighbourhood of banks and cliffs.

The violet Carpenter Bee (_Xylocopa violacea_), which chiefly inhabits the south of Europe, is a very pretty insect with violet-coloured wings.

The Mason Bee (_Chalicodoma muraria_) builds its nest, composed of fine grains of sand, very firmly united by a salivary secretion, upon the surface of walls and similar situations. This species has hitherto not been met with in this country.

The Horned Bee (_Osmia bicornis_) is remarkable for the female having two little horns projecting from the front of her head. This insect usually burrows in sandy banks and cliffs. Another allied species (_Osmia hirta_) burrows in wood, whilst two others (_Osmia bicolor_ and _aurulenta_) select ready-made nests in the shells of the common snails (_Helix hortensis_ and _H. nemoralis_), within the whorls of which they build their cells of gnawed vegetable material.

The Leaf-cutting Bees, which belong to the genus _Megachile_, are also very interesting in their habits.

_Family 2, Andrenidæ._--All the insects belonging to this family are solitary in their habits. The species are very numerous in this country. Many of them burrow in the ground, while others have been observed to make their nests in bramble stick. They are usually smooth, black insects, very unlike bees in appearance. The females have no apparatus for carrying pollen either on the legs or on the abdomen.

_Section 2.--Diploptera._

_Family 3, Vespidæ._--The Social Wasps, which belong to this family, are very well known everywhere in this country. In their general structure they resemble the bees, but are usually much more slender in appearance, and also much less hairy.

The general habits of these wasps are pretty uniform except in the matter of their architecture, and in this respect they display a remarkable variety.

Besides the common Wasp (_Vespa vulgaris_) two other species found in this country, which build their nests in the ground, follow the same principles in the construction of their nests.

The Hornet (_Vespa crabo_), which is remarkable for its large size, usually builds its nest in the hollow of a tree. Both the hornet and common wasp sometimes build their nests under the eaves of houses or attached to a beam under the roof; and in these cases the outer covering of the nest is thinner and more delicate in texture than when the dwelling is exposed to the vicissitudes of the weather. Another common species inhabiting Britain is the Wood Wasp (_Vespa sylvestris_), which builds nests suspended from the branches of trees.

_Family 4, Eumenidæ._--One of the commonest and best-known species belonging to this family is the Wall Wasp (_Odynerus parietum_), which may be almost constantly seen haunting sunny walls during the months of June and July. It makes its burrows in walls and high banks, while many other allied species form their nests in the hollow stems of brambles.

_Family 5, Masaridæ._--This family contains the great bulk of the solitary wasps, which, however, are principally inhabitants of warm climates.

The _Masaridæ_ are a small group of black-yellow belted wasps, which are found in the south of Europe, but not in Britain, two of the commonest species being _Celonites apiformis_ and _Ceramius fonscolombi_.

_Section 3.--Fossores._

_Family 6, Philanthidæ._--Most of the species belonging to this family are black with yellow spots and bands, and most of them are inhabitants of the warmer parts of the earth. Some of the species provision their nests with beetles and grasshoppers, while others attack bees, and are very mischievous, destroying great numbers.

_Family 7, Crabronidæ._--This family includes a considerable number of solitary species of wasps. In colour they are generally black spotted and striped with yellow, but many of them are bright red.

The typical genus _Crabro_ is a very extensive one, including over 150 species, a great proportion of which are inhabitants of Europe, while even Britain possesses more than thirty.

_Crabro cribrarius_ is the largest British species. Its food consists principally of gnats and other dipterous insects. This insect and many others burrow in the ground, generally in hard sandbanks. Another species (_Crabro brevis_) frequents similar situations, and has been known to provision its nest with small beetles.

_Family 8, Nyssonidæ._--This family is not a numerous one comparatively.

_Mellinus arvensis_ is a black insect, about half an inch in length, with stripes on the abdomen and yellow legs. It provisions its nest with flies, and not being able to capture them by swiftness, runs past them when they are resting in an unconcerned manner till they are thrown off their guard, when they are pounced upon and carried off to the nest.

_Family 9, Larridæ._--This family very much resembles the last. The species are mostly small insects, few of them measuring half an inch in length. They are usually black, sometimes with the abdomen red at the base.

_Family 10, Sphegidæ._--Most of the insects included in this family feed upon grasshoppers, and the manner in which they procure their prey is very curious. In attacking their bulky prey they use every endeavour to turn the grasshopper on its back. When they succeed in this they inflict stings in different parts of the underside of the abdomen and thorax, which soon paralyse the victim, which is then dragged to the nest of the ruthless destroyer.

_Sphex flavipennis_ is a common species in the south of Europe.

_Family 11, Pompilidæ._--Most of the species of _Pompilus_ burrow in sand or sandy soil, and store their nests with spiders and the _larvæ_ of insects.

One of our commonest species, _Pompilus fuscus_, is usually about half an inch long, and is black, with the first three segments of the abdomen red banded with black. This insect makes its appearance in the spring, and may be observed in sandy places throughout the summer. Another common British species is _Pompilus punctum_, which is black in colour.

_Family 12, Bombicidæ._--This small family is not represented in Britain, though found in southern Europe. Many of the insects burrow in the sand, scratching a hole with their forefeet like a dog, as observed by Sir S. Saunders in the Ionian Islands. In the daytime they may be seen flying rapidly from flower to flower, and many of them exhale an odour of roses.

_Family 13, Sapygidæ._--This is a small family containing only a single genus, with very few species.

The species of _Sapyga_ occur in Europe and North America. They are supposed to be parasitic in the nests of bees, but the females of the common European species (_Sapyga pacca_) have been observed carrying small caterpillars, from which Mr. Smith (the great authority on Hymenoptera) justly infers that they are parasitic only to the extent of usurping the burrows made in sandbanks and dead wood by more industrious insects, their own structure not adapting them for the labour of digging.

_Family 14, Scoliidæ._--Although this family is abundant in warm climates, we have only two small species belonging to the genus _Tiphia_ in Britain.

They are black, with more or less reddish legs, and measure from a quarter to half an inch in length. In south Europe we meet with several large and handsome species, one of which, _Scolia hortorum_, is black with two yellow bands on the abdomen.

_Family 15, Thymidæ._--The insects of this family are almost exclusively confined to Australia and South America, where they are very numerous. They are generally of a black colour, with more or less extended yellow markings. They are very stout insects; in fact, their bloated bodies give them very little resemblance to any other insects, except perhaps to the Oil Beetles. Very little has hitherto been ascertained respecting their habits, but they are believed to be parasitic.

_Family 16, Mutillidæ._--This family includes a large number of species, probably 1,500, but from the differences presented by the males and females, entomologists have found it difficult to arrive at any certainty upon this point. The species are spread over all the earth, but are particularly abundant in warm climates, where also, as usual, they attain the largest size and the most beautiful colouring.

One of the best-known species in our own country is _Mutilla europæa_, which is about half an inch long, of a black colour, hairy, with the thorax entirely red in the wingless females.

This insect frequents the nests of Humble Bees, and its _larvæ_ appear to be parasitic upon the _larvæ_ of the bees.

_Section 4.--Heterogyna._

_Family 17, Formicidæ._--To this family belongs the numerous species of ants, which are social insects, organised after the fashion of the bees and social wasps.

The number of species described is probably considerably over a thousand, but the total number must be very much greater if Mr. Bates is correct in his estimate that not less than 400 species inhabit the valley of the Amazon.

The habits of the ants are most interesting, and one of our greatest living naturalists, Sir John Lubbock, has devoted much of his time in elucidating their economy.

The nests are almost always chambered cavities, hollowed out either in the ground, in walls, and similar situations, or in dead and decaying wood.

One of the commonest examples in our own country is the Garden Ant (_Formica nigra_), which may be found everywhere in gardens making its nest in the ground.

Another common species is the pretty Turf Ant (_Formica flava_), which generally haunts commons and heaths, casting up small hills, which serve to throw off the rain; and this species in some localities makes its nest under stones. The Wood Ant (_Formica lignipeda_) is another familiar species.

A very large group of ants belong to the section _Myrmicinæ_, the best-known species of which are the Red Ants, _Myrmica rubra_, and their allies.

A very minute species which has been introduced into this country, probably from Brazil or the West Indies, is the Horse Ant (_Myrmica molesta_). It is a very small brownish-yellow species, which seems to have been first observed in England in 1828. It takes up its abode in houses, frequently in the neighbourhood of the kitchen fireplace, and when it multiplies becomes such a pest as to render the house uninhabitable. Some of the metropolitan districts have been particularly infested.

TRIBE II.--ENTOMOPHAGA.

Most of the insects belonging to this tribe are parasitic on other insects. The _larvæ_ are footless. There are seven families included in the _Entomophaga_.

_Family 18, Cynipidæ._--This family includes most of the gall flies. The number of species is very considerable. Of the great majority the females pierce with their ovipositor the tissues of plants and trees, and there deposit their eggs, from which the _larvæ_ are soon hatched. The irritation caused by this intrusion of a foreign body into the tissues produces the galls which are so commonly met with.

The galls produced by different species of flies differ greatly in form and structure. Some of them are round and smooth, like fruits, such as the cherry gall of the oak leaves, produced by the puncture of _Cynips quercus-foli_.

The most singular, however, of all the galls is perhaps the Bedeguar, which is formed on the stems of wild roses by the puncture of a small species, _Rhodites rosæ_.

_Family 19, Chalcididæ._--To this family belong many gall insects, principally found, however, in foreign countries.

The _Chalcididæ_ include a great number of small species, few exceeding half an inch in expanse. Many of these are singular in shape, and others brilliantly metallic; but, owing to their small size, they have hitherto been studied by comparatively few entomologists.

_Family 20, Proctotrypidæ._--The _Proctotrypidæ_ are probably much less numerous than the preceding family, but have been less studied, being generally smaller and more obscure in their habits; in fact, some of them share with several beetles the reputation of being the smallest insects.

_Family 21, Braconidæ._--This family is one of very great extent.

Many of the foreign species are rather large and handsome insects, often varied with black and yellow.

The best known of the _Braconidæ_ is perhaps _Microgaster glomeratus_, a small blackish species with reddish-yellow legs, which destroys the _larvæ_ of the common Cabbage Butterflies, round the dead body of which its little yellow cocoons may often be observed.

_Family 22, Ichneumonidæ._--The _Ichneumonidæ_ are rather large and slender insects, and are divided into many sub-families.

They are a very numerous group. It has been calculated that nearly 5,000 species have been described, but the data generally are very untrustworthy.

The species of _Trogus_ are rather large insects, measuring an inch or more in length. They are black with reddish legs and abdomen, and the wings are sometimes slightly dusky at the edges.

In another group, _Pimplinæ_, the ovipositor is generally very long. The best-known species is _Rhyssa persuasoria_, a blackish insect, which measures about an inch in length. This insect is met with in fir plantations, and uses its extraordinary ovipositor to drill holes in trees infested by the _larvæ_ of _Sirex gigas_, on which its own _larva_ is parasitic. The insect frequently drives its ovipositor so firmly into the wood of the tree, that it is unable to withdraw it, and perishes in this position.

_Family 23, Evaniidæ._--One of the most familiar insects belonging to this family is the _Evania appendigaster_. It is a small black insect, found in the south of Europe, and is parasitic on cockroaches. An allied British species, _Fœnus jaculator_, is a not uncommon insect found haunting the burrows of _Crabronidæ_, upon which it is probably parasitic.

_Family 24, Chrysididæ._--The Ruby-tailed Wasps, or Golden Wasps, as the _Chrysididæ_ are popularly called, are among the most brilliant of the _Hymenoptera_, most of the species being either of an intense green, blue, or fiery red.

They are small or moderate-sized insects, which are found on walls or flowers in the full heat of the sun; for, as a rule, the most brilliantly-coloured insects are diurnal in their habits.

As far as their habits are known, they deposit their eggs in the nests of other insects, chiefly _Hymenoptera_, on the _larvæ_ of which their own offspring feed.

The commonest British species is _Chrysis ignita_, which is a very variable insect, both as regards size and colouring.

TRIBE III.--PHYTOPHAGA.

The insects belonging to the third tribe of the Hymenoptera are strictly vegetable feeders. There are only two families.

_Family 25, Siricidæ._--This family includes the insects known as Tailed Wasps. It is not a very extensive family, and its species occur chiefly in Europe and North America, in both of which regions the typical genus _Sirex_ is represented by large species.

The best-known European species which is common in some parts of Britain is the great Tailed Wasp (_Sirex gigas_), a very formidable-looking insect, of which the female often measures nearly an inch and a half in length.

The general tint is black with the antennæ, the sides of the thorax and the legs and apex of the abdomen yellow. This insect lives in pine and fir woods, and the female deposits her eggs in the woody parts of the trees, into which she bores to a depth of over half an inch by means of her long ovipositor.

Another species which occurs in this country is the _Sirex juvencus_, of a steel-blue colour, but smaller than the former.

_Family 26, Tenthredinidæ._--This is a very extensive family and contains the numerous species of Saw Flies, so called because their ovipositor is in shape somewhat like a saw in appearance.

Probably the best-known species is the Gooseberry Saw Fly (_Nematus ventricosus_), whose speckled and green _larvæ_ are so injurious in gardens and orchards. This insect is yellowish in colour, and about a quarter of an inch in length.

_Tenthredo æthiops_, a small black species, deposits its eggs upon fruit trees.

Many other species live on different kinds of plants and trees.

ORDER NEUROPTERA.

INCLUDING THE DRAGON FLIES, LACEWING FLIES, DAY FLIES, STONE FLIES, CADDIS FLIES, AND THEIR ALLIES.

Next to the butterflies and moths, the _Neuroptera_ (or nerve-winged insects), to which belong the Dragon Flies, Lacewing Flies, Day Flies, Stone Flies, Caddis Flies, and their allies, are undoubtedly the most beautiful members of the insect tribe. Though they cannot compete with the _Lepidoptera_ in point of colouring, it is questionable whether they are not more graceful and elegant in appearance.

The order _Neuroptera_ was founded by the great Swedish naturalist Linnæus, and its name has been kept intact since, though the classification of the insects comprised in it has undergone many modifications.

The _Neuroptera_ are not a very numerous body of insects compared with either the _Coleoptera_ or _Lepidoptera_, but they contain some of the largest and most handsome insects known. The order is very well represented in the temperate zones, though the finest species are met with in the tropical parts of the world. Nearly 700 species are known to inhabit the British Isles. In the whole world their number may be given in round figures at about 4,000, but there is no doubt that this number may be considerably increased.

The largest and most handsome species are the Dragon Flies or _Ornoptera_, one species occurring in our own country, measuring fully four inches in expanse of the wings. The Lacewing Flies (_Hemerobiidæ_), the Day Flies (_Ephemeridæ_), the Stone Flies (_Perlidæ_), and the Caddis Flies (_Trichoptera_), are among the other more conspicuous members of the group.

The _Neuroptera_ may be divided into three great sub-divisions, according to certain well-defined characteristics. The modern tendency is to raise each of these sub-divisions to the rank of orders.

The _Neuroptera_ may be classified as follows:--

_Sub-Order 1, Planipennia_, or true Neuroptera.

Metamorphoses complete, larvæ, mostly terrestrial.

_Sub-Order 2, Trichoptera_, or hairy-winged Neuroptera.

Metamorphoses complete, larvæ aquatic. Wings of Imago clothed with
hairs.

_Sub-Order 3, Pseudo-Neuroptera_, or false Neuroptera.

Metamorphoses incomplete.

The most important distinction between the first two groups and the third is that the former undergo complete metamorphoses, whereas in the latter the transformations are incomplete or imperfect. The latter for this reason are often classified as a separate order.

The _Trichoptera_ are also placed by some entomologists in a distinct order, on account of the peculiarity in their wings being clothed with hairs. They, however, present so many points both in habits and structure, analogous with the true _Neuroptera_, that we have retained them as a sub-division of the Order.

TABULAR VIEW

OF THE

PRINCIPAL FAMILIES OF THE NEUROPTERA.

_Sub-Order 1.--Planipennia._

Family 1. Myrmeleontidæ or Ant Lions.
Family 2. Hemerobiidæ or Lacewing Flies.
Family 3. Mantispidæ or Mantis Flies.
Family 4. Sialidæ or Sialis Flies.
Family 5. Raphiidæ or Snake Flies.
Family 6. Panorpidæ or Scorpion Flies.

_Sub-Order 2.--Trichoptera_ (or Caddis Flies).

Family 1. Inæquipalpia or Large Caddis Flies.

Sub-family 1. Phryganeidæ.
Sub-family 2. Limnophilidæ.
Sub-family 3. Sericostomidæ.

Family 2. Æquipalpia or Little Caddis Flies.

Sub-family 1. Leptoceridæ.
Sub-family 2. Hydropsychidæ.
Sub-family 3. Rhyacophilidæ.
Sub-family 4. Hydroptilidæ.

_Sub-Order 3.--Pseudo-Neuroptera._

TRIBE I.--ORNOPTERA (or Dragon Flies).

Family 1. Libellulinæ or Great Dragon Flies.

Sub-family 1. Libellulidæ or Libellulines.
Sub-family 2. Cordulidæ or Cordulines.
Sub-family 3. Æschnidæ or Æschnines.
Sub-family 4. Gomphidæ or Gomphines.

Family 2. Agroninæ or Slender Dragon Flies.

Sub-family 1. Agronidæ or Agronines.
Sub-family 2. Calopterygidæ or Calopterygines.

TRIBE II.--SUBULICORNIA.

Family 3. Ephemeridæ or Day Flies.

TRIBE III.--PLECOPTERA.

Family 4. Perlidæ or Stone Flies.

TRIBE IV.--CORRODENTIA.

Family 5. Psocidæ or Book Mites.
Family 6. Embiidæ or Agile Mites.

TRIBE V.--SOCIALIA.

Family 7. Termitiæ or White Ants.

TRIBE VI.--PHYSOPODA (or Thrips).

Family 8. Tubulifera.
Family 9. Terebrantia.

TRIBE VII.--MALLOPHAGA (or Bird-lice).

Family 10. Philopteridæ.
Family 11. Liotheidæ.

TRIBE VIII.--THYSANURA (or Bristle-tails).

Family 12. Lepismidæ.
Family 13. Campodeidæ.
Family 14. Japygidæ.

TRIBE IX.--COLLEMBOLA (or Spring-tails).

Family 15. Smynthuridæ.
Family 16. Papyriidæ.
Family 17. Degeeriadæ.
Family 18. Poduridæ.
Family 19. Amouridæ.

SUB-ORDER 1.--PLANIPENNIA.

The _Planipennia_ contains the most typical forms of the _Neuroptera_. This sub-order is subdivided into six families, four only of which contain representatives in the British Isles. They are most abundant in the tropical parts of the world, where also the most handsome and curious forms occur.

_Family 1, Myrmeleontidæ._--The Ant Lions are the most familiar and important members of this family. The common Ant Lion (_Myrmeleon europæus_), which is abundant in sandy places in the south of Europe, is a slender and elegant creature, with large finely reticulated rings. The _larva_, to which the name of "Ant Lion" properly belongs, is of a stout form and a greyish-yellow colour, covered with warty processes and with hairs. Its food consists of ants and other small insects, which it captures by a singularly ingenious arrangement, namely, by means of a funnel-shaped pitfall which it constructs in the sand, and at the bottom of which it lies. When any unfortunate insect ventures too near, the Ant Lion sends up a shower of sand, and the victim in its consternation falls down the pit, where it is speedily seized and devoured.

Other species of ant lions are known to occur on the continent of Europe, but none hitherto have been discovered to inhabit this country.

_Family 2, Hemerobiidæ._--The second sub-family contains the Lacewing Flies, many representatives of which occur in the British Isles. They are among the most elegant and beautiful of the _Neuroptera_.

The Golden-eyed Fly (_Chrysopa vulgaris_) is a very abundant and well-known example, but notwithstanding its great beauty it is capable of emitting a very disagreeable odour when handled. This is a delicate green insect with a body half an inch long, and which may be seen almost everywhere on warm summer evenings, flying slowly about from tree to tree. The eggs, which are little round or oval bodies like small pearls, are deposited by the female in groups upon the leaves of plants and trees. The _larva_ when fullfed is about half an inch in length. The food consists of plant lice and aphides, and it is thus a very beneficial creature, and should be encouraged by every gardener. The _pupa_ of this insect is enclosed in a cocoon. Between thirty and forty species of lacewing flies are known to occur in our own country.

_Family 3, Mantispidæ._--This family contains only one genus--viz., _Mantispa_, or the Mantis Flies. A single species, _Mantispa pagana_, is common in southern Europe, but does not occur in the British Isles.

_Family 4, Sialidæ._--In the fourth family of the _Planipennia_ the _larvæ_ are aquatic in their habits with very few exceptions. The _pupa_ is not enclosed in a cocoon as it is in the _Hemerobiidæ_. The single common British species (_Sialis lutaria_) is a blackish-brown insect, rather more than half an inch in length. It is well known to anglers, and may be found abundantly in the spring and early part of the summer upon walls and palings in the neighbourhood of water, and upon the stems and leaves of grasses and other plants growing in the water or upon its bank.

In repose the wings of this insect, as in the _Hemerolicidæ_, are laid over the back. They are sluggish creatures, and do not readily take to flight.

_Family 5, Raphiidæ._--This family contains the curious group of insects called "Snake Flies" or "Camel Flies," which are included by some entomologists in the previous family. They have characteristics, however, which entitle them to be placed apart. They have a rather large head, which is attached to a greatly elongated prothorax by a thinnish neck, so that the head has considerable freedom of motion. The species are not numerous, four kinds only occurring in Britain. The _larvæ_ reside under the bark of trees, where they feed upon minute insects. The commonest species is probably _Raphidia megacephala_.

_Family 6, Panorpidæ._--The _Panorpidæ_, or Scorpion Flies, are very curious creatures, characterised above all things by the perpendicularly placed and greatly elongated head.

The _larvæ_, so far as they are known, live in the earth, and are like caterpillars in their general form.

Five species occur in this country, the best known being _Panorpa communis_, which may be met with almost everywhere about hedge banks and in lanes. It is about half an inch long. The wings are transparent, with dark brown spots, which are more or less confluent.

Another species, _Boreus hiemalis_, which possesses no wings, is found on the ground among leaves in the winter time. It does not exceed one-sixth of an inch in length, and is of a metallic-green colour.

SUB-ORDER 2.--TRICHOPTERA.

The members of this group are the insects commonly known as Caddis Flies, and they are often ranked as a separate order by entomological writers.

Nearly 600 species of _Trichoptera_ occur in Europe, of which about half the number are indigenous to the British Isles. The _larvæ_ are aquatic, and when full-grown prepare for themselves curious dwellings composed of sticks, stones, and other materials wherein to pass the pupa state. They may be seen almost everywhere where there is water.

The caddis flies may be divided into two families, though the distinguishing marks are so minute that they really ought to be classified as one family only. To Mr. McLachlan we owe many thanks for his researches in this group of insects.

_Family 1, Inæguipalpia._--This family includes the largest species of the tribe, and are principally found in northern regions.

One of our largest British species is _Phryganea grandis_, which measures four-fifths of an inch in length, and over two inches in expanse of the wing. It is an abundant insect, of a brown colour, with yellow rings on its _antennæ_, and the anterior wings are ash-coloured, clothed with brown.

The _larvæ_ of this group for the most part inhabit quiet waters, ponds, canals, etc.

This family is subdivided into three sub-families, viz., _Phryganeidæ_, _Limnophilidæ_, _Sericostomidæ_.

_Family 2, Æguipalpia._--This family constitutes a second group, and also contains many species, many of them, however, being very minute insects, some hardly one-eighth of an inch across the wings. They make little cases of silk resembling seeds, to the outer surface of which they attach grains of sand, etc.

The _Æguipalpia_ contains four sub-families--viz., _Leptoceridæ_, _Hydropsychidæ_, _Rhyacophilidæ_, and _Hydroptilidæ_.

Of the _Leptoceridæ_, _Molanna augustata_ may be taken as a typical example, the larva of which lives on the sandy bottom of pools, and is very difficult to detect.

SUB-ORDER 3.--PSEUDO-NEUROPTERA.

In the third sub-order of the _Neuroptera_ are grouped together a series of insects which present great divergences of character, and really do not belong to the true _Neuroptera_ on account of their incomplete metamorphoses. They, however, for the most part, resemble the _Neuroptera_ in the structure of their wings.

They are divided into several tribes and many families.

TRIBE I.--ORNOPTERA OR DRAGON FLIES.

To this tribe belong the Dragon Flies, the largest and most beautiful members of the whole order.

About 1,500 species have been described from various parts of the world, and of these about fifty are known to inhabit our own country.

Their habits are very much alike. The insect passes all the earlier stages of its existence in water. The _larvæ_ are most voracious creatures, and are undoubtedly the most predaceous of insects. The apparatus by which they capture their prey consists of a peculiar modification of the _labium_.

When full grown the _larvæ_ crawl up the stem of some aquatic plant out of the water, and after resting there for a longer or shorter time the skin splits open along the thoracic region, and the perfect insect by degrees struggles out of its investment, and when the wings are dried it starts off to continue the same scene of rapine which has characterised its subterranean existence.

The perfect insect may be seen hawking about for insects in the neighbourhood of pools in all fine weather during the summer and autumn months. In dull weather, however, they usually remain at rest on the leaves of plants and trees, etc. The eyes of Dragon Flies are most beautiful objects when viewed under the microscope; they are composed of a great number of facets or lenses. In one species of Dragon Fly as many as 10,000 of these facets have been counted in each of its eyes.

Besides these compound eyes most dragon flies have additional eyes, called _Ocelli_, which are situated on the top of the head; they are, however, quite simple.

It is commonly thought by persons who are not naturalists that dragon flies sting; such an erroneous idea we take the opportunity to correct.

The _Ornoptera_ are divided into two principal families.

_Family 1, Libellulinæ._--To this family belong all the great dragon flies, mostly thick-bodied insects. It is subdivided into four sub-families.

To the first sub-family, the _Libellulidæ_, many common and familiar dragon flies belong. The best known is what is vulgarly called the "Horse-stinger" (_Libellula depressa_), an insect about two inches long, with a rather depressed abdomen, which is yellowish-brown, with yellow spots on the sides in the female, and coated with a beautiful violet-blue powder in the male.

It may be seen almost everywhere, hawking for flies about rivers and ponds, during warm weather.

The second sub-family, the _Cordulidæ_, contains four British species, of which the beautiful _Cordulia metallica_ is the typical example.

The _Æschnidæ_ contain some of the largest members found. The great dragon fly (_Æschna grandis_) is one of these. It is nearly three inches long and four inches in expanse of the wings, and is of a light rusty-brown colour with a few pale markings.

Of the _Gomphidæ_ only four species inhabit our own country.

_Gomphus vulgatissimus_ is a black insect, nearly two inches long, with yellow bands on the thorax, and a line of the same colour along the back of the abdomen.

_Family 2, Agroninæ._--This family contains a number of slender-bodied insects. There are two sub-families.

The _Agrionidæ_ are a very numerous group. The typical form, _Agrion puella_, which is a beautiful, slender creature, measures about two or two and a half inches in expanse of the wings. The abdomen of the male is banded with azure blue, that of the female being brassy-black.

The _Calopterygidæ_ contain only two British species--viz., _Calopteryx virgo_ and _C. splendens_.

TRIBE II.--SUBULICORNIA.

The second tribe of the _Pseudo-neuroptera_ contains a group of insects which are so similar to one another in form that they are all included in one family.

_Family 3, Ephemeridæ._--The _Ephemeridæ_, or Day Flies, as they are popularly called, are delicate, elongated, soft-bodied creatures, with a moderately small head. The antennæ, which spring from the forehead below the ocelli, are short and awl-shaped. These insects, which seem to be found mostly in temperate climates, are remarkable for the great delicacy of their structure, and for the extreme shortness of their lives in the perfect state, which seems in general scarcely to exceed a day.

Nearly fifty species of _Ephemeridæ_ occur in this country. The best known is _Ephemera vulgata_, of which the sub-imago is called the "green drake," and the imago the "grey drake" by anglers. The two-winged _Clöen diptera_, which, however, is a much smaller species than the foregoing, is also very abundant.

TRIBE III.--PLECOPTERA.

The _Plecoptera_ contain only one family.

_Family 4, Perlidæ._--The _Perlidæ_, or Stone Flies, are chiefly inhabitants of the temperate regions; they are of small size, and not very numerous in species, about thirty being indigenous to the British Isles.

The _larvæ_, which are aquatic in their habits, closely resemble the perfect insect in form. Their food consists of other insects and they prey especially upon the _larvæ_ of the Day Flies.

The perfect insects are usually found resting quietly on plants and other objects on the banks of streams. The large brown species, _Perla bicaudata_, appears in the spring, and is very common in the neighbourhood of pools, streams, and canals.

TRIBE IV.--CORRODENTIA.

This tribe contains two families, one of which is represented in the British Isles.

_Family 5, Psocidæ._--This is a family of small insects with simple veined wings. They have a rather large head, and bear a pair of long tapering antennæ. They are found upon trunks of trees, old palings, walls, etc. They are very active in their movements, and generally appear in the imago state about the end of summer or beginning of autumn.

_Atropos pulsatorius_ is one of these. It lives in books and among old damp papers, whence it is often called the "Book Louse."

They are also very destructive to collections of preserved insects and plants. About thirty species occur in this country.

_Family 6, Embiidæ._--This family contains no representative in the British Isles, and consists of a small number of almost exclusively exotic species. Two species, however, inhabit the continent of Europe, one of which, _Embia Solieri_, occurs in the south of France on the Mediterranean littoral.

These insects are very closely allied to the _Psocidæ_ in their habits.

TRIBE V.--SOCIALIA.

The Socialia contains a very peculiar group of insects closely allied to the cockroaches in the _Orthoptera_. They may be considered a connecting link between that order and the Neuroptera. There is only one family.

_Family 7, Termitiæ._--The _Termitiæ_, or White Ants, are almost exclusively inhabitants of tropical climates, and are unrepresented in our own country.

They are a very remarkable family of insects. They build most complicated dwellings, consisting of innumerable galleries and chambers, and they are so interesting in their habits that every traveller who has seen anything of them has always a great deal to relate concerning them.

One species, _Termes lucifugus_, inhabits the south of France, and is very well known on account of the mischief which it sometimes causes.

TRIBE VI.--PHYSOPODA, OR THRIPS.

This tribe of insects, to which the name _Thysanoptera_ is sometimes applied, contains many curious forms.

There are two principal groups of these insects--namely, the _Tuberlifera_ and the _Terebrantia_. They are generally known to gardeners by the name of "Thrips." Some of them occasionally prove injurious to cultivated plants. This is especially the case with the Corn Thrips (_Thrips cerealium_), which generally attacks the ears of corn, and, when numerous, is very mischievous.

TRIBE VII.--MALLOPHAGA OR BIRD LICE.

These insects, which are known as "Bird Lice," were formerly placed among the true lice, but they differ in the possession of biting mouths, and in the diet to which such a structure adapts them.

A great number of these curious little insects have been recorded, and they inhabit all parts of the world. They live among the feathers of birds and the hairs of mammalia.

Almost every animal and bird is subject to these parasites.

The common fowl, duck, goose, game birds of all kinds, and pigeons, are very commonly infested by them, as are also the dog, the cat, the sheep, and the guinea-pig.

The two principal families of the _Mallophaga_ are the _Philopteridæ_ and the _Liotheidæ_.

TRIBE VIII.--THYSANURA OR BRISTLE TAILS.

The forms composed in this tribe of insects are reckoned at present to be the nearest resemblance to the theoretical progenitors of the insects; in fact, Sir John Lubbock hints that they might well be regarded not as insects at all, but rather as the surviving representatives of a group formed by the ancestors of the whole multitude of insect types.

The food of these creatures consists of decayed vegetable matter.

Three principal families may be recognised--viz., _Lepesmidæ_, _Campodeidæ_, and _Japygidæ_.

TRIBE IX.--COLLEMBOLA OR SPRING TAILS.

These insects closely resemble the previous tribe in general character, to which also the same remarks nearly apply.

They are generally small insects, a length of a quarter of an inch being considerably above the average. They are found commonly in loose earth, under decaying leaves in woods, in moss, under the bark of dead trees, and in rotten stumps. They always prefer damp situations.

Cold seems to have but little effect upon them; they will recover their activity after being frozen. One species, _Desoria glacialis_, is found enjoying itself upon the Swiss glaciers, and another, _Degeeria nivalis_, occurs upon the surface of snow in many parts of Europe. Some species also may be met with hopping about upon the surface of standing water. _Podura aquatica_, a minute blue-black species, is common in such situations in England.

The five principal families are the _Smynthuridæ_, _Papyriidæ_, _Degeeriadæ_, _Poduridæ_, and the _Amouridæ_.

ORDER ORTHOPTERA.

INCLUDING THE GRASSHOPPERS, LOCUSTS, CRICKETS, COCKROACHES, EARWIGS, AND THEIR ALLIES.

The _Orthoptera_ include all those forms of insects which have four wings, the anterior pair being of a leathery nature. They are mandibulate; that is, their mouths are formed for biting, and they undergo an imperfect metamorphosis.

The insects comprised in this order are extremely numerous and destructive in the tropical parts of the world (Kirby gives their number as about 7,000), but they are only represented in the British Isles by about sixty species, few of which are really abundant. They include the cockroaches, crickets, grasshoppers, locusts, earwigs, etc.

All these insects may be divided into three sub-divisions or tribes--namely, the Runners or _Cursoria_, the Leapers or _Saltatoria_, and the Earwigs or _Euplexoptera_.

The following table will show at a glance the outlines of the proposed arrangement:--

_Tribe_ I., _Cursoria_.--Hind wings with veins radiating from the base. Hind legs formed for running.

_Tribe_ II., _Saltatoria_.--Hind wings with veins radiating from base. Hind legs formed for leaping.

_Tribe_ III., _Euplexoptera_.--Hind wings with veins radiating from the apex of a horny piece occupying the base of the anterior margin.

The _Euplexoptera_, or Earwigs, are regarded by some authors as a separate order. They are thus treated by Westwood in his "Introduction to the Modern Classification of Insects," but the modern tendency is to revert to the Linnæan system, and retain them among the _Orthoptera_.

TABULAR VIEW

OF THE

PRINCIPAL FAMILIES OF THE ORTHOPTERA.

TRIBE I.--CURSORIA.

Family 1. Blattidæ or Cockroaches.
Family 2. Mantidæ or Praying Insects.
Family 3. Phasmidæ or Stick and Leaf Insects.

TRIBE II.--SALTATORIA.

Family 4. Achetidæ or Crickets.
Family 5. Gryllidæ or False Locusts.
Family 6. Locustidæ or True Locusts and Grasshoppers.

TRIBE III.--EUPLEXOPTERA.

Family 7. Forficulidæ or Earwigs.

We will now proceed to describe each of these families in turn.

TRIBE I.--CURSORIA.

The insects constituting this group are distinguished by having their hind legs adapted for walking or running. They are subdivided into three families.

_Family 1, Blattidæ._--This family includes the numerous species of cockroaches, or "black bats" as they are often called by uneducated persons. They are represented in all parts of the world, but are most abundant within the tropics, and especially in central and southern America, where also the largest and finest species are to be found. Many curious forms are also to be met with in India and different parts of Africa.

They are very active creatures, and run with considerable rapidity, but their activity is chiefly nocturnal, and during the day they generally remain quietly concealed in some obscure retreat. Their diet consists of both vegetable and animal matter, and offal of every description. They are most useful in hot climates, acting the part of scavengers, and by these means preventing the outbreak of malaria and other pestilential diseases.

The best-known species in this country is the common Cockroach (_Blatta orientalis_), which, by-the-bye, is not a native of Europe, having been introduced from the East several centuries ago, and to have made its home here.

Other species besides this are met with occasionally in different parts of the country, having been introduced in like manner at different times from foreign parts. The Giant Cockroach (_Blaberus giganteus_) is one of these. Its native home is South America and the West Indies, and in the latter place it is commonly called the "drummer." It measures nearly three inches in length. The Zoological Gardens in London is a favourite resort of this species.

_Family 2, Mantidæ._--The _Mantidæ_ may be at once distinguished from the insects comprising the other two families of the _Cursoria_ by the structure of the forelegs, which are converted into powerful raptoral organs.

The body of these insects is more or less elongated, and the head, which is triangular or heart-shaped, is attached to the thorax by a distinct neck.

The _Mantidæ_, or Praying Insects, are celebrated for their habit of resting on their four hind legs, and with their front legs raised in the air, in what was formerly supposed to be an attitude of devotion, but really in an observant attitude, and on the alert for their prey.

None of these insects are met with in the British Isles, but several species are rather abundant in the south of France. Two species, _Mantis pauperata_ and _Mantis religosa_, measure about two or two and a half inches in length. A third species, _Mantis oratoria_, is also common but somewhat smaller in size.

_Family 3, Phasmidæ._--These insects very much resemble the _Mantidæ_ in general appearance, to which also they are very closely allied.

They are among the most peculiar insects in existence. Their appearance is comical in the extreme. Many of them resemble sticks, either green growing trees or brown and withered branches, and hence the name of stick insects commonly applied to them is very appropriate. On account of their skeleton-like forms they have also been likened to ghosts and spectres.

Some few species mimic leaves of trees and various plants, and these are often called "leaf insects."

The number of species of this family is not very large, and by far the greater part of these are inhabitants of the warmer regions of the earth, and they seem to increase in size, especially the nearer their home lies to the Equator.

Among the more interesting species we may mention _Cyphocrania semirubra_ from Brazil, with short greenish elytra and pink wings.

_Bacillus rosii_ is a brown, wingless form found in Italy and the south of France.

Some of the tropical species are among the largest insects known. A winged Australian species attains the length of ten inches.

_Lopaphus cocophagus_ is a common species in the South Sea Islands, and sometimes commits great ravages in the plantations of cocoa-nut trees. When this insect is alarmed it squirts out a highly acrid fluid, which causes great pain, and sometimes blindness if it reaches the eye.

We may remark that no species of _Phasmidæ_ are known to inhabit the British Isles.

TRIBE II.--SALTATORIA.

The principal character of the insects belonging to this tribe consists in the adaptation of the hind legs to the purpose of leaping.

The males of most of the species possess the faculty of producing loud chirping sounds, but the means by which this is effected vary in the different families.

_Family 4, Achetidæ._--The most familiar British insect belonging to this family is the common House Cricket (_Acheta domestica_). Living, as it does, in the immediate vicinity of the fire, it seems to be totally independent of the changes of the seasons, and may usually be found of all ages at all periods of the year. Crickets are particularly abundant in bakehouses, being extremely partial to warmth. The chirping noise which they produce at night-time is sometimes almost deafening, and it is really surprising from what a very long distance the sound may be heard.