Chapter X: Tobacco Planters and Plantations (3)

"Of the seeds sent to Kandesh, only a few germinated. All
the seed put down in the Victoria Gardens failed. That sent
to Sind, though said to have been carefully sown, also
failed to germinate. The Conservator of Forests had the
seeds sent him sown in beds, and the plants, when a few
inches in height, were transplanted into pots. They grew
with the greatest luxuriance, and produced abundance of
flowers and seed. Some of the seed was sent to the collector
of Kaira, who forwarded a sample of the tobacco grown from
it. The Conservator considered the produce very good, and
the secretary of the Agri-Horticultural Society pronounced
it 'of a superior kind.' The flavor was exceedingly fine,
but it had not been allowed to come to maturity, hence it
was thin and shriveled. It had also been spoilt by rain,
and consequently its market value could not be fairly
tested. The experiment, it is clear, was not conducted with
proper care by most of those to whom the seed was confided,
but the Local Government considered that on the whole the
result was satisfactory, as showing that there was every
probability that Shiraz tobacco, with care and proper
gardening, might be introduced into the Bombay Presidency.

"In August, 1869, the Bombay Government again distributed a
small supply of seed of the Shiraz, Havana, and other
varieties to the superintendents of cotton experiments, and
to the collectors of Kaira, Khandesh, Dharwar, and
Kurrachee, for experimental cultivation. The seeds did well
in the hands of all the superintendents, who reported very
favorably on the plants raised from them. In Sind only the
soil in which the seed was sown proved unsuitable. In
Dharwar all the five varieties germinated, though the
Maryland failed to some extent, and a considerable quantity
of seed of each variety was secured. Of Latakia, only twenty
grains were sent to the superintendent; and the quantity in
each case increased to one pound from the produce of the
plants. These two varieties of tobacco, however, were not so
much admired by the cultivators as Shiraz, Havana, and
Maryland, to which they gave a decided preference. The only
varieties of seed which were available for experiments at
Broach and Veermgaum were Havana and Shiraz. In both places
the plants came up well, and a large quantity of seed was
obtained from them. That sent to Broach arrived a little too
late in the season to admit of an extensive experiment being
made; this indeed appears to have been the case at all the
other places. The seed, however, was of good quality,
germinated freely, and produced excellent plants in a very
short time.

"The first transplanting was made out into a field in an
open piece of land, where they commenced growing vigorously,
but the rains being then over, swarms of small locusts made
their appearance, and ate up the young plants before they
had thoroughly established themselves in the ground. The
second lot was transplanted into a more sheltered patch,
where the progress was all that could be desired, both the
varieties growing rapidly, the Havana especially producing
some leaves of enormous size. The first cutting was
entrusted to a potel, who managed it according to the native
process of curing. The tobacco was so strong, however, that
only old confirmed smokers could manage it. The most
formidable difficulty which presented itself was the
management of the midrib, which in the large leaves was
extremely coarse and juicy. When the leaves were made up
into hands for the purpose of fermentation before the midrib
was thoroughly dry, the result was invariably mould and
discoloration. On the other hand, when dried sufficiently to
insure freedom from mould, the lamina of the leaf became so
brittle that it was crushed to powder at the slightest
touch, and so wrinkled and dry that the heaps did not
ferment at all. Of the varieties supplied, the Shiraz,
Havana, and Maryland attracted most attention and promised
the best results. The great drawback was the curing part of
the process. So far as the cultivation was concerned, there
was every prospect of success; but not so with regard to the
curing."

Robertson says of the curing of the leaf:--

"In my opinion, all efforts to produce good tobacco will be
useless until the services of a competent curer are
obtained."

He considers the fault of all Indian tobacco to lie in the curing. The leaf itself is good, and it is simply the art of curing that should be studied.

"I have cured tobacco of different varieties, some of which
would hold a good place in the English market, but the fault
generally found with the tobacco is that it is too full
flavored. Further experiments were carried on in the same
districts with varying results. In Sind the experiments and
their results were insignificant. In Broach they were
somewhat more successful, the superintendent thus
summarising his experience:--'Havana, Shiraz, and other
varieties of exotic tobacco will, with ordinary care and
attention, yield fair and certain crops on ordinary black
land, and presumably on every other kind to be met with in
Guzerat. By the skillful application of manure, leaf of any
desired quality or peculiarity of flavor and texture may be
obtained. The quantity of produce is so great that, should
it be found practicable to cure the leaf well enough to make
it a salable article in the European market, a source of
profit by no means insignificant would be opened up to the
Guzerat ryot. For the native market the country plant is
more suitable, and its cultivation consequently the more
profitable.' In Dharwar the superintendent was enabled to
distribute seed in sufficient quantities to those applying
for it, but found the ryots would not cultivate it on a
large scale, being apprehensive of loss. Native tobacco he
considers less liable to injury than the exotic varieties
during the squally weather prevalent about the time the leaf
is approaching maturity."

Robertson, in replying to the assertion that the tobacco of India contains little if any nicotine, says:

"It appears to me that there must be some mistake as to the
tobacco containing little or no nicotine. Very many have
tried the tobacco, and pronounce it to be good, with,
however, the fault of being exceedingly strong. Now, the
strength of tobacco comes from its nicotine, and if the
specimens I sent contain no nicotine, whence the strength? I
believe that nothing destroys tobacco so much as moistening
it. How, then, are acetic acid and chloride of soda to be
used in the curing? If the process of desiccation had been
carried on too quickly, the tobacco would have been of
either a green or greenish-yellow color. If too slowly, it
would have been black, like much of the country tobacco. I
perceive that the amount of nicotine in a great measure
depends on the extent to which the leaf is allowed to ripen.
The riper the leaf the more the nicotine. The amount of
nicotine does not appear to depend on the amount of curing.
The soil the tobacco was grown in is a hardish red moorum
soil, containing much iron; probably that may account for
the red coloring matter being so much developed. I intend to
have some of each description of the tobacco leaf analyzed,
and also intend to submit the soil in which it was grown to
the same process. I have had some of the cigars packed up
for some months to test how far they are proof against
insects. None have been attacked by insects. Some Manilla
cigars, some Trichinopoly cheroots, all packed up at the
same time, have, however, been entirely destroyed by
insects.

"It is clear from the reports that both in Guzerat and
Khandesh, Havana and Shiraz tobacco will flourish, and that
they may be introduced without difficulty. The ryots, it is
said, preferred the new kinds to their own, and desire their
introduction, the foreign varieties commanding a higher
price in the market. The chief drawback is the want of
knowledge and appliances for the proper curing of the leaf.
This, indeed, is the great drawback throughout India. In the
district of Kaira the seed is always sown in nursery beds in
the month of July, and transplanting commences about the end
of August, the operation continuing for about two months.
The tobacco planted on the dry soil called 'koormit' ripens
and is fit for cutting in January and February; that which
is grown on irrigated land during March and April. In
Canara, tobacco is generally grown in elevated situations.
The seed is sown in August, and the seedlings are
transplanted in November, the crop arriving at maturity in
three or four months. North Canara derives its supply
chiefly from Mysore, the leaf produced in that province
being said to be less liable to affect the head than that of
the Canara plant."

The Turk and his family love to cultivate tobacco as well as to smoke it; and give it their attention from seed-sowing until it is sold to the merchant. The Turk is very particular in cultivating it, as on its color depends in a great measure its value. He commences work on his plant-bed in March, sowing the seed about the same time as the Virginia planters. After the leaves are gathered the same scrupulous care is taken with them; especially in drying and baling, that the leaf may be in just the right condition to ferment properly, and be ready to be assorted by the "tobacco pickers." The Turk presses his whole family into the cultivation of the plants. The children are engaged in weeding while he waters the beds or prepares the tobacco field for the planting of the tobacco. In pruning and picking the leaves he removes only those that are small--the removal of which will still further advance the growth of the plants, and is careful to gather only those leaves that are turning yellow, giving evidence of their maturity. Says one in regard to the cultivation of tobacco in Turkey:

"The Turk and his family, it will seem, have now been
occupied upon their tobacco crop for nearly a whole year.
The leaf is just becoming a bright light yellow when it
falls into the hands of the merchant, and it is during this
period that the process of fermentation or heating generally
occurs, before which the tobacco can not be shipped. The
bales having been placed in the merchant's store, are left
end up until a fermentation or baking has taken place, the
ends being reversed every three or four days. In the course
of a few weeks a bale is reduced to about two-thirds of its
original size. It is then placed upon its sides to cool.
When it is discovered to be cold it is broken open by the
native tobacco-pickers, and every leaf sorted and
classified. The patience with which this operation is
carried out is truly astonishing. There is a good deal of
difference in their rate of work. One man may pick only
fifty pounds weight a day, while another does twice that
quantity. It is necessary to watch them closely, or they
will put a dirty brown leaf with a pale yellow. They neither
know nor care about the losses that may be incurred by the
merchant, whose samples may be thus spoiled. A bale of leaf
purchased at five piastres per _oque_, when dissected by the
Greek for various markets will be found to contain varieties
ranging in price from 5 to 60 piastres; of these some are
dispatched to Odessa, some to Smyrna, others to
Constantinople, Alexandria, and England--the mixed and
common qualities generally to the latter country, the price
there obtained being the least remunerative to the Greek
shippers. The bales are brought from the interior to the
shipping ports upon mules, each animal carrying two bales;
and it is a pretty sight to witness, say 150 mules at a
time, crossing mountains and rugged paths with their
burdens, followed by perhaps fifty camels laden with cotton,
marching to the merry tinkle of the bells on their necks.
When the tobacco reaches the shipping port the troubles of
the exporter are intensified. The bales are first taken to
the Custom House, and there weighed. The weights thus
arrived at are compared with the quantity received from the
interior, and if there be any material difference the
shipper has to account for it. If any has been sold for
consumption in Turkey, duty has to be paid upon the amount;
and in order that no part of his shipment may be used in the
country, he has to sign a bond that the tobacco shall not be
landed in any other port of Turkey. On the arrival of the
tobacco in England, the landing certificates are forwarded
to Turkey. It is in this way that the trade is retained in
the hands of a few Greeks, who naturally put every obstacle
in the way of the foreigner, whose sole remedy is at last
found to be the payment of the universal 'backshish,' to the
comptroller of customs."

The merchant who buys the tobacco of the planter at a low price, and thereby takes the profit from him of cultivating it, is preyed upon in the same manner by the Greek buyers who have the sole monopoly of the trade. Like Shiraz tobacco, that of Turkey has to be handled frequently and pass through several stages of curing before it is ready to be manufactured. In this respect it is unlike most of the tobaccos of America, but its treatment is not unlike that of the varieties of the East.

The tobacco plant is cultivated with great success in many of the provinces of Japan, and is exported in large quantities to Europe. The leaf is excellent, and is in request by many buyers of Eastern tobaccos. Robertson gives the following interesting account of the Japan tobacco fields:--

"According to a native account, tobacco was introduced into
Japan in the year 1605, and was first planted at Nagasaki in
Hizen. It is now very generally grown throughout the
country. In the province of Awa, where a great deal of
tobacco is grown, the seed is sown in early spring in fields
well exposed to the sun and duly prepared for its reception.
Well sifted stable manure is strewn over the field, and the
seedlings appear after the lapse of about twenty days. The
old manure is then swept away, and liquid manure applied
from time to time. If the plants are too dense they are
thinned out. The larger plants are now planted out into
fields well prepared for the purpose in rows, with about
eight inches space between each plant, the furrows between
each row being about two feet wide. They are again well
sprinkled with liquid manure, also with the lees of oil at
intervals of about seven days. A covering of wheat or millet
bran is now laid over the furrows. The bitter taste of the
leaf is in a measure an effectual safeguard against the
ravages of insects, but the leaves are nevertheless
carefully tended to prevent damage from such cause. If the
reproduction from seed is not desired the flowers should be
cut off and the stem pruned down, otherwise the leaves will
lose in scent and flavor. In Osumi exceptional attention is
paid to the cultivation of the tobacco plant. The lees of
oil, if liberally used, and stable manure sparsely applied,
have great effect on the plant, producing a small leaf with
an excellent flavor; while, if the opposite course is
followed, the leaves grow to an immense size, but are
inferior in taste.

"When the flowers are in full bloom the 'sand' leaves are
picked. After the lapse of twelve or fourteen days the
leaves are gathered by twos. Any leaves that may remain are
afterwards broken off along with the stalk. Any sand
adhering to the leaves is removed with a brush; the stems
having been cut off, the leaves are rolled round, firmly
pressed down with a thin board, and cut exactly in the
centre. The two halves are then placed one on the top of the
other in such manner that the edges exactly correspond, and
being in this position firmly compressed between two boards,
they are cut into fine strips, the degree of fineness
depending on the skill of the cutter. A machine made of
hard wood, but with the vital parts of iron, is used by some
persons for this purpose. The machine was devised about
sixty years ago by a skillful Yeddo mechanic, the idea being
taken from those used in Osaka and Kiyoto for cutting thread
used for weaving into silk embroidery. Since then numerous
improvements have been made in it, and it is now extremely
well adapted for the economization of labor. Another machine
was invented about eight years since, also by a Yeddo
mechanic. It is smaller than the first mentioned, but being
very easily worked is much in use. Tobacco is sometimes cut
in the following crude manner:--The leaves are piled one on
top of the other, tightly compressed into the consistency of
a board, and then cut into shavings by a carpenter's plane.
This is, however, about the worst method, and even the best
tobacco, if treated in such fashion, loses its flavor and
valuable qualities."

In China[67] tobacco is cultivated in the western part of the empire, and grows almost as large as most American varieties. Chinese tobacco is usually light in color, of a thin, silky texture, and mixed with Turkey tobacco, is a considerable feature in the export trade of that country. The Chinese cultivate the plant like the Japanese, and give it as much care and attention as they do the tea plant. The leaves are gathered when ripe, and are dried and well-assorted before baling. The Chinese planter often raises large fields of the plants, and employs many hands to tend and cultivate them. We give a cut of a tobacco field and the planter looking at the field and noting the progress of the laborers.

[Footnote 67: I saw also great plantations of tobacco,
which they call tharr, and which yield very considerable
profit, as it is universally used in smoking, by persons
of all ranks, of both sexes in China; and, besides great
quantities are sent to the Mongolls, who prefer the
Chinese manner of preparing it before any other. They
make it into a gross powder, like saw-dust, which they
keep in a small bag, and fill their little brass pipes
out of it, without touching the tobacco with their
fingers.--_Bell's Travels in Asia_, 1716, 1719, 1722.]

In Persia tobacco is cultivated near Shiraz, which gives name to the variety. The soil is very fertile and richly cultivated. Not only does the tobacco plant flourish finely, but all kinds of vegetables grow to perfection. The Persians cultivate the plant principally for their own use. It is a fine smoking tobacco, and when cured properly is said to be equal to Latakia. Their mode of curing is unlike that adopted by any other cultivators of the weed but is very successful, and is no doubt the proper method of preparing the leaves for use. Their mode of pressing in large cakes is unlike that of any other growers--but doubtless adds to the aromatic quality of the leaf which makes it so popular in the East.

The tobacco field is trenched so as to retain water, while the plants are set on the ridges where they flourish and mature until the buds and flowers are broken off. The harvest occurs in the autumn, when the singular process of curing begins.

Abbott says of the culture and commerce of tobacco in Persia:

"Jehrum, South Persia, is the principal mart for tobacco,
which is brought here from all the surrounding districts,
and disposed of to traders, who distribute it over the
country far and near. These traders are numerous, and many
established here are wealthy; they usually transact their
business in their private houses, without resorting to the
caravansaries of which there are six in the place. There are
many grades and qualities of Shiraz tobacco but that
produced at Tuffres (according to Forster), a town about one
hundred miles to the south-west of Turshish, is esteemed the
best in Persia.

"Of the many varieties of the tobacco plant grown in the
East, that known as Manilla is among the most famous and the
most extensively cultivated. It is grown in several of the
Philippine islands, particularly in Luzon and the southern
group, known as the Visayos. The Philippines are a large
group of islands in the North Pacific Ocean, discovered by
Magellan in 1521; they were afterwards taken posession of by
the Spaniards, in the reign of Philip II., from whom they
take their name.

"The islands are said to be eleven hundred in number, but
some hundreds of them are very small, and all are nominally
subject to the Spanish government at Manilla. The
Philippines produce a great variety of tropical products
such as rice, coffee, sugar, indigo, tobacco, cotton, cacao,
abaca, or vegetable silk, pepper, gums, cocoa-nuts,
dye-woods, timber of all descriptions for furniture and the
buildings, rattans of various kinds, and all the agreeable
fruits of the tropics. On the shores are found nacre, or
mother of pearl, magnificent pearls, bird's-nests, shells of
every description, an incredible quantity of excellent fish,
and the _trépang_, or _balatê_, a sea-worm, or animal
substance, found on the shores of the Philippine Islands,
resembling a large pudding. The Chinese esteem it as a great
delicacy and mix it with fowl and vegetables. The
inhabitants practise various kinds of industry; they weave
matting of extraordinary fineness and of the brightest
colors, straw hats, cigar cases and brackets; they
manufacture cloth and tissues of every sort from cotton,
silk, and abaca; they, from filaments taken from the leaves
of the _etuana_, make cambric of a texture much finer than
that of France; and they also manufacture coarse strong
cloth for sails, and ropes and cables of all dimensions;
they tan and dress leather and skins to perfection; they
manufacture coarse earthen ware, and forge and polish arms
of various kinds; they build ships of heavy tonnage, and
also light and neat boats; and at Manilla they frame and
finish-off beautiful carriages; they are also very clever
workers in gold, silver, and copper; and the Indian women
are specially expert in needlework, and in all kinds of
embroidery.

"The island of Luzon is the largest of the Philippines, and
extends from north to south for the length of about six
degrees. It is divided throughout its whole extent by a
chain of mountains, which in general owe their formation to
volcanic eruptions. In the provinces of Laguna and Batangas
there is the high mountain called Maijai, one of the
loftiest in Luzon, which is beyond doubt an ancient crater;
on the summit a little lake is found, the depth of which
cannot be measured. At some period the lava that then flowed
from the summit towards the base, in the neighborhood of the
town of Nacarlan, covered up immense cavities, which are now
recognizable by the sonorous noise of the ground for a great
extent; and sometimes it happens that, in consequence of an
inundation or an earthquake, this volcanic crust is in some
places broken, and exposes to the view enormous caverns,
which the Indians call 'the mouths of hell.' In the district
about the town of San Pablo, which is situated on the
mountain, are found great numbers of little circular lakes
and immense heaps of rotten stones, basalt, and different
descriptions of lava, which show that all these lakes are
nothing else than the craters of old volcanoes. Altogether
the soil to the southward, in the province of Albai, is
completely volcanic, and the frequent eruptions of the
volcano bearing that name may, as the natives say, be
attributed to the same cause as the earthquakes so often
felt in the island of Luzon. Over almost the whole of these
mountains, where fire has played so conspicuous a part,
there is a great depth of vegetable earth, and they are
covered with a most splendid vegetation. Their declivities
nourish immense forests and fine pastures in which grow
gigantic trees--palm trees, rattans, and lianas of a
thousand kinds, or gramineous plants of various sorts,
particularly the wild sugar cane, which rises to the height
of from nine to twelve feet from the ground; in their
interior are rich mines of copper, gold, iron, and coal.

"There are two distinct and strongly marked seasons in the
island of Luzon, namely, the rainy or the wintry season, and
the dry or summer season. For six months of the year--that
is from June to December--the wind blows from the south-west
to the north-east, and then the declivities of the mountains
and all the western side of the island are in the season of
the rains; in the six other months, the wind changes, and
blows from the north-east to the south-west, when all the
eastern parts of the island have the season of winter.
During the rainy season, the incessant fall of rain on the
mountains causes the rivers, both large and small, to
overflow and to become torrents, that rush down upon the
plains, covering them with water, and depositing the broken
earth and slime which they have gathered in their course. In
the dry season, water is supplied for irrigation from
reservoirs, which are carefully filled during the rains.
From these causes it follows that without any manuring, and
with scarcely any improvement from human industry, the soil
of the Philippines is as fertile as any in the world; so
that, without great labor, the cultivator has most abundant
harvests."

The above description of the Philippines by Gironiere gives a faithful account of the vast resources of the islands. Of the products cultivated rice and tobacco are the most important. The finest tobacco plantations are situated in the northern parts of the island of Luzon, and furnish the finest quality of Manilla tobacco. That grown in the Visayos is of an inferior quality, and is sold to merchants holding a permit to purchase at the shipping ports and transport to Manilla for sale to the government. In the island of Luzon, the greatest quantity of tobacco is cultivated in the provinces of Nueva Ecija and Cagavan.

Tomlinson in an account of the tobacco of the Philippines says: "Manilla leaf comes from the three principal districts of the island of Luzon--Visayos, Ygarotes and Cagayan." The mode of cultivation does not differ in any great respect from that followed in other parts of the world. Great seed beds are made on the plantations where the plants are grown until ready to transplant in the tobacco ground. Unlike most land adapted for tobacco, large crops are grown without the aid of any fertilizer whatever. In cultivating the plants, buffaloes are used, yoked one after the other, going between the rows several times, and at the last ploughing leaving a trench in the middle of the rows, for letting off the water. The Indian plow used in cultivating is exceedingly simple: it is composed of four pieces of wood which the most unhandy ploughman can put together, with the mould board and share, which are of cast iron. The lightness and simplicity of this plough render it easy to be used in every kind of cultivation, where the plantations are divided into rows, such as those of tobacco, maize and sugar cane. It is used with great advantage, not only for cutting down weeds, but also for giving to each row a ploughing, which is serviceable to the plantation, and which is less costly and quicker than simple weeding with the mattock.

When the leaves are ripe they are stripped from the stalks and separated into three classes, according to their size, and afterwards made into bunches of fifty or a hundred, by passing through them, near the foot, a little bamboo cane, as if it was a skewer, by which the bunches are afterwards hung up to dry in vast sheds, into which the sun's rays cannot enter, but in which the air circulates freely; they are left to hang there until they become quite dry, and for this, a greater or less time is required, according to the state of the weather. When the drying is effected the leaves are placed according to their quality, in bales of twenty-five pounds, and in that state they are handed over to the administration of the monopoly. Gironiere in describing the mode of culture on the tobacco plantations says:

"During the first two months after the transplanting it is
indispensably necessary to give four ploughings to the
ground between the rows of the plants, and every fifteen
days to handpick, or even better, to root out with the
mattock, all the weeds which cannot be touched by the
plough. These four ploughings ought to be done in such a
manner as to leave alternately a furrow in the middle of
each line, and on the sides, and consequently, at the last
ploughing, the earth covers the plants up to their first
leaves, leaving a trench for carrying off all water that may
accumulate during the heavy rains. As soon as each plant has
gained a proper height, its head is lopped off to force the
sap to turn into the leaves, and, in a few weeks afterwards,
it is fit for being gathered."

The tobacco fields or plantations are very large, and together with the vast sheds for curing, the fields present a beautiful appearance; the long straight rows with their dark green leaves adding not a little to the beauty and variety of the landscape. The great growers of the plant are very careful in cultivating the fields and give the tobacco frequent hoeings, until ready to be gathered and taken to the sheds. The planters are obliged to take the utmost pains, as the product is obliged to be given up to the monopolizing government which is the sole purchaser, and which, in its great establishment at Binondoc, employs continually from 15,000 to 20,000 workmen and workwomen in manufacturing cigars for the consumption of the country and for exportation.

Manilla tobacco is much esteemed in the islands both by the Spaniards and the Chinese. The custom of smoking is universal among all classes and at all times. In the house, on the road and street, the aroma of a fragrant Manilla is ever borne on the breeze. The Spaniards are the principal owners of the tobacco fields, and, like their brother planters on the island of Cuba, are fond of the weed and its more potent companion. After a luxurious breakfast the planter elevates his feet for a quiet smoke, and lights either a cigar or cheroot, filling the room with smoke and with the most fragrant perfume.

Of all the various products cultivated, but few vie with the tobacco plant in beauty of form and general appearance. By its great variety of colors in leaves and flowers, it offers a striking contrast with the more sombre hues of most other plants. When left to grow until the plants have reached full size, the tobacco field has the appearance of a vast flower garden, the tiny blossoms exhaling their fragrance and the entire plant emitting odors as rare and as delicate as the most fragrant exotic. In the tropics the finest tobacco plantations are found, as nature is more lavish, not only in the richness of the soil, but in the variety of the vegetable products. Here the tobacco plant attains its finest form and most delicately flavored leaves. The hues of the flowers are brighter and their fragrance sweeter. In the tropics the tobacco field may be scented from afar, as its odors are wafted on the breeze. In its native home it flourishes and matures as readily as the more common kinds of vegetation, while it affords the planter a larger revenue than many of the more useful of nature's products.