Chapter VII: Part 7

#10. Clear and Related Knowledge.#--But the teacher should know in a more connected and also in a more detailed way the truths of the Book. The pupil's knowledge should be _clear_, by which one means that he should know a thing and not some other thing in its stead; and a teacher's knowledge should be not only clear but _related_, by which one means that he should know a thing in its relation to all other things with which it is vitally connected. This makes for system in knowledge, and gives the teacher the power to teach each fact with its due emphasis, no more and no less. Some writers on education call this kind of knowing _apperception_, by which they mean seeing a thing in its proper system and in its due relations. To say that Jesus was born in Bethlehem, that he lived in Nazareth, that he was crucified on Calvary, and that he arose from the dead on the third day, as he said he would, is clear knowledge. To see Jesus as the fulfilment of prophecy, as the promised King, as the leader of his people, as a teacher with more than human insight, as the founder of a church, and as the pattern and perfection of all endeavor, is _related_ knowledge; it is seeing Jesus as part of a great system of purpose that swept into time by the will of God.

#11.# It is well also for the teacher to possess #adequate# knowledge; he should be able to separate a fact into its parts; that is, analyze it. This analytic power makes for vivid teaching but it is a power that the pupil in his early years cannot acquire. Only the mature mind is analytic, and the teacher who knows how to analyze a fact or a lesson knows the secret of proportion in teaching, the power to know what to make emphatic, what to make subordinate. It is a poor teacher who is unable to distinguish between a vital element and a non-vital element.

#12. Related Subjects.#--The teacher should also know such related subjects as will best enable him to make clear each point under treatment in the lesson. A teacher should have a working knowledge of biblical geography and of sacred antiquities. He should know how to use a concordance, how to work up cross-references, how to interpret peculiar idioms, and in general how to use the text of the Bible in the most effective manner. He should know the general principles of organization pursued in a modern Sunday-school, together with the outlines of the history of the church, and should have a general knowledge of the translations of the Bible into the English language.

#13. Thinking Principles.#--In addition to the subject-matter, the teacher should know something of the laws of thought, and the best way to use knowledge as an agency in _forming_ these laws of thought. All these laws are scheduled in any elementary treatise on psychology, and the best method of using knowledge to train the soul is set forth in any good treatise on pedagogy. Thus to a knowledge of the subject-matter the teacher must add a knowledge of psychology and of pedagogy. Scholarship alone is not the test of a good teacher.

#14.# If one reflects for a time upon his own methods of acquiring knowledge, he will begin to understand the operations of the human soul. When one reads that knowledge enters the soul only through the special senses, or that ideas may be recalled by memory, it is of the utmost importance that he should ask himself the question: What do these statements mean? An illustration will help to answer this question: I know that fire will burn my hand; the knowledge of this fact entered my consciousness through the sense of touch, and my memory recalls it.

#15. Teaching Principles.#--When the laws of soul growth are fairly well understood, it is time to investigate the principles of pedagogy, the laws that govern the teacher in the act of using knowledge to occasion activity in the soul of a learner. For the laws of teaching rest upon the laws of the soul. We cannot know how to proceed in the teaching process until we know how the soul acts under given conditions.

#16.# This act of teaching is a vastly significant one. It results in changing the viewpoint of the pupil's life. It should produce in his soul new knowledge, or power, or skill, or all of these combined. Consider well, teacher, what this means. How the child is taught determines in no small way how he will in the years to come regard his fellow-man, his country, his church, his own duty, and his loyalty to all that makes for progress in the life that is hid with Christ in God.

#17.# There are certain educational principles of great value to the teacher. Consider what it means to adapt knowledge to the capacity of the learner, or what it means to secure interest in the learner, or what it means to proceed from the simple to the complex in teaching, and you will begin to understand something of the power of right activities in the recitation.

Test Questions

1. What is the pre-requisite for giving?

2. What is the least the teacher must know about the Bible?

3. In what way should the teacher's knowledge of the Book be superior to the pupil's?

4. What does _apperception_ mean? Illustrate the word.

5. Give instances of the kind of _related_ knowledge that the teacher should have.

6. By what means does knowledge enter the soul?

7. What should the act of teaching produce in the soul of the pupil?

Lesson 3

What the Teacher Should Do

#18.# The teacher must have a #purpose#, must see the end of the teaching process, and the way to that end. Then he should endeavor in the best way to reach that goal. The goal is to _achieve in the pupil the highest type of religious conduct_: not a religious feeling nor a religious thought system; but feeling and thought crystallized into character, the standard coin of the soul. All the efforts of the teacher must be directed to the attainment of this purpose. Otherwise the recitation will be aimless and the result failure.

#19.# The teacher must have a #plan# of procedure in advance of the recitation. This plan he should map out carefully, and then on his knees ask God if it is the best plan. To plan carefully and then to execute skilfully is the prime test of teaching. This plan must include a study of each pupil as well as a study of each lesson. It is at this point that so many teachers go wrong. They seem to think that a knowledge of the lesson is the only preparation required. They overlook the fact that it is vastly more important _to know the pupil than it is to know the lesson_. Those that know the subject-matter only are scholars, not teachers. Those that add to their knowledge of the subject-matter a clear insight into the operations of their pupils' minds and also comprehend the fine art of fitting knowledge to the capacity of the learner, are the only real teachers.

#20.# The teacher must be #ready to change his plan# if it does not meet the conditions that arise in the class; but this is a critical procedure, and only the wise teacher may follow it with success. The teacher must not allow pupils to lead him into by-paths. Here tact and skill are of use in leading the class to the teacher's will and to the teacher's plan. The teacher's will must be supreme in it all. I have seen great opportunities lost absolutely because a weak teacher allowed the lesson to drift at the caprice of a pupil instead of following a well-conceived plan. A group of boys once told me that they did not need to prepare the Sunday-school lesson because they always asked the teacher some questions at the opening of the recitation, and the teacher took the entire time to discuss the questions. The pupils, the while, sat in their places smiling at the weakness of a teacher who lacked the discernment necessary to be master of the situation. The time given to the legitimate work of instruction is all too brief to be wasted in any such senseless ways.

#21.# The teacher must be alert and #lead the recitation#. This quality of leadership challenges interest and carries the pupil with a sweep of enthusiasm to the end. To lead most wisely is so to direct the current of thought as if it were not directed. The highest art in teaching is to conceal that art, to guide by suggestion and not by command.

#22.# The teacher will strive to secure a major part of the #discussion from the pupil#. He will know when not to talk. It must not be forgotten that it is the thing the teacher causes the pupil to do, not the thing the teacher does in the presence of the pupil, that is most significant. Many a class is talked into mental stupor and spiritual indifference. A garrulous teacher is an abomination.

#23.# A wise teacher will #work for his pupils#. His aim will be steadily to aid them out of class as well as in class. I know a teacher who meets his class occasionally for a social hour in an informal way. The boys of that class are enthusiastic believers in their teacher and in the power of practical Christian fellowship. Look into the Elder Brother movement, the value of an organized class, and kindred movements that give the teacher the power to direct conduct in the pupil. Here you will find the key to many successful avenues of usefulness to the pupil. The significance of all this lies in the general value of a teacher who by word and by deed makes easy the way of the pupil to the Master.

#24.# A good teacher will know when #to commend# and when not to commend. He will not open himself to the criticism that his praise is overdue; nor will he, on the other hand, constantly scold and complain and nag his pupils. He will insist upon order and industry and will labor assiduously to arouse enthusiasm in the class. He will constantly endeavor to see things from the pupils' point of view and sympathize with the pupils' plan of thought. He will not forget that he was once a child, and he will steadily pray for that wise charity that knows the difference between childish caprice and youthful viciousness. He will not seriously regard the former; he will not fail to check and rebuke the latter.

#25.# A wise teacher will #aim at a few things# and bend his energies to achieve them. He will not dissipate his power by undertaking to do too many things. He will fix upon some dominant purpose and cause it to run like a thread of gold throughout the recitation. I once heard a preacher begin his discourse with the Garden of Eden and end it with the New Jerusalem. He said so many things in an unrelated way that his effort was wholly wasted. It is a mark of weakness to engage in mental sauntering. The wise teacher will hold a thought before his pupils until, like a jewel, it flashes light from every facet. He will also use the best things done by some one pupil to stimulate like results in others. Above all, a consecrated teacher will not grow weary in well doing, for he should have an unflinching faith in God, in his pupil, and in the power of his teaching to produce Christian character.

Test Questions

1. What is the teacher's goal?

2. At what point in the teaching plan do many teachers go wrong?

3. Who must lead in the teaching process--teachers or pupils? Why?

4. What is the highest art in teaching?

5. Who should do most of the talking--pupils or teacher?

6. Why should a teacher work with pupils out of the class hour as well as in it?

7. What should be the teacher's attitude toward caprice or toward viciousness?

8. Should the teacher aim at a few things or many? Why?

Lesson 4

What the Pupil Should Do

#26. The Pupil's Part.#--The part the pupil takes in the act of learning is all-important. The success of the recitation is in a large degree conditioned by the attitude of the pupil. He must be organized and directed by the teacher for the process of instruction. What the pupil will do in the recitation is conditioned upon the skill and power of the teacher. When the pupil fails to do what he should do the fault usually lies with the teacher. The pupil does that which the teacher stimulates him to do.

#27.# The pupil should approach the recitation _willingly and gladly_. The pupil who is in class against his will is a difficult pupil to teach, and it is doubtful whether or not any lasting good results from enforced attendance. Parents should not overlook this fact, and teachers will find here a hint of unusual significance. This willing, joyous approach to the lesson is conditioned upon at least four things: (a) the preparation of the lesson by the pupil in advance; (b) the absence of other appeals more enticing to the interest of the pupils; (c) the quality of teaching power and skill exercised by the teacher; (d) the spirit of good-will and of kindly concern that rules the school as a whole.

#28. The Pupil's Preparation.#--From the smaller pupils no formal preparation can be demanded in advance. But for all, the lesson should be read, either by the pupil or by some one in the home, prior to the time of the recitation. It is a good plan to indicate briefly the week preceding just what leading ideas and incidents the pupils should master before the recitation occurs. There are many indirect acts that the pupil may perform during the week that may fittingly be regarded as preparation for the lesson; such as visits to the sick, efforts to bring new members to the class, incidents of the week which made a marked impression for good, and kindred matters. These can all be touched upon by the teacher by judicious questioning, and in this way, at the opening of the recitation, lead each pupil to make some statement of a good done. This will promote the moral atmosphere so vital to successful interpretation of the lesson.

#29. Divided Interests.#--Many times the pupil comes reluctantly to the Sunday-school because his interests lie for that hour elsewhere. If the parents go on a pleasure trip, it is unfair to compel the child to forfeit the same opportunity. Wise parents will show the more excellent way by themselves accompanying their children to the Sunday-school. My own father never led his boys to the silent recesses of the mountain brooks to see God's wonder world until after we had returned from the Sunday-school. To enjoy the former we were unconsciously encouraged to attend the latter. The so-called "liberal" Sabbath is the foe of the Sunday-school, and all friends of the best things should oppose the lessening of the power that wins childhood for the Master through regular attendance upon his school.

#30.# When pupils dislike the teacher because he is weak or rude or petulant or unprepared to teach, it is difficult to keep these pupils in regular attendance. Each teacher should constantly ask himself, How may I personally add to the attractiveness of the Sunday-school? Careful inquiry and close supervision of the classes by the superintendent should compel good teaching or a prompt change of teachers. It is useless to expect pupils to love the Sunday-school well enough to endure a worthless teacher. How often pupils grow weary in attendance because the teacher has no power to woo the young spirit to the fountains of love and light! On the other hand, how gladly and how regularly children turn to the Sunday-school when a great-hearted and warm-spirited teacher is always there to welcome and to nourish them!

#31.# There is a marvelous attractive power in a well-organized school. When the spirit that rules in it and the organization that guides it are so wisely fostered as to create in the school an atmosphere of genuine stimulation the pupil will find it easy to come gladly, to say with the Psalmist, "I was glad when they said unto me, let us go unto the house of Jehovah."

#32. Reverence.#--In the recitation proper, the pupil should be helped to be reverent, well-behaved, and actively absorbed in the lesson. He should be shown the gains of complying promptly and cheerfully with the requests of his teacher; the King's business must be conducted with decency and dispatch. He should develop a quickening concern for the welfare of his classmates and foster a wholesome support to the class as an organization. It is not always the lesson taught but the spirit that rules during the lesson that wins the young spirit to adoration and service.

#33. Regularity and Promptness.#--The early acquisition of the habits of regularity and promptness in attendance are virtues of no mean moment in the life of the learner. Whatever may be legitimately done to promote these habits is worthily done. An essential part of the discipline of life lies in acquiring dependable habits. It is the systematic attendance upon the Sunday-school that at last leads the pupil to say again, "I was glad when they said unto me, Let us go unto the house of Jehovah." Some unique and valuable exercise at the opening of the recitation, occupying but a minute or two of time, will often prove of great value. I have headed this chapter, "What the pupil should do," because it is not what the pupil thinks, nor what he says, that is of greatest moment. It is his conduct in the class and his conduct during the week in home, in school, in play, that tests most directly the value of the teaching he receives. The focus of teacher concern is not what the pupil learns, but what the pupil does; not thought, but conduct; not theory, but practise; not ideas, but acts; not ability to answer questions, but ability to live a clean, sweet, quiet Christian life. All teaching that falls short of this goal is unworthy teaching. The supreme test of teaching, laid down by the Master, is that we should do the will of our Father that is in heaven.

Test Questions

1. Whose fault is it, generally, if the pupil fails to do what he ought in the class?

2. What four things help to the pupil's willing approach to the lesson?

3. In what ways may a pupil prepare for the lesson period?

4. How may the pupil be spared a division of interest?

5. What should be the pupil's attitude and bearing during the recitation?

6. What should be the real focus of the teacher's concern about the pupil?

Lesson 5

What Teaching Is

#34. Teaching Defined.#--The Sunday-school teacher as much as any other teacher should understand clearly what teaching is. Teaching is not telling, and no amount of talking to the pupil can be considered as teaching. Teaching is not determined by anything that happens outside the pupil, but by the action of the pupil's soul upon the things that are presented to it through the senses. _Teaching may be defined as causing a human soul to know._

#35.# Everything outside the learner may be considered his teacher. We are taught in the broadest sense by the spirit of God's universe expressed in terms of order and law. We are taught in a more restricted sense by our immediate environment, and especially by the people whose lives come in close contact with our own. In the most restricted sense we are taught by a trained mind, and this trained mind belongs to a person called a teacher. The process of teaching may be considered as the act of bringing into the consciousness of the learner the knowledge already in the consciousness of the teacher. We cannot teach what we do not know. Teaching ends when the pupil knows all that the teacher knows.

#36. Impression and Expression.#--When I say that I know a certain thing, I mean that my soul possesses that thing and knows that it possesses it; this is _consciousness_. The teaching act completes itself when the learner is able to express in language or otherwise to the satisfaction of the teacher the facts in consciousness. In other words, the soul is not fully educated until it has reached the point of expression.

#37.# It will be seen from this that teaching is possible only when the soul is actively seeking new knowledge. This attempt of the soul to seek new knowledge causes it, for one reason or another, to focus itself upon some one object of thought to the exclusion of all other objects of thought. _This act is called attention._ When the will directs the attention it is called _voluntary_ attention. When some other agency than the will directs the attention it is called _involuntary_ attention.

#38. Securing Attention.#--The greatest art in teaching is to secure attention. The highest form of attention is voluntary attention. The young child does not possess sufficient will-power to control attention; consequently in the early grades some other agent than a command of the will must hold attention. This other agent in a general way may be characterized as _interest_. In other words, the young child's interests hold his attention, and the thing in which he takes the greatest interest will easiest attract his attention.

#39.# There are certain well-known principles underlying the interest of the child. First, his curiosity; second, novelty, or unexpectedness; third, imitativeness; fourth, illustrations based upon his experience. The teacher cannot be too careful to consider what is of interest to a child. We cannot measure the interests of a child by the interests of an adult. Here the study of child nature is the only safe and adequate guidance.

#40. How Knowledge Reaches the Soul.#--There are but five gateways to the soul of a child, called the senses:--Seeing, hearing, touching, tasting, smelling. There are no other channels of approach. Whatever increases the breadth of this sense-approach in a subject of study increases the interest of the learner in that subject. If I tell a child about a _ball_, I utilize his sense of hearing; if I show him a ball, at the same time I describe it, I utilize seeing and hearing; if I hand him a ball, as I describe it, I utilize touching, seeing, and hearing. A single fact reaching consciousness through the senses and recognized in consciousness is called a percept or a particular notion. It is sometimes called an idea. The soul in giving expression to an idea uses a word or some other sign for the idea. Thus words are the signs of ideas.

#41.# When other facts of a similar character reach consciousness, and are identified there with the first percept, the percept becomes a concept, general notion or general idea, just as the percept is an individual idea; that is, the percept stands for one object apprehended in consciousness; the concept stands for a group of similar objects under one name apprehended in consciousness. All the common nouns are concepts just as all proper nouns are percepts. For example, in the sentence, "Washington was a brave man," it is plain that "Washington" is a particular idea or percept and "man" is a general idea or concept.

#42. Judgment and Reasoning.#--The aim of the teacher is, first, to secure clear percepts, and then rapidly to change these percepts into concepts, which is only another way of saying that good teaching relates the things in the soul in such a way as to give the child the fewest possible terms with which to carry the largest possible number of particular facts. Concepts are the shorthand of the soul's language. When these concepts are compared and their agreement or disagreement noted the soul is forming judgments. When these judgments are expressed in language the soul is forming sentences. When these judgments are compared and their agreement or disagreement noted, the soul is reasoning. Sentences are the signs of judgments or reasons, just as words are the signs of percepts or concepts. Thus the percept first comes; the percept grows into the concept; the concept into the judgment; the judgment into reasoning; and these are the four steps in the process of knowing. They are the tools of thought. Teaching must be a training in the use of these tools.

#43. Memory# is of little use unless it is simply the power to hold things clearly understood by the soul. It is not good teaching to burden the memory with masses of things not clearly perceived and conceived, although it may be at the beginning not at all objectionable to commit to memory certain great utterances from the Bible and other standard literature, even when the meaning is not clearly and fully apprehended. But at the earliest time possible these should be analyzed and the meaning worked into forms of clear knowledge.

#44. Imagination.#--Imagination is the power of the soul to work up into new combinations the things in memory. Memory keeps things as the soul got them through the senses. The products of memory have a basis in experience. The products of imagination have no such basis in experience. Imagination is the creator of new products. It cares not for facts, but works after its own fancy. It is a more dangerous power because more free. To curb it at the outset is necessary. To allow it free range is to open the way for statements from the child that often alarm the parent or teacher. But when once the moral sense is awakened and governs imagination the latter becomes the agency that creates all art and enriches all life.

#45.# Teaching aims to develop by appropriate exercise all these powers of the soul. What the pupil learns is not so important as what power he gains in the control and use of his thinking processes under the guidance of a skilful teacher.

Test Questions

1. What is teaching?

2. When does teaching end?

3. What is consciousness?

4. What marks the completion of the teaching act?

5. What is attention? Voluntary? Involuntary?

6. What will most easily attract the attention of a young child?

7. State four principles underlying the child's interest?

8. Name the gateways to the soul.

9. What is a percept?

10. What is a concept?

11. State the four steps in the process of knowing.

12. When is memory of most use?

13. What is imagination?

Test Questions for Review

Lessons 1 to 5

1. What point of view must the teacher take?

2. Is it true that teachers are "born" not "made"?

3. What does apperception mean?

4. By what means does knowledge enter the soul?

5. What is the teacher's goal?

6. What is the highest art in teaching?

7. What four things help to the pupil's approach to the lesson?

8. What should be the teacher's real concern about the pupil?

9. What is teaching?

10. What is attention? Voluntary? Involuntary?

11. State four principles underlying the child's interest.

12. Name the gateway to the soul.

Lesson 6

What an Educational Principle Is

#46. Laws of the Soul.#--Everything in this world behaves in a certain way under certain conditions. All the things in God's great, good world operate in harmony with some force or power that is always present and that always does or causes to be done the same thing. When once we have discovered this power and stated in a formula how it behaves we have a law. The soul is no exception to this general statement. It behaves, under similar conditions, in the same way. When once we have discovered how the soul acts and formulate its methods of action we have a law of the soul.

#47.# From these laws of the soul we may also learn how to make the soul grow in a certain desired way. We can also discover the laws in the materials which we use to cause growth in the soul. These laws become the guide to all good teaching. They are here called educational laws or principles.

#48. Educational Principles.#--Thus it will be seen that educational principles rest upon the laws of the soul. They tell us in brief and clear statements what should govern us in teaching a growing soul. If one turns to any treatise on pedagogy he will find there a statement of these laws. Of course, these will be found to vary somewhat because no one is quite certain that the last facts concerning the soul are known.

#49.# But the important thing is not, after all, what one finds in the books, but what one is finally led to accept as his own guiding principles. It is of the utmost importance that one should have certain general principles of education as standards by which to test his own teaching. A ship without a compass sails a no less aimless or dangerous course than does a teacher without pedagogic guidance. What the compass is to the ship, educational principles are to the teacher. Thus educational principles aid in achieving the end or purpose of the educational process; which end is, according to Spencer, "to live completely," or, as we usually say, to fit each one to live in the exercise of all the power God made it possible for him to enjoy. To realize this end teaching must proceed according to law.

#50.# The first law to be noted is that #the subject matter presented to a growing soul must be adapted to the capacity of the learner#. This law is so self-evident that we unconsciously observe it. We do not give the same kind of lessons to a child in the primary grade that we should and do give to the pupil in the adult Bible class. The whole significance of graded exercises is based upon this fundamental principle. This law rests upon the generally accepted fact that the different powers of the soul change their relative activity during the years of growth.

#51.# The second principle is equally important: #There is a natural order in which the powers of the soul should be exercised.# This order is the order of their activity. The earliest power to become educationally active is sensation, the last is reason, and hence we can phrase this law in the maxim "from sense to reason." Different writers state the same thing in the following way: observation before reasoning; the concrete before the abstract; sense knowledge before thought knowledge; facts before definitions; processes before rules; the particular before the general; the simple before the complex; from the known to the next related unknown. All these maxims may be traced to the same law of the soul, and they may all be summed up in the maxim, _teaching must proceed from things to symbols_, since the senses deal with things and reason deals with symbols. No wise teacher will pass this law by until its full significance is understood. Jesus was a masterful teacher. He observed this law frequently. Note the examples in the Gospels, using the incident at Jacob's well as an example. AEsop's fables are all built upon the principle here laid down, as are the numerous fairy tales by the Grimms, Andersen, and others.

#52.# Since the soul grows only by its own activity a third law arises: #Knowledge can be acquired only by occasioning the proper activity in the soul of the pupil.# It is always important to keep in mind that it is not what the teacher thinks and does, but what he causes the pupil to think and do, that makes for knowledge. The best teaching secures the best mental activity on the part of the pupil.

#53.# Just what the proper activity is may be seen by a consideration of a fourth principle: #First presentations of new knowledge must be made objectively in all grades of the school.# Ideas cannot be taught through words. They can be taught through objects, and the ideas can then be named. The name is the word. This law may be stated as "ideas before words." It stands as a protest against abstract and formal teaching. It demands that knowledge shall be fitted to the nature of the soul's growth. The child that for the first time was shown a growing fern in a vase and called it "a pot of green feathers" was on the right track. He will in due time acquire the right word. His idea is clear. It follows also that _the only words in which knowledge can be presented to the soul are words that name known things_.

#54.# These and many other principles are the basis of the whole teaching process. Happy that child whose teacher has thought his way through these essential laws and observes them in all the activities of the recitation. No teacher can grow in power or skill without mastering the meaning of these laws, which may be called the alphabet of the teacher's preparation. These laws the teacher should always have in mind as guidance. They are not to be announced to the pupil. Jesus always followed great educational principles, but he never announced these to his disciples. When you say "That is a good lesson," you mean that the lesson is in harmony with laws of teaching you know to be good. There is no other basis of judging the worth of a teacher.

Test Questions

1. What is meant by a law of the soul?

2. Why are educational principles needed?

3. What is the first law as to the subject matter of teaching? The second?

4. What is the earliest power that becomes educationally active?

5. What maxim sums up the order in which the soul-powers should be exercised?

6. State the third law of the soul. The fourth. Illustrate.

Lesson 7

What an Educational Method Is

#55. Applying Principles.#--When the teacher puts an educational principle to work in the act of teaching he uses a method. A method is a principle applied, put into operation. Principles make up one's educational theory; methods make up one's educational practise. It is as important to have a good method as it is to have a good law. The way a law is applied is a method. When we agreed that it would be a good thing to teach scientific temperance to our children we announced a principle. To apply this led to the use of the school. Teaching in the school the subject of scientific temperance became a method. We might have chosen the home, the church, or any other agency.

#56.# One's method is often the test of one's principle. If I say that repetition makes for clear knowledge I announce a law or principle. The test of the law is the way the soul acts under repetition. Does the learner gain in clearness of knowledge by repetition? If so, the law is true. If not, the law is not true.

#57. Kinds of Methods.#--Methods are of two kinds: _general_ and _special_. A general method may be followed in teaching all the different subjects that make up a course of study. A special method is followed in teaching one particular subject or a part of a subject. A device is merely a temporary resort to some special act to accomplish an immediate result. Methods, general and special, may be used again and again. A device rarely can be repeated, since the same conditions may never again arise.

#58. Analytic and Synthetic Method.#--A lesson, like a jack-knife, is made up of a number of parts. We may begin the recitation by presenting first the object or lesson as a whole and follow with a study of the parts; this is the _analytic method_. Or we may begin the recitation by presenting first the parts, one at a time, and follow with a study of the object as a whole. This is the _synthetic method_ in teaching. These two general methods are usually combined in a complete lesson. That is to say, we usually consider first the whole thought, then analyze it into its several parts, and when each part is understood, we combine by synthesis the parts into the general thought. If, for example, we begin by citing the golden text, and then analyze the lesson to find the parts that illustrate the meaning in the golden text, and finally combine these parts into a fuller understanding of the golden text, the process is analytico-synthetic. The purpose of this thought exercise is to enlarge the learner's comprehension of the general truth in the lesson. In the earlier years teaching should be largely synthetic; in later years, analytic. A study of the growth of the powers of the soul will show why this is so.

#59. Inductive and Deductive Method.#--When once the mind is trained to analyze fairly well it is possible to use another set of general methods. In reasoning we may begin with particular facts, with simple sensations, with the individual notions based upon concrete experience, and rise step by step to a general law. If we pursue this plan in the recitation, we use the _inductive method_ in teaching. If we pursue the opposite order, beginning with some general law or principle and proceed by reasoning to special or particular facts, we use the _deductive method_ in teaching. The parable of the sower is a good example of inductive teaching. The seventh chapter of Matthew contains a number of excellent examples of deductive teaching. Note carefully the method by which Jesus makes plain the words, "Beware of false prophets." These general methods are followed always in one order or another by every good teacher.

#60.# The recitation also affords opportunity for the exercise of special methods. We may or we may not ask _questions_. We may or we may not assign _topics_, we may or we may not draw _pictures_ on a blackboard. We may or we may not ask pupils to _consult the text_ of the lesson in reciting the same. These facts suggest methods that the wise teacher will consider carefully.

#61. Questioning.#--If the teacher asks and requires the pupils to answer a series of questions he is using the _question method_. It is a good method because it compels the pupils to think and to give expression in proper language to their thoughts. It is vastly better than telling, for telling things to pupils is not teaching, since it fails to cause the pupil's mind to act in any creative way. It is a much abused method because many questions that an unwise teacher asks do not lead by synthesis to a common general truth or law. It is to be noted that the simplest form of questioning seeks only to obtain in answer a statement of fact, as when one asks how many miles it is from Jerusalem to Jericho, or who betrayed Jesus, or any similar question that calls for a statement of fact. A better question is one that sets all the currents of thought aflow, that causes one to stop, think, weigh, ponder, deliberate, before framing an answer. A careful study of Jesus' method of asking questions is of the utmost value in mastering the fine art of teaching by the question method. In Luke 9 Jesus asks the question, "Who do the multitudes say that I am?" After the disciples had reported all the guesses of the people, he asked, "But who say ye that I am?" This question went to the heart of the subject of his identity. It forced from Peter a great declaration. Wise questioning always touches the very center of discussion and crystallizes thought.

#62.# For more advanced classes it is a good plan to assign in advance certain subjects to be recited by the pupil in the recitation. When this is done, the teacher uses the _topical method_. It requires a maximum of effort and should not be used with young pupils. It is an excellent method in the Bible classes.

#63. Illustrations.#--If the teacher uses objects, pictures, or drawings to make meaningful his language in teaching, he is using the _illustrated method_. This is especially valuable in the primary grades. The one necessary caution is that the objects, pictures, or drawings shall be wisely selected, and that in their use special care be taken that the interest of the pupils is focused upon the thought or fact to be taught and not upon the illustration.

#64.# If the teacher allows the pupils to consult the text while reciting, his method is likely to produce little permanent good. To fix the lesson in memory, to lay aside all books, to face the anxious and earnest teacher, is to secure the best results. Of course, there are times when the text is to be studied and when it is necessary to refer to the printed lesson, but a wise teacher will remember that when soul looks into soul the greatest possible good comes from teaching.

Test Questions

1. What is meant by a teaching method?

2. What is meant by the _analytic_ method?

3. The _synthetic_ method?

4. What is meant by the _inductive_ method?

5. The _deductive_ method?

6. Why is the _question_ method a good one?

7. Why is mere telling not teaching?

8. What kind of question is better than that which merely draws out a fact?

9. What is the topical method, and with what pupils should it be used?

10. What is the gain in using illustrations? What the danger?

11. Should the lesson text be consulted by the pupil when reciting? Why?

Lesson 8

What the Concrete Means in Teaching

#65. Value of the Concrete.#--The world is made up of concrete things; that is, things which can be recognized by the senses. The first impressions the soul gets of this world are concrete. We call them individual or perceptual notions. The soul compares, classifies, generalizes these concrete notions into general or conceptual notions. These thought products are abstract. But all knowledge begins in these individual notions and hence all first presentations of a new lesson or a new object of thought must be in the concrete. The richer and more varied the concrete data, the more valuable is the mental result in abstract thought. When an abstract notion is presented to a class it is of no educational value unless it can be referred back in the mind of each pupil to some concrete experience in his own past. The teacher, knowing this, will always aim to interpret general truths, which are abstract, into terms of experience, which are concrete. When David wishes to express the thirst of his soul for God he says, "As the hart panteth after the water brooks, so panteth my soul after thee, O God." To a people familiar with Palestine and the habits of the hart this language at once made vividly real, in a concrete image, the great longing the pure soul has for its Creator.

#66.# All the tentacles of the soul seem to find in the concrete thing great sources of nourishment. Note the crowds that throng the zoological gardens, the flower expositions, the picture galleries, the museums of one sort or another, to see the potency of the concrete as a great teaching power. Explore a boy's pocket to learn what the concrete is worth. Why all these "scraps," broken glass, rusty nails, old knives, buttons, peculiar pebbles, colored strings, parts of a watch or clock, odd sticks, bits of chewing gum, ends of pencils, broken buckles, speckled beans, colored papers, bits of fur, and other things that he treasures? Because in a most potential way they are nutrition to his yearning soul. One will never fathom the real depths of the concrete as teaching data until he can appreciate why the son of a President of the United States gladly traded rare exotic flowers from the White House conservatory for the discarded paper caps of common milk bottles.

#67.# The trouble we all experience is to discover just what concrete thing the general statement figures in the soul of the child. When our pupils read

"Up from the meadows rich with corn,
Clear in the cool September morn,"

what does it mean to them? Instance a poor child whose life is pent within the narrow walls of a city tenement, one who has never seen the park, much less the great, grand farms of the country; what can even this simple language of Whittier's figure to that child? Do you not see that first of all the needed thing in teaching is to bring new thoughts into terms of old thoughts, to interpret the new by the old, to translate all abstract truth into terms of conduct and into terms of real concrete experience. If then the pupil's personal experience is meager, how very difficult it is to teach him, and how very important it is that we should be wise enough to supply the concrete data necessary to make meaningful our teaching.

#68. Tools for the Teacher.#--The agencies at the teacher's disposal are objects, pictures, drawing, and stories. These demand extended study. Do you have a collection of objects and of pictures for teaching purposes? These are your tools. Be sure you carry a goodly store of them. Select them with care and use them with caution. If you cannot draw beautiful pictures, do not worry. But be sure you can, with a few strokes of the crayon, make concrete the thought you wish to emphasize. This power is of immeasurable value and the training of every teacher should include lessons in simple graphic illustration.

#69. Stories.#--But above all else, as equipment to teach, can you tell a story? The story is an abstract truth dressed in concrete garments. When Jesus was asked to define the word _neighbor_ he might have answered in some such definition as may be found in any dictionary. He was too wise a teacher to do that. He immediately translated the meaning of neighbor into the concrete story of the good Samaritan and gave us an example of the loftiest teaching power the world has ever known. Every parable is an example of great skill in teaching the abstract by means of the concrete. Go over the series and note in how many ways the Kingdom of heaven is concreted into terms of the common experience of the people Jesus taught.

#70.# A good story, well told, at once attracts marked attention. The pupil unconsciously turns to a concrete incident and from that obtains the richest nutrition for his spirit. But the story must be well told. It must contain abundant elements of specific detail and must be packed with incidents that thrill with action. The old Mother Goose rhymes are excellent examples of stories full of action, and, as a result, of interest. The child personifies all things, that he may find in them the elements of life, of action, of things in the process of doing. If you will spend an hour with a boy who is riding a stick that is to him a horse, or a girl who is playing with a rag-doll, you will learn the method and value of action in the concrete materials of instruction.

#71. Rhyme and Song.#--If to the story is added the attractive appeal of rhythm, rhyme, and song the concrete materials of teaching become almost ideal. It is a good thing to conclude a well-told story with a short, simple poem and a song, both of which should relate to the same truth the story sets forth in the concrete. Through story, rhyme, and song the growing soul climbs most surely and securely to the lofty and illuminating vistas of God's universal laws. Maxims, precepts, proverbs, mottoes, laws, become meaningful and potential only when the soul moulds these mass motives of guidance from the plastic and suggestive data of a rich and varied contact with concrete experiences and things. "I am the vine," "I am the good shepherd," "I am the way," contain the very essence of all great method in the art of building a soul for the Kingdom of God and of service.

Test Questions

1. Give an illustration of a "concrete notion"?

2. What may be learned by the study of a boy's pocket?

3. By what means should we bring new thoughts to the pupil?

4. What are four tools at the teacher's disposal?

5. What constitutes a "good story"?

6. What appeal may well be added to the story?

Lesson 9

What Instruction, Drill, and Examination Can Do

#72.# The two processes at work in every good recitation are #teaching and learning#. The first of these processes is the work of the teacher; the latter is the work of the pupil. Learning includes study proper and practise in the use of knowledge learned. The learning process should, of course, be directed by the teacher.

#73. Teaching#, the work of the teacher, includes three distinct elements or parts: _instruction_, _drill_, _examination_. These may at times be supplemented by a fourth teaching process of considerable importance, _review_. Every good class exercise is made up of these elements. In certain cases the amount of time devoted to one or to the other of these varies greatly. No fixed law can be set. The judgment of the teacher, the condition of the class, the immediate purpose of the particular lesson, combine to make the relative value of these elements vary from one recitation to another. We can, however, study the purpose or function of each and arrive at some fairly adequate guidance.

#74. Instruction# is the process through which the teacher aims to assist the pupil in the acquisition of knowledge or power, or both. It may take the form of written or of oral instruction. Written instruction has to do with the mastery of the printed page. To know how to obtain knowledge from the printed page is an important end of instruction. "Understandest thou what thou readest?" is a question that goes to the heart of good written instruction. Oral instruction is the act of the living teacher in stimulating the pupil to know. It has three phases--_objective_, _indirect_, and _direct_.

#75.# _Objective instruction_ is the presentation to the eye or other sense of the pupil, by means of objects or pictures, some concrete thing which will aid the pupil to gain clear knowledge. We have already considered the value of this form of concrete instruction.

#76.# _Indirect instruction_ is the process of recalling, through memory, past objective experiences and causing the mind to discern their likeness or unlikeness, their relations one to another, and to express a conclusion that the teacher does not first announce. In indirect instruction the learner is led to express his own past knowledge and, by comparing one fact with another, to arrive for himself at new knowledge. This is a most difficult but a most valuable type of instruction. It makes the pupil an explorer after truth and it should result in making him a discoverer of truth. The joy of original discovery possesses the soul of the successful pupil, who is taught by this indirect or suggestion method of instruction.

#77.# _Direct instruction_ is the communication of facts by the teacher through oral language to the pupil. The pupil in this type of learning follows the statements of the teacher and sees for himself the truth of the facts presented and the conclusion reached. The danger of direct teaching lies in the fact that the teacher may fail to arouse in the pupil a current of thought corresponding to his own. In this case there is no resulting knowledge in the soul of the learner; and, instead, there is likely to be confusion or disorder in the class. This is a common phenomenon in classes that are so unfortunate as to have poor teachers. The law underlying all oral teaching is as follows: _Do not tell the pupil directly what he may be reasonably expected to observe or discern for himself._

#78. Drill# is the process through which the teacher aims to assist the pupil in the acquisition of power and skill. The new truth, when first apprehended by the pupil, must be made so familiar to the learner that he can promptly and easily recall the new truth or knowledge. Drill is the agency that accomplishes this result. Note how often a boy or girl repeats some new sentence or word or game in order to fix its easy recall. Many teachers think repetition deadens interest. But without repetition Comenius rightly declares we do not know solidly. Repetition is nature's way of developing strength. It is of prime importance that every new truth be drilled until it is as familiar to the learner as old knowledge. Then it becomes easy of recall and ready for use. The wise teacher will avoid the abuse of the drill by so varying the exercise as to secure a maximum of interest, for interest is the basis of pleasure, and the soul does not easily retain knowledge that is not pleasurable.