Chapter I: Part 1
THE SPANISH SERIES
TOLEDO
THE SPANISH SERIES
_EDITED BY ALBERT F. CALVERT_
GOYA
TOLEDO
MADRID
SEVILLE
MURILLO
CORDOVA
VELAZQUEZ
THE PRADO
THE ESCORIAL
ROYAL PALACES OF SPAIN
GRANADA AND ALHAMBRA
SPANISH ARMS AND ARMOUR
LEON, BURGOS & SALAMANCA
VALLADOLID, OVIEDO, SEGOVIA,
ZAMORA, AVILA & ZARAGOZA
TOLEDO
AN HISTORICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE
ACCOUNT OF
THE “CITY OF GENERATIONS,”
BY ALBERT F. CALVERT, WITH
OVER 500 ILLUSTRATIONS
LONDON: JOHN LANE, THE BODLEY HEAD
NEW YORK: JOHN LANE COMPANY MCMVII
Printed by BALLANTYNE & CO. LIMITED
Tavistock Street, London
TO
S.A. INFANTA MARIA TERESA
IN WHOSE SYMPATHY
THE ANCIENT GRANDEUR IS LINKED WITH
THE FUTURE GREATNESS OF SPAIN
THIS VOLUME
WITH AN ASSURANCE OF SINCERE ESTEEM
IS DEDICATED
PREFACE
The author would, in the ordinary way, be hard put to it to frame a reasonable apology for compiling a new volume on the subject of the ancient and royal city of Toledo. Artists have reproduced its wonder of imposing and picturesque detail; archæologists have explored its many monuments; historians have discovered in its archives a record which, for many centuries, represents the log-book of Spain. There is no secret, apart from the impenetrable mystery of its origin, which has not been revealed; its chronicle is a well-thumbed volume. The beginnings of Spanish history go no further back than the earliest references we have to the natural stronghold founded on the seven rocks on the banks of the Tagus, and Spanish tradition claims for the citadel an antiquity coeval with the sun and stars. Both the history and the legends have been transcribed in many languages, yet, in a series which is intended to embrace all Spain in its compendious design, the inclusion of the twice-told tale of the “city of generations” carries with it an unquestionable justification.
The ambition of the author has not been to throw fresh light on a well-worn subject, nor to supplement the work of earlier and more erudite writers with new facts or theories, but simply, as in the case of the earlier volumes in this series, to equip the illustrations with a brief, explanatory text. It would be futile to attempt to even outline the story of Toledo in some hundred and fifty pages of letterpress, but I hope it may be found that in this limited space sufficient detail has been given to convey to the reader a general idea of the changing fortunes and unchanging character of the city, which Padilla has described as “the crown of Spain, the light of the world, free from the time of the mighty Goths.”
The impression of grandeur and melancholy, of strength and silence, which the traveller receives from a visit to the one-time capital of the Peninsula, cannot be suggested by the written word, but it may be that the illustrations will recall, if they do not suggest, the feeling which the city inspires. Toledo is mediæval in its architecture and its atmosphere. The Moorish occupation has left no more than a scratch upon its Gothic character; the spirit of modernity has been defied by its virile antiquity. But the Moslem remains have been made a feature of the illustrations, and, as in the volumes devoted to Seville, Cordova, and Granada in this series, the intricacies of Arabian decoration have been extensively reproduced.
Many of the plates are included here by the courtesy of Messrs. Alguacil, Rafael Garzon, Hauser and Menet, and Moreno, and to these gentlemen I tender my sincere thanks for the permission accorded me to reproduce them. I have also to acknowledge my indebtedness to Mr. E. B. d’Auvergne for the assistance rendered by him in the compilation, and to Messrs. Martin and Gamoneda for their kindness in allowing me to make use of the matter and illustrations contained in the volume on _Toledo_ which they have published in the new series of the _Monumentos Arquitectónicos de España_.
I venture to hope that no apology is needed for including the chapter on El Greco, and the selection of his pictures, which appear in this volume. A separate book, devoted entirely to this subject, which will be issued in this series, cannot be ready for some time, and as so little has been written about Domeniko Theotokopouli, and so few of his pictures have been reproduced, I have decided to incorporate these brief notes concerning the Cretan painter, whose association with Toledo extended over a period of nearly forty years.
A. F. C.
“ROYSTON,”
SWISS COTTAGE,
N.W.
CONTENTS
PAGE
THE CHILDHOOD OF THE CITY 1
THE CITY UNDER THE VISIGOTHS 8
TOLEDO UNDER THE MOOR 29
TOLEDO THE CAPITAL OF CASTILE 59
BUILDINGS OF THE CASTILIAN PERIOD 83
THE CATHEDRAL 101
THE DECLINE OF THE CITY 130
EL GRECO 147
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
TITLE PLATE
Toledo. (_Specially drawn for The Spanish Series_) 1
General View of Toledo from the South-east 2
View of Toledo from the South-east 3
General View of Toledo 4
View of Toledo from the Campo del Rey 5
General View of Toledo 6
State of the Ruins of the Circo Maximo in the Year 1848, according to the “Album Artistico” 7
The River Tagus 8
Bridge of Alcantara 9
Perspective of St. Martin’s Bridge and the Direction of the Fortified Lines 10
Perspective View of the Site of the Aqueduct 11
Environs of Toledo 12
Plaza de Zocodover 13
The Town Hall 14
The Market-place 15
The Market-place 16
A Street in Toledo 17
A Street in Toledo 18
A Street in Toledo 19
A Street in Toledo 20
A Street in Toledo 21
A Street in Toledo 22
A Street in Toledo 23
A Street in Toledo 24
Visagra Gate 25
A Street in Toledo 26
A Street in Toledo 27
Bridge of Alcantara 28
Alcantara Gate 29
Alcantara Portal and Bridge 29
Exterior of the Northern City Walls 30
Fortifications of the old Bridge of Boats, replaced by the Bridge of St. Martin 31
Remains of the City Walls of “Al-Hizém,” from the Gate of the Doce Cantos to the Plaza de Armas of the Bridge of Alcantara 32
Remains of the City Walls, south-west, rebuilt at the Time of the Reconquest 33
Remains of the Roman Ramparts of the first Enclosure of the City 34
Remains of the Roman Ramparts of the first Enclosure of the City. (Plaza de Armas of the Bridge of Alcantara) 35
Visigoth Capital transformed into a Fountain Basin. (No. 9, Callejon de la Lamparilla) 35
Principal Entrance to the House of the Baths of Aben-Ya-Yix Bajada al Colegio del Infantes 36
Sepulchral Arch of the Infante don Fernando Perez in the Belen Chapel in the Convent of the Comendadora de Santiago 36
Ruins of Polan Castle. Fourteenth Century 37
Guadamar Castle 38
Remains of the Roman Ramparts of the first Enclosure of the City 39
The Exterior Walls 40
Remains of the Fortifications in the Jewish Suburb 40
Gate of the “Almofala” (Bib-al-Mojadha) rebuilt in the Fourteenth Century 41
“The Abbot’s Tower” in the Northern Walls 41
Ruins of the Aquaria Tower, commonly called “Horno del Vidrio” 42
Remains of the Aqueduct (left bank of the river) 43
Remains of the Aqueduct (right bank of the river) 43
Remains of the Roman Construction in the Tower of the Plaza de Armas of the Bridge of Alcantara 44
Bridge of Alcantara 45
East Side of the Bridge of Alcantara 46
Posterior Façade of the defensive Tower of the Bridge of Alcantara 47
Defensive Tower of the Bridge of Alcantara. Anterior Façade 48
Alcantara Gate 49
Commemorative Inscription in the Avenue of the Defensive Tower of the Bridge of Alcantara 50
Coat-of-Arms of the Catholic Sovereigns in front of the Defensive Tower of the Bridge of Alcantara 51
“The Khalif’s Capitals” at No. 13 Calle del Coliseo 51
Perspective of the Bridge of Alcantara 52
St. Martin’s Bridge 53
St. Martin’s Bridge 54
Façade of Santa Cruz 54
Defensive Towers at the Entrance of St. Martin’s Bridge and the Town 55
Restored Posterior Façade of the Arch de La Sangre 55
Remains of the Aqueduct (right bank) 56
East Side of St. Martin’s Bridge 57
Defensive Tower of St. Martin’s Bridge. Façade seen from the Bridge 58
Defensive Tower of St. Martin’s Bridge. Façade seen from the Highway 58
Malbardón Gate. Eleventh Century 59
Visagra Gate 60
Upper Part of the Visagra Gate. Built in 1550 61
Tower in the City Walls of “The Suburb of San Isidoro,” near the new Visagra Gate 62
Hydraulic Machine and Remains of the Walls in the Quarter of the Curtidores, near the River 63
Walls of the Suburb of San Isidore 63
Ancient Visagra Gate 64
Ancient Visagra Gate. The Side which joins the Wall and the side Defensive Tower 65
Ancient Visagra Gate. Defensive and Side Tower 66
Ancient Visagra Gate. Remains of the Eastern Façade 67
Detail of the Principal Façade of the old Visagra Gate 68
Interior of the old Visagra Gate 68
Ancient Visagra Gate 69
The Tower called “Puerta Baja de la Herreria,” now “Gate of the Sun” 70
Castle of San Servando 71
Castle of San Servando. Ancient Entrance in the West Façade 72
Castle of San Servando. South-east Angle 72
Door of the Castle in San Servando 73
Gate of Valmadron 74
Gate of Cambrón 75
Los Baños de Florinda de Cava 76
Entrance to Los Baños 77
Ruins of the Tower called “Los Baños de Florinda de Cava” 78
Details of the Convent of Santa Fe. Eleventh Century 79
West Portal in the old Hermitage, now the Inn of Santa Ana, on the Sisla road 80
Altar-piece of San Justo 81
Detail of the Church of San Justo. Fifteenth Century 82
Detail of the Chapel of Santos Justo and Pastor 83
Effigies of Juan Guas, architect of San Juan de Los Reyes, and of his son. Chapel of Christ at the Column, in the Parish Church of San Justo 84
Effigies of Mari Alvares, wife of Juan Guas, and of her Daughter. Chapel of Christ at the Column, in the Parish Church of San Justo 85
Mosque of the Tornerias. Exterior of the South Façade, South-west Angle 86
Interior of the Mosque de las Tornerias 87
Arch of the “Kibláh” in the Mosque de las Tornerias 88
Mosque of the Tornerias. Trefoil Arched Window 89
Mosque of the Tornerias. Horse-shoe Window 89
Mosque of the Tornerias. Arched Window 90
Mosque of the Tornerias. Rectangular Window 90
Mosque de las Tornerias 91
Mosque of the Tornerias, built over Roman Remains 92
Supposed Elevation of the Mosque of Bib-al-Mardóm 93
Supposed Plan of the Mosque of Bib-al-Mardóm 94
Actual Situation of the North-east Façade of the Ancient Mosque of Bib-al-Mardóm, a Transept and _Mudejar_ Apsis of the Hermitage of Santo Cristo de la Luz 95
The Mosque of Bib-al-Mardóm, Horse-shoe Arch and Remains of the Dado and Little Arches and Windows in the North-east Façade (right side) 96
The Mosque of Bib-al-Mardóm, Horse-shoe Arch and Remains of the Dado of Little Arches and Windows in the North-east Façade (left side) 97
Principal Nave in the Mosque of Bib-al-Mardóm 98
Arch in the Southern Interior of the Mosque of Bib-al-Mardóm 99
Actual Entrance to the Castle 99
Mosque of Bib-al-Mardóm. Arch in the Interior Wall, South-west Angle 100
Detail of the North-west Façade of the Mosque of Bib-al-Mardóm 100
Bib-al-Mardóm. “Arch of the Cross,” Interior Façade 101
Bib-al-Mardóm. “Arch of the Cross,” Exterior Façade 101
Mosque of Bib-al-Mardóm 102
North-west Façade of the Mosque of Bib-al-Mardóm (Hermitage of Santo Cristo de la Luz), discovered in February 1899 103
The Epigraphic Medallion on the North-west Façade of the Mosque of Bib-al-Mardóm (Hermitage of Santo Cristo de la Luz), rebuilt in the year 370 after the Hegira (A.D. 980) 104
Visigoth Capital in the old Moorish Parish Church of San Sebastian 105
Visigoth Base which serves as a Capital in the old Moorish Parish Church of San Sebastian 105
Santo Cristo de la Luz 106
The Hermitage of Santo Cristo de la Luz 107
Wall-Paintings of Santo Cristo de la Luz 108
Church of Santo Cristo de la Luz 109
Wall-Paintings of Santo Cristo de la Luz 110
Ancient Mosque, now the Hermitage of Santo Cristo de la Luz 111
Exterior of the Hermitage of Santo Cristo de la Luz, and Towers of various Churches 112
Detail of the Transito (Synagogue), built in 1360 at the expense of Samuel Levi 113
Details of the Interior Decoration of the Church of the Transito (Ancient Synagogue) 114
Details of the Interior Decoration of the Church of the Transito (Ancient Synagogue) 115
Details of the Transito (Synagogue) 116
Details of the Transito (Synagogue) 117
Details of the Transito (Synagogue) 118
Entrance Arch in the Building called Taller Del Moro 119
Detail of Decoration in the Moorish Workshop 120
Details of the Palace of the Ayalas 121
Details of the Palace of the Ayalas 122
Exterior of the Chapel of Santo Cristo de la Vega 123
Door and Exterior of Santa Maria la Blanca 124
Sections and Details of the Ancient Synagogue, now the Church of Santa Maria la Blanca 125
Part of the Longitudinal Section of the Ancient Synagogue, now the Church of Santa Maria la Blanca 126
Interior of Santa Maria la Blanca 127
Interior of Santa Maria la Blanca 128
Interior of Santa Maria la Blanca 129
Cárcel de Santa Hermandad 130
A Gothic Doorway 131
A Doorway 132
St. Michael’s Tower. Fourteenth Century 133
House of the Toledos 134
Details of a Courtyard 135
Details of a Courtyard 136
Details of a Courtyard 137
Details of a Courtyard 138
Details of a Courtyard 139
The Fountain of Calerahigo 140
Arab Details 141
Visigoth Crowns and Crosses of Guarrazar 142
Visigoth Crowns and Crosses of Guarrazar 143
Visigoth Crowns and Crosses found at Toledo and now in the Royal Armoury at Madrid 144
San Pedro Martin 145
Calle de Santo Tomé 145
Alcazar Royal Palace. Reproduction of the Engraving made in 1566 for Braun’s “Civitates Orbi Terrarum” 146
Perspective of the Alcazar in 1845. East and North Façades. Reproduction of an Engraving in the Work “Toledo Pintoresca” 147
The Alcazar. Taken from the Plaza de Zocodover 148
South Façade of the Alcazar 149
The Alcazar. West Façade after the latest Restoration 150
The Alcazar 151
Alcazar. Principal Façade on the North 152
The Alcazar. East Façade, after the latest Restoration 153
General View of the Alcazar 154
The Alcazar. The Principal Staircase 155
The Alcazar. Principal North Portal 156
The Alcazar. Court and Plan 157
Court of the Alcazar 158
Court in the Alcazar. After the latest Restoration 159
The Alcazar. Plan and Details. North Façade 160
Details of the North Façade of the Alcazar 161
Door of the Hall of the House of the Mesa (the Table) 162
Details of the House of the Mesa 163
Details of the House of the Mesa 164
Details of the House of the Mesa 165
Details of the Hall of the House of the Mesa 166
Details of the Hall of the House of the Mesa 167
Details of the Hall of the House of the Mesa 168
Details of the House of the Mesa 169
Doorway of the College of the Infantes. Sixteenth Century 170
Doorway of the Palace of the Martinez 171
Roman Tower of San Juan de los Reyes 172
Cloisters of San Juan de los Reyes 172
Exterior of San Juan de los Reyes 173
San Juan de los Reyes 174
Plan of the Church and Processional Cloister of San Juan de los Reyes 175
Doorway in San Juan de los Reyes 176
Gothic Doorway in San Juan de los Reyes 177
Exterior of the Arch of San Juan de los Reyes 178
Interior of San Juan de los Reyes 179
Interior of San Juan de los Reyes 180
Interior of San Juan de los Reyes 181
Longitudinal Section of the Church of San Juan de los Reyes 182
Interior, San Juan de los Reyes 183
Retablo, San Juan de los Reyes 183
Gallery in San Juan de los Reyes 184
Gallery in San Juan de los Reyes 185
Details of San Juan de los Reyes 186
Details of Gallery in San Juan de los Reyes 187
Details of San Juan de los Reyes 188
San Juan de los Reyes. Wall in the Presbytery 189
Interior of San Juan de los Reyes 190
Interior of San Juan de los Reyes 191
Interior of San Juan de los Reyes 192
San Juan de los Reyes. Decoration in the Transverse Nave 193
San Juan de los Reyes. Details of the Arms of Isabella the Catholic 194
Details of the Transept of the Church of San Juan de los Reyes 195
San Juan de los Reyes. Interior 196
A Dome in San Juan de los Reyes 197
Remains of Windows of San Juan de los Reyes 198
Details of the Cross-Aisle in the Church of San Juan de los Reyes 199
Altar of San Juan de los Reyes 200
Altar of San Juan de los Reyes 200
Details of the Altar-piece in San Juan de los Reyes 201
Copy of the original Drawing of the Arch and Cross-Aisle of San Juan de los Reyes 202
Longitudinal Section of the Cloister of San Juan de los Reyes 203
Cloisters of San Juan de los Reyes 204
San Juan de los Reyes. The Cloisters 205
Cloisters of San Juan de los Reyes 206
Cloisters of San Juan de los Reyes 207
Details of the Cloisters of San Juan de los Reyes 208
Compartment of the Cloisters of San Juan de los Reyes 209
San Juan de los Reyes. Details of the Cloisters 210
Details of the Cloisters of San Juan de los Reyes 211
San Juan de los Reyes. Details of the Cloisters 212
San Juan de los Reyes. Details of the Cloisters 213
San Juan de los Reyes. Details of the Cloisters 214
San Juan de los Reyes. Details of the Cloisters 215
Church of San Juan de los Reyes. Courtyard 216
Court in San Juan de los Reyes 217
Doorway of the Museum of San Juan de los Reyes 218
San Juan de los Reyes. Details above Door of Museum 219
Palace of Don Pedro the Cruel 220
Details of the Palace of Don Pedro the Cruel 221
Façade of the Palace of Don Pedro the Cruel 222
Doorway of the Palace of Don Pedro the Cruel 223
Doorway of the Palace of Don Pedro the Cruel 224
The Cathedral 225
General View of the Cathedral 226
The Cathedral 227
Section of the Cathedral 228
Longitudinal Section of the Cathedral 229
Transverse Section of the Cathedral 230
Principal Façade of the Cathedral and Tower 231
The Cathedral. Detail of the Exterior 232
The Cathedral. Portal of the Principal Façade 233
The Cathedral. Principal Gate 234
The Cathedral. The Gate of the Lions 235
The Cathedral. Porch of the Principal Façade 236
The Cathedral. The Lion Door 237
The Cathedral. The Lion Door 237
Door of the Cathedral 238
The Cathedral. Door of the Lost Child 239
The Cathedral. Details of the Puerta de la Feria 240
The Cathedral. Gate of the Conception 241
The Cathedral. Ornamental Details of the Gates 242
The Cathedral. Central Nave 243
The Cathedral. Tomb of Alonso de Carrillo 243
The Cathedral. General View of the Interior 244
The Cathedral. General View of the Interior 245
The Cathedral. Interior 246
The Cathedral. Interior 247
Windows in the Principal Nave of the Cathedral 248
The Cathedral. Grating of the Principal Chapel. Sixteenth Century 249
The Cathedral. Exterior of the Principal Chapel 250
The Cathedral. Exterior of the Principal Chapel 251
The Cathedral. Exterior of the Principal Chapel 252
The Cathedral. Details of the Principal Chapel 253
The Cathedral. Details of the Principal Chapel 254
The Cathedral. Exterior of the Principal Chapel 255
The Cathedral. Details of the Principal Chapel 256
The Cathedral. Details of the Principal Chapel 257
The Cathedral. Altar-piece of the Principal Chapel 258
The Cathedral. Detail of the Altar-piece of the Principal Chapel 259
The Cathedral. Exterior of the High Altar 260
The Cathedral. Exterior of the High Altar 261
The Cathedral. Exterior of the High Altar 262
The Cathedral. Details of the Altar-piece 263
The Cathedral. Frontal of the High Altar. Fifteenth Century 264
The Cathedral. Frontal of the High Altar. Fifteenth Century 265
The Cathedral. Detail of the Frontal of the High Altar 266
The Cathedral. Exterior of the Principal Chapel 267
The Cathedral. Sepulchre of Cardinal Mendoza in the Principal Chapel 268
The Cathedral. Dome of the Principal Chapel 269
The Cathedral. Exterior of the Choir 270
The Cathedral. Exterior of the Choir 271
The Cathedral. Details of the Exterior of the Choir 272
The Cathedral. Exterior of the Choir 273
The Cathedral. Choir Stalls 274
The Cathedral. Choir Stalls 275
The Cathedral. Choir Stalls 276
The Cathedral. Details of the Choir Stalls, representing the Re-conquest of Granada by Ferdinand and Isabella 277
The Cathedral. Interior of the Choir 278
The Cathedral. Details of the Choir 279
The Cathedral. Details of the Choir 280
The Cathedral. The Archbishop’s Throne, representing the Transfiguration. By Berruguete 281
The Cathedral. Virgin of the Laneros 282
The Cathedral. Detail of the Choir Stalls. Re-conquest of Granada by Ferdinand and Isabella 283
The Cathedral. Detail of the Choir Stalls. Re-conquest of Granada by Ferdinand and Isabella 284
The Cathedral. Detail of the Choir Stalls. Re-conquest of Granada by Ferdinand and Isabella 285
The Cathedral. Detail of the Choir Stalls. Re-conquest of Granada by Ferdinand and Isabella 286
The Cathedral. Detail of Choir Stalls. The Capture of Alhama by Ferdinand and Isabella, 1482. Re-conquest of Granada 287
The Cathedral. Detail of the Choir Stalls. Re-conquest of Granada by Ferdinand and Isabella 288
The Cathedral. Detail of the Choir Stalls. Re-conquest of Granada by Ferdinand and Isabella 289
The Cathedral. Detail of the Choir Stalls. Re-conquest of Granada by Ferdinand and Isabella 290
The Cathedral. Detail of the Choir Stalls. Re-conquest of Granada by Ferdinand and Isabella 291
The Cathedral. Detail of the Choir Stalls. Re-conquest of Granada by Ferdinand and Isabella 292
The Cathedral. Detail of the Choir Stalls. Re-conquest of Granada by Ferdinand and Isabella 293
The Cathedral. Upper part of the Choir Stalls, carved by Berruguete and Borgoña. Sixteenth Century 294
The Cathedral. Upper part of the Choir Stalls, carved by Berruguete and Borgoña. Sixteenth Century 295
The Cathedral. Upper part of the Choir Stalls, carved by Berruguete and Borgoña. Sixteenth Century 296
The Cathedral. Upper part of the Choir Stalls, carved by Berruguete and Borgoña. Sixteenth Century 297
The Cathedral. Upper part of the Choir Stalls, carved by Berruguete and Borgoña. Sixteenth Century 298
The Cathedral. Upper part of the Choir Stalls, carved by Berruguete and Borgoña. Sixteenth Century 299
The Cathedral. Upper part of the Choir Stalls, carved by Berruguete and Borgoña. Sixteenth Century 300
The Cathedral. Masonry in the Choir 301
The Cathedral. Exterior of the Presbytery 302
The Cathedral. Interior of the Chapel of the New Kings with the Sepulchres of Don Henry the Bastard and his Wife 303
The Cathedral. Sepulchres of Don Henry the Bastard and his Wife in the Chapel of the New Kings 304
The Cathedral. Sepulchre of Cardinal Tavera in the Chapel of the New Kings 305
The Cathedral. Sepulchre of Don Juan I. in the Chapel of the New Kings 306
The Cathedral. Sepulchre of Doña Leonor, Wife of Don Juan I., in the Chapel of the New Kings 307
The Cathedral. Chapel of the Descent of the Virgin 308
The Cathedral. Muzarabic Chapel 309
The Cathedral. Details of the Chapel of the Virgen de la Antigua 310
The Cathedral. Chapel of the Virgen de la Antigua. Fourteenth Century 311
The Cathedral. Doorway of the Chapel of the Canons 312
Altar-piece of Santa Isabel 313
Altar-piece of Santa Catalina 313
Altar-piece of Santa Catalina 314
Altar-piece of Santa Catalina 315
Altar-piece of Santa Catalina 316
Chapel of Santa Catalina. Founded by the Counts of Cedillo 317
The Cathedral. Chapel of Santiago, containing the Sepulchres of Don Alvaro de Luna and that of his Wife Doña Juana. Fifteenth Century 318
The Cathedral. Sepulchre of Don Juan de Zerezuela in the Chapel of Santiago. Fifteenth Century 319
Cupola of the Chapel “de los Reyes Nuevos” in the Cathedral 320
Cupola of the “Capilla de Santiago,” called “De Don Alvaro de Luna” in the Cathedral 320
The Cathedral. Sepulchre of Don Gil Carrillo de Albornoz in the Chapel of San Ildefonso 321
The Cathedral. Sepulchre of Gil de Albornoz in the Chapel of San Ildefonso 322
The Cathedral. Entrance to the Chapter Room. Sixteenth Century 323
The Cathedral. Chapter Room 324
The Cathedral. Various Portraits of Cardinals 325
The Cathedral. Various Portraits of Cardinals 326
The Cathedral. Details in the Chapter Room 327
The Cathedral. Chapter Room 328
The Cathedral. Doorway of the Chapter Room 329
The Cathedral. Detail of a Doorway in the Chapter Room 330
The Cathedral. Cupboard made by Gregorio Pardo (1549-1551), for the Antechamber of the Chapter House 331
Cupboard in the Cathedral 332
The Cathedral. A Rich and Gossamer-carved Ceiling in the Chapter Hall. Sixteenth Century 333
The Cathedral. Ceiling in the Chapter Hall 334
The Cathedral. A Ceiling in the Ante-room 335
The Cathedral Cloisters 336
The Cathedral Cloisters 337
Presentation Portal in the Cloister of the Cathedral 338
Exterior, by the Cloisters of the Chapel, of the Place of Sepulchre built by Henry II. for his Tomb 339
The Cathedral. Picture by Bayeu in the Cloisters 340
Portal of St. Catherine in the Cloister of the Cathedral 341
The Cathedral. Details of the Gate of the Presentation in the Cloister 342
The Cathedral. Reliquary of San Sebastian in the Octavo 343
The Cathedral. Detail of the Reliquary of San Sebastian in the Octavo 344
The Cathedral. A Byzantine Reliquary 345
Sepulchres in the Cathedral 346
Sculpture in the Cathedral 347
The Cathedral. Bronze Lectern and Books of the Holy Office 348
The Cathedral. A Bronze Pulpit 349
The Cathedral. Detail of a Pulpit 350
Pulpit in the Cathedral 351
Cathedral Bells which Ring when the Host is Elevated 352
The Cathedral. Statue of Don Juan II. Sixteenth Century 353
The Cathedral. St. Francis of Assisi 354
The Cathedral. A Picture by Bayeu 355
Details in the Cathedral 356
The Cathedral. Cover of a Missal 357
The Cathedral. Silver Salver, “The Abduction of the Sabine Women,” by Benvenuto Cellini 358
The Cathedral. Chalice and Paten 359
The Cathedral. A Ship that belonged to Queen Juana la Loca 360
Monstrance in the Cathedral 361
The Cathedral. Sword of Alfonso VI. 362
The Cathedral. The Adoration of the Kings (silk) 363
The Cathedral. The Veil of Santa Leocadia (silk) 364
The Cathedral. The Assumption (silk) 365
The Cathedral. The Beheading of San Eugenio (silk) 366
Kufic Entablature in the Cathedral 367
The Cathedral. A Dalmatic embroidered in Gold and Silk. Sixteenth Century 368
The Cathedral. A Chasuble embroidered in Gold and Silk. Sixteenth Century 369
The Cathedral. Details of the Puerta del Reloj 370
The Cathedral. Details of the Puerta del Reloj 371
The Cathedral. Details of the Puerta del Reloj 372
The Cathedral. Details of the Puerta del Reloj 373
Effigies of Juan Guas (architect of San Juan de los Reyes), his Wife, and Children 374
Sculpture in San Andrés 375
Banner of the Salado 376
St. Peter Natano and St. Theresa sculptured in Wood 377
Plan of the Santa Iglesia Primada 378
Santa Isabel. Side Altar-piece 379
Santa Isabel. Detail of an Altar-piece 380
Parish Church of Santiago 381
Exterior of Santiago del Arrabal. Thirteenth Century 382
Pulpit in the Church of Santiago del Arrabal, from which San Vicente de Ferrer preached against the Jews 383
Parochial Church of Santiago del Arrabal 384
Church of San Tomé 385
Detail of an Altar-piece in the Church of the Trinity 386
Sepulchres in the Church of St. Peter the Martyr 387
Details of a Sepulchre in the Church of St. Peter the Martyr 388
Church of St. Peter the Martyr. Statue of a Kneeling Canon 389
Chapel in San Juan de la Penitencia 390
Chapel in San Juan de la Penitencia 391
Details of San Juan de la Penitencia 392
Sepulchre in San Juan de la Penitencia 393
Sepulchre in San Juan de la Penitencia 394
Detail of the Convent of San Juan de la Penitencia 395
Details of the Convent of San Juan de la Penitencia 396
Convent of Santo Domingo 397
Convent of Santo Domingo 398
Convent of Santo Domingo 399
Ancient Sepulchre in the Convent of Santo Domingo 400
Santo Domingo el Real. Principal Altar-piece 401
Doorway of the Convent of San Antonio 402
Porch of the Church and Convent of San Clemente 403
Porch of the Church and Convent of San Clemente 404
Detail of the Interior of the Convent of San Clemente 405
Portal of Santa Cruz 406
Portal of Santa Cruz 407
Porch of Santa Cruz 408
The Hospital of Santa Cruz 408
Court of Santa Cruz 409
Courtyard of the Hospital 410
Court of Santa Cruz 411
Court of Santa Cruz 412
Detail of the Portal of the Hospital of Santa Cruz 413
Details of Santa Cruz 414
Hospital of Santa Cruz 415
Portals in the Vestibule of the Ancient Hospital of Santa Cruz 416
Hospital of Santa Cruz. Portrait of the Founder, Cardinal Mendoza 417
Hospital de Afuera. The Court 418
Hospital de Afuera 419
Hospital of St. John Baptist 420
Hospital de Afuera. Sepulchre of Cardinal Tavera, 1557, Alonzo Berruguete 421
The University 422
The University 422
Details of the House of Munárriz 423
Gate of Al Mardóm 424
Altar of the Church of San Justo 424
Portal of the Archbishop’s Palace 425
In the Town Hall 425
Cloisters of San Juan de los Reyes 426
View of St. Martin’s Bridge, looking down the River 426
Gallery of San Juan de los Reyes 427
A Moorish Workshop 427
Hotel Castilla 428
Detail of the Courtyard of the Hotel Castilla 429
Visigoth Capitals in the Church of San Sebastian 430
National Archæological Museum. Capital, Fourth Century after the Hegira 431
National Archæological Museum. Capital of Santiago de los Caballeros near the Alcazar. Fourth Century after the Hegira 431
Capital in the Archæological Museum 432
National Archæological Museum. Fragment of Dado found near the Basilica of Santa Leocadia 433
National Archæological Museum. Window of San Ginés 433
National Archæological Museum. Decorative Table in White Marble, belonging to the Aljama Mosque of Toledo 434
National Archæological Museum. Decorative Fragment found at the “Miradero.” Carved in White Marble 434
Capital in the South-west Angle, belonging to the old Mosque, now the Hermitage of Santo Cristo de la Luz 435
The Fifth of the Visigoth Capitals of the Hospital of Santa Cruz 435
National Archæological Museum. Skylight or Ornament found at Toledo 436
Visigoth Capital in the Provincial Museum 436
Architectural Fragments of the Visigoth Period in the Parish Church of San Román 437
Architectural Pieces of the Visigoth Period existing in the City 438
Architectural Fragments of the Visigoth Period 439
Capital of the South-east Angle belonging to the ancient Mosque, now the Hermitage of Santo Cristo de la Luz 440
Visigoth Capital of the old Parish Church of San Sebastian 440
National Archæological Museum. Visigoth Capitals of the Church of Santa Eulalia. Fragment of the Dado of the Basilica of Santo Leocadia 441
Capitals in the Archæological Museum 442
Provincial Museum. Capital of the Fourth Century after the Hegira 443
National Archæological Museum. Arab Astrolabe made at Toledo in the year 459 after the Hegira (A.D. 1067) 443
Architectural Fragments of the Visigoth Period 444
Architectural Fragments anterior to the Mahometan Irruption, No. 1 445
Architectural Parts and Decorative Remains anterior to the Mahometan Irruption, No. 2 446
Architectural Parts and Decorative Fragments anterior to the Mahometan Irruption, No. 3 447
Arches of various Churches of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries 448
Denudation of our Lord before the Crucifixion. El Greco. Sacristy of the Cathedral 449
The Virgin, St. Anne, the Child Jesus, and St. John. El Greco. Chapel of St. Anne 450
Our Lady of Sorrows. El Greco. Sacristy of the New Kings, in the Cathedral 451
Pentecost. El Greco. Church of the Trinity 452
Jesus and St. John. El Greco. Church of St. John the Baptist 453
The Assumption. El Greco. Chapel of San José 454
St. Martin. El Greco. Chapel of San José 455
The Holy Eucharist, by El Greco. Church of San José 456
San José and the Child Jesus. El Greco. Parish Church of the Magdalene 457
The Interment of Count de Orgaz. El Greco. Church of Santo Tomé 458
Detail of the Interment of Count de Orgaz. El Greco 459
Fragment of the Interment of the Count de Orgaz. El Greco 460
Fragment of the Interment of the Count de Orgaz. El Greco 461
Fragment of the Interment of the Count de Orgaz. El Greco 462
Fragment of the Interment of the Count de Orgaz. El Greco 463
Fragment of the Interment of the Count de Orgaz 464
Fragment of the Interment of the Count de Orgaz. El Greco 465
Fragment of the Interment of the Count de Orgaz. El Greco 466
The Annunciation. El Greco. Parish Church of San Nicolás 467
The Crucifixion. El Greco. San Nicolás 468
San Pedro Nolasco. El Greco. Parish Church of San Nicolás 469
The Assumption. El Greco. Parish Church of San Vicente 470
San Eugenio. El Greco. Parish Church of San Vicente 471
St. Peter. El Greco. Parish Church of San Vicente 472
Jesus and the Virgin. El Greco. Parish Church of San Vicente 473
The Ascension. El Greco. San Domingo el Antigua 474
A Saint (? Santo Domingo el Antigua). El Greco 475
The Birth of Jesus. El Greco. Santo Domingo el Antigua 476
Santa Veronica with the Sudarium. El Greco. Santo Domingo el Antigua 477
St. John Baptist. El Greco. Santo Domingo el Antigua 478
St. John the Evangelist. El Greco. Church of Santo Domingo 479
Altar-piece of the Convent of Santo Domingo. El Greco 480
St. Francis of Assisi. El Greco. College of Noble Ladies 481
The Baptism of Jesus. El Greco. Hospital of St. John Baptist 482
Portrait of Cardinal Tavera. El Greco. Hospital of St. John Baptist 483
View of the High Altar of the Tavera Hospital. El Greco 484
General View of Toledo (left half). El Greco. Provincial Museum 485
General View of Toledo (right half). El Greco. Provincial Museum 486
View of Toledo. El Greco. Provincial Museum 487
Portrait of Antonio Covarrubias. El Greco. Provincial Museum 488
Portrait of the Son of Covarrubias. El Greco. Provincial Museum 489
The Crucifixion. El Greco. Provincial Museum 490
Allegory of the Virgin. El Greco. Provincial Museum 491
Portrait of Juan de Avila. El Greco. Provincial Museum 492
Our Saviour. El Greco. Provincial Museum 493
St. John the Evangelist. El Greco. Provincial Museum 494
St. Peter. El Greco. Provincial Museum 495
St. Matthias. El Greco. Provincial Museum 496
St. Philip. El Greco. Provincial Museum 497
St. Andrew. El Greco. Provincial Museum 498
St. Thomas. El Greco. Provincial Museum 499
St. Simon. El Greco. Provincial Museum 500
St. Matthew. El Greco. Provincial Museum 501
St. Jude Tadeo. El Greco. Provincial Museum 502
An Apostle. El Greco. Provincial Museum 503
An Apostle. El Greco. Provincial Museum 504
An Apostle. El Greco. Provincial Museum 505
The Annunciation. El Greco 506
The Dream of Philip II. El Greco. Chapter Hall of the Escorial 507
St. Maurice and the Theban Legion. El Greco. Chapter Hall of the Escorial 508
Portrait of El Greco by Himself. Señor A. de Beruete, Madrid 509
Christ driving the Money Changers from the Temple. El Greco. Señor de Beruete, Madrid 510
Portrait of a Student (El Greco?). El Greco. Don Pablo Bosch, Madrid 511
TOLEDO
THE CHILDHOOD OF THE CITY
There are spots that stand out in the ocean of time like islands unsubmerged. The flood of years has rolled onwards past and around them, and its billows have broken in vain against their shores. Such a spot is Toledo. It lifts its head above the ever-shifting waters of the ages, and looks forth unchanged, unchanging, across the sea of centuries--a last surviving beacon of the drowned mediæval world.
Very old is the city. It has outgrown decay. Nor can we conceive it as changing. It has almost become a part of the everlasting hills on which it stands. The rock has grown into Toledo and Toledo into the rock.
In a land where all is old, men marvel at the antiquity of this city. And when it was younger by centuries, the chroniclers, groping amid legends and fables the wildest and most extravagant, strove to penetrate the darkness of the ages and to discern the pale glimmerings of Toledo’s dawn. Here, surely, first trod the first man, thought the ancients, and here was already a city when God first placed His sun exactly over it in the yet-dark Heavens. If this was not so, said another chronicler, then beyond doubt Toledo’s seven hills were the first to appear above the waters of the Deluge, and Tubal, the grandson of Noah, established here a kingdom. So stories and traditions multiplied, each historian inventing a fresh one. These fables of the city’s founding are quaint, curious, and ingenious. Iberia and Hispania of course suggested persons, and so we find Iberia, daughter of King Hispan, and wife of a Persian captain, Pyrrhus, resorting in search of health to the banks of the Tagus, and her husband making a bower for her on these rocky steeps. Hercules, who is credited with the foundation of Seville, added the building of Toledo to his many labours. “Dismiss these far-fetched fables,” cries the learned prelate De Rada, “and admit that our city was founded by the Consuls Tolemon and Brutus, in the reign of Ptolemy Evergetes.” But another conjecture as absolutely baseless as the others! More interesting is the legend that the town was built by Jews flying from Nebuchadnezzar, by whom it was named Toledoth, “the city of generation.” Certain it is that Jews lived in Toledo at the earliest periods of its history, and played a great part, as we shall see, in its affairs. However picturesque may be these traditions and wonderings of the sages, we cannot resist the conclusion that the beginnings of this old capital of Spain were obscure and commonplace enough. Along the banks of the yellow Tagus savage tribesmen pastured their flocks and herds, and the more practical spirits among them recognised the advantages of the cliff above the river as a settlement. Doubtless mere temporary encampments succeeded each other here season after season, till some sentiment or necessity attached men permanently to the spot, and a rude cluster of huts was formed--the rough inception of our greatest towns.
The Celtiberians hereabouts were known to the Romans as Carpetani (how ill these Latin forms seem to reproduce the uncouth designations which these primitive peoples really bore!) The Carthaginians were the first civilised nation to come in contact with them, and we hear of a Punic governor, Tago. It is impossible to resist the suspicion that his personality arose, Aphrodite-like, from the river Tagus. But a Moorish writer gives a plausible account of a revolt which arose among the Carpetani consequent on Tago’s assassination by Hasdrubal, the contemporary of Hannibal. This brought that great commander himself upon the scene. Before him the tribesmen were scattered like chaff before the wind.
Did the African Phœnicians found a permanent station at Toledo? It would not seem so. No vestige or fragment, no trace whatever of their domination has come down to us. Most likely this was a mere trading centre, where the black-bearded, keen-eyed Semites bartered the wares of Africa and the East against the ores and fleeces of Spain. The population remained almost purely Celtic. One wonders if a few Carthaginians settled amongst them, and if their descendants became confounded with their kinsmen in race, the Jews. It is a wild conjecture, but might not the presence of such Semitic settlers have given rise to the fantastic legend of the founding of Toledo by the Children of Israel?
Where the Carthaginian sowed, the Roman reaped. And now the Carpetanian village looms in the light not of mere tradition, but of history. Livy tells us that in the year 193 B.C. the Pro-Consul Marcus Fulvius Nobilior defeated a host of Celtiberians, Vaccei and Vectones in this region, and took prisoner a king called Hilerno. In consequence of this victory Toledo--described as _urbs parva sed loco munito_--fell into the power of the conquerors. The wild rebellious Celts might henceforward chafe and lash themselves into impotent fury; on their necks the yoke of the Roman was firmly riveted, never by the natives unassisted to be shaken off.
Historians have remarked on the aloofness of the Toledans during the long winter of foreign domination. Between the various leaders and factions who made Spain their cock-pit, the citizens observed strict neutrality. They rendered no assistance to Viriathus in his magnanimous attempt to recover national independence. Perhaps they were not wanting in sympathy for their compatriots; but the conquerors had long recognised the military value of the town by the Tagus, and here we may suppose was always a strong garrison ready to stamp out the first efforts at revolt.
Under the wings of the Roman eagle, the material prosperity of Toledo steadily increased. From a collection of wretched huts, it had become a _colonia_, the capital of Carpetania. As such it would have had its _arx_, or citadel, prætorium, forum, temples, baths, and _vici_, or long suburbs straggling into the country. Of all these practically no traces remain. But in the Vega, outside the town, may be traced a semicircular enclosure, formed by masses of stones and mortar, about a metre in thickness, but of varying height. This space has been dignified with the name of Circus Maximum, and is undoubtedly a Roman work. But Señor Amador de los Rios has demonstrated almost conclusively that the Circus never advanced much beyond the foundations, which we now see before us probably in no very different state from that in which they were left some two thousand years ago. But though no Celtiberian captives or Christian martyrs here were “butchered to make a Roman holiday,” the consecration of the spot to the practice of cruelty bore fruit in after years. For the fires lit by the Inquisition were kindled here, and the Christian put the incompleted amphitheatre to the use for which it had been designed by the Pagan. To-day the men of Toledo play at _pelota_ in the enclosure, and their cheery shouts may well scare away the ghosts of torturer and victim.
This may be regarded as the most important Roman remains in the neighbourhood of the city. The famous Cave of Hercules, which figures so largely in legendary lore, was probably the crypt or substructure of a Temple of Jupiter; and on the cliff-side below the Alcazar are a few fragments of a once-important aqueduct.
It has been conjectured from the dimensions of the projected Circus that the Romans had at one time thought of elevating Toledo to the rank of chief city of Spain. The design, if it ever was formed, was never carried into execution. Of what passed in the town under Latin rule we have but the vaguest notion. Toledo, like almost every other place in Europe, has its traditions of fierce persecution productive of local martyrs. Almost as many Christians were massacred in Spain, if we credit these stories, as Gibbon thinks perished in the whole Roman Empire. Among the martyrs of Toletum, it is perhaps superfluous to say, was a young and lovely virgin, in this instance called Leocadia. She was done to death by the truculent Dacian. St. Eugenius, the first bishop of Toledo, is said to have been a disciple of St. Paul. He was martyred at Paris, and his alleged remains were obtained from Charles IX. of France and presented to the city by Philip II.
In early ecclesiastical annals Toledo has less shadowy claims on remembrance as the seat of several councils, the most celebrated being those of 396, 400, 589. The minutes of the second council are preserved in the local archives. Miss Hannah Lynch makes merry over the fathers’ spirited denunciations of her sex. In truth, the irreverent reader is reminded of those other fulminations launched in the diocese of Rheims against certain persons unknown, and of the poet’s surprised comment on their want of effect. The sex fared better at the hands of the Council, however, than vegetarians and mathematicians, both of whom were excommunicated downright. Neither class is numerous in Spain at the present day, so the labours of the fathers may not have been altogether ineffectual.
THE CITY UNDER THE VISIGOTH
During the fifth century the Toledans may well have listened with attention to spiritual discussions, for looking forth from their rocky perch, they beheld the kingdoms of the earth passing away, and all that had seemed stable and eternal fading like the morning mist. The final breaking-up of the great world-controlling power was evident. Nations, the very names of which the men of the south had never heard, loomed from out the darkness of the north, and swept like a cloud of locusts over the land. The whole of Spain was desolate. Toledo, ever grim and stubborn, stood prepared to die hard. The tide of Vandal invasion surged in vain round her walls; then spent its fury in the south. The Visigoths established themselves in southern France. Under Walya they had overrun Spain, but had exchanged it, willingly enough, for Aquitania. Euric the Balthing, who succeeded his brother Theodoric as king in 466, seems to have repented of the bargain. He reconquered all Spain, except Galicia, which was held by the Suevi, and took Toledo. Where the Vandal had failed, the Visigoth succeeded. In the first years of the sixth century the Franks stripped Euric’s grandson, Amalaric, of practically all his possessions north of the Pyrenees, and the kingdom of the Visigoths became synonymous with Spain. Its capital was Narbonne during the troubled reigns of Theudis and Theudigisel. But in 553 Athanagild was elected king. His wife was the sister of the Bishop of Toledo, and partly on that account, perhaps, but more probably because of its central position, he made that city his capital. That rank it retained during the continuance of the Visigothic monarchy, with the brief interval of the reign of Liuba, who succeeded Athanagild in 567 and removed his Court to Narbonne.
The history of Toledo for the next century and a half becomes, in some sort, the history of Spain. Under Liuba’s brother and successor Leovigild (more correctly Liobagilths) the monarchy was consolidated. The Suevi in the north-west were subdued, and the nominal suzerainty of the Eastern Emperor was disavowed. Despite the difference in religion between the Visigoths, who were Arians, and the Romanised Iberians, who were Catholics, the two races began to intermingle, and the fusion of both into a single nation commenced. Leovigild was the first of his line to assume the insignia and appurtenances of royalty, and struck coins with his own likeness and the description, “King in Toledo.” The title is significant of the increased importance of the city. The prosperity of the kingdom was temporarily interrupted by the celebrated insurrection of the monarch’s son Ermenegild. This was the outcome of the marriage of that prince with Ingunthis, the daughter of the Prankish and Catholic king Sisebert. The wedding was solemnised in Toledo with great pomp, but the city shortly after became the scene of violent quarrels between Queen Goiswintha and her daughter-in-law. Ermenegild embraced his wife’s religion, and headed a revolt against his father. He was defeated, and paid the penalty with his life at Tarragona, after refusing to accept the sacrament at the hands of an Arian bishop. Unedifying though his conduct may appear to us, he was regarded as a martyr for the faith, and is enrolled among the saints of the Catholic Church.
Nor does his example seem to have been without its effect upon his brother, Reccared, who succeeded Leovigild in 587. In the month of May 589, Toledo was thronged with Catholic bishops and priests--many lately returned from exile--and with nobles from all parts of Spain, making their way to the Basilica of Santa Maria de la Sede Real, to assist at the solemn profession of the Catholic faith by the king and his queen, Baddo. Sixty-two prelates took part in this, the third Council of Toledo, the most eminent being Massona, Bishop of Merida, Leandro of Baetica, Santardus of Braga, Ugno of Barcelona, Megecias of Narbonne, and Eufemio of Toledo. It was a memorable day for Spain. The king’s example was soon followed by his subjects of his own race, and the unification of the two peoples was greatly accelerated.
During the hundred and ten years that elapsed between the death of Reccared (601) and the rout of the Guadelete (711), no fewer than fifteen sovereigns sat on the throne of Spain. Toledo was the theatre of their barbaric triumphings, their violent entrances and tragic exits. Now the city would resound with the savage, exultant yells of the townsmen, as they dragged the body of the usurper Witeric up and down the steep, uneven streets--to cast the bleeding, shapeless thing that had so lately been a king, upon a dunghill. Now, the people would be acclaiming Wamba, greatest of the Visigoths--after the strange scene at Gerticos, where the crown was forced upon him at the sword’s point; another time, a long procession of captives would file through the gates, to witness to the old king’s triumph in Narbonnese Gaul. Not a “demise of the crown” but there would be angry mutterings among the townsfolk, and whispers of murder, compulsion, and fraud. And while the kings raved and the people wept, the Church grew every day stronger--so strong that usurper and legitimate sovereign alike had perforce to obtain her sanction to his election and accession. And as the years went on, the spark of religious zeal in the breast of Spain was fanned into flame, and we read of fierce onslaughts on the Jewish citizens, and of merciless edicts, condemning them to penalties painful and humiliating. Dark days were these for the Children of Israel whose home Toledo so long had been; but darker still were impending for their persecutors and for the royal line of the Visigoths.
An exact picture of society in Spain at this period has been preserved in the Etymologies of Isidore Pacense. The Visigoths were a primitive, barbarous people, who had imposed upon themselves the outward appearances of Roman, or rather of Byzantine, civilisation. The contemptuous reference of Hallam to this “obscure race” is undeserved. Even in their earlier stages of development the Goths manifested many noble qualities--notably, a clemency towards their enemies--which were not conspicuous in the more polished nations of the South. And though they never properly assimilated the culture of the Latins, they attained to a degree of refinement and civilisation which compares favourably with that reached by contemporaries. “Spain,” remarks the author of “Toledo” in the “Monumentos Arquitectónicos de España,” “may then fairly and proudly claim that, while in Central Europe art had acquired no distinctive form--in the midst of the bitterness of slavery, when, before the abjuration of Reccared, the fusion of the races was not legally recognised--the Iberian Peninsula had developed a definite and evident artistic and literary individuality. That individuality must have been the result of the fortuitous conjunction and union of Latin traditions, more or less degenerate, with influences originally Byzantine and with those other transformed elements introduced by the Germanic hosts of Atawulf; but, even then, it remains an individuality, which asserts itself in the surviving examples of Visigothic culture, and which was transmitted to the generations succeeding the Moslem conquest.”
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Toledo: an historical and descriptive account of the "City of generations"Chapter I: Part 1
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