Chapter III: Part 3

The engines of the _Canopus_ are illustrated on page 49 by a drawing taken from a Paper read at the Institution of Civil Engineers, by Sir John Durston and Admiral H. J. Oram.[64] This was the first type of British battleship fitted with water-tube boilers. She was followed soon after by the _Prince of Wales_.[65]

The _Argyll_, which was built and engined by the Scotts, and the _Defence_, which is being built in one of the Royal Dockyards, and is having its machinery constructed by the Scotts, signalise progress in cruiser design. The hardening of armour, increasing its resistance, permits of a reduction in weight for a given measure of protection, so that it has been possible to effectively defend the modern cruiser, while at the same time giving an enormously increased gun-power and a speed far in excess of that possible ten years ago. The _Argyll_ is a vessel of 10,850 tons displacement, being 450 ft. long, 68 ft. 6 in. beam, and having a draught of 25 ft.; while the _Defence_ is a vessel of 14,600 tons displacement, having a length of 490 ft., a beam of 74 ft. 6 in., and a draught of 26 ft. In both ships the greater part of the broadside, from 5 ft. below the water-line to the upper deck, is armoured, and a very large proportion of the area thus clad has 6-in. hardened plates.

In the late 'nineties it was assumed that quick-firing artillery was best suited to the work of a cruiser, and thus the 6-in. gun was exclusively adopted. But since then Naval strategists have developed their ideas as to the function of armoured cruisers, and now anticipate their use in the line of battle; so that not only has the defensive quality been improved, but the offensive power has been materially increased. In the _Defence_, and the other ships of the class, the 6-in. gun has been entirely discarded in favour of an installation of 9.2-in. and 7.5-in. weapons. Owing to the perfection of the hydraulic and electric mountings, little has been forfeited in respect of rapidity of fire, while much has been gained in the striking energy at a given range of each projectile. Thus, while the 6-in. gun five years ago had an energy equal to penetrating 6 in. of wrought iron at 3000 yards' range, the 7.5-in. weapon now may perforate 6-3/4 in., and the 9.2-in. gun 9 in. of the hardest armour at corresponding range. The total weight of projectiles fired from the present-day cruiser in a minute is double, and the muzzle energy quadruple, the results attained by the cruisers designed at the close of the nineteenth century.[66]

The modern cruisers steam at 23 knots, the power of the machinery in the _Argyll_ being 21,000 indicated horse-power, and in the _Defence_ 27,000 indicated horse-power. The machinery of the _Argyll_, which is typical, consists of four sets of triple-expansion engines, arranged in separate watertight compartments. The diameters of the cylinders are: high-pressure, 41-1/2 in.; intermediate-pressure, 65-1/2 in.; and the two low-pressure, each 73-1/2 in., all having a stroke of 42 in. At full power, developed with 138 revolutions, the piston speed is 966 ft. per minute. The cylinders are fitted with liners, and are steam-jacketed; forged steel is used for the liners of the high- and intermediate-pressure cylinders, and cast-iron for those of the low-pressure cylinders. The cylinder covers and pistons are of cast steel, the latter being of conical form. The high- and intermediate-pressure cylinders have piston valves, and the low-pressure cylinders flat valves. The cylinders are supported at the front by eight forged-steel columns, and at the rear by four cast-iron columns formed with guide-faces, and one forged steel column. The crankshaft is in four pieces, the high- and intermediate-pressure parts being interchangeable with each other, and the two low-pressure parts with one another. The shafts are hollow, and three-bladed propellers of manganese bronze are fitted to each. The condensers are entirely separate, and independent air pumps are fitted.

The _Argyll_ had a combination of six cylindrical and sixteen water-tube boilers, but in the later ships, including the _Defence_, the boilers are entirely of the water-tube type. The working pressure of the boiler is 275 lb., reduced at the engines to 250 lb. The trials of the _Argyll_ were carried through most satisfactorily,[67] and the vessel, under the new Admiralty conditions, was completed for commission by the builders. The fact that this armoured cruiser was so completed at the builder's yard is of itself evidence of the capacity and efficiency of the plant.

FOOTNOTES:

[52] Charnock's "History of Marine Architecture," vol. iii., page 245.

[53] The "Greenock Telegraph," May 4th, 1849.

[54] Sir Nathaniel Barnaby's "Naval Development of the Century," page 140.

[55] Sennett and Oram's "Marine Steam Engine," page 3.

[56] Fincham's "History of Marine Construction," page 332.

[57] _Ibid._, page 344.

[58] Sir Nathaniel Barnaby's "Naval Development of the Nineteenth Century," page 113.

[59] Sennett and Oram's "Marine Steam Engine," page 10.

[60] "Proceedings of the Institution of Naval Architects," vol. xxx., page 278.

[61] "Proceedings of the Institution of Naval Architects," vol. xxx., page 287.

[62] "Encyclopædia Britannica" (1898 edition), vol. xi., page 288.

[63] "Engineering," vol. lxxix., page 577, May 5th, 1905.

[64] See "Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers" (1899), vol. cxxxviii., part 3.

[65] "The Engineer," vol. xcviii., page 15.

[66] "Engineering," vol. lxxx., page 415.

[67] "Engineering," vol. lxxx., page 420.

Yachting and Yachts.

Yacht designers and builders, when votaries of the sport, produce much better results, and in this truism we have some explanation of the success of the Scotts in the long series of yachts built during the past century. There are a few misty memories and time-worn traditions to the effect that yachting of a kind was indulged in on the Clyde in the closing years of the eighteenth century; but there are no authentic records antecedent to the nineteenth century. From 1803 onwards the Scotts have been closely identified with the pastime, and with the production in the early years of sailing yachts; and, later, of steam craft.

The first notable Clyde racing yacht, of which there is any record, was launched by the Scotts in 1803, as already referred to on page 11 _ante_. She was a 45-1/2-ton cutter for Colonel Campbell, an Argyllshire soldier, and the launching ceremony, the honours of which were done by Lady Charlotte Campbell, was attended with military honours. For the twenty years immediately following the launch of this cutter, yachting made most pleasing progress, and in 1824 the Royal Northern Yacht Club was formed for the better organisation and encouragement of the pastime. The club had its origin in the North of Ireland, and had jurisdiction over that district, as well as over the West of Scotland up till 1838, when the Irish section was disbanded. The Royal Northern gave regattas throughout the season, at almost every suitable port, from Helensburgh on the Clyde to Oban. Amongst the leaders of the Clyde Division was John Scott, the second of the name, and a large number of the racing craft owned by the members were built by him. Indeed, one of the most experienced writers on Yachting in Scotland, Mr. J. D. Bell, says that "among the old yachting families of the West of Scotland, the Scotts and the Steeles filled the foremost place."

Among the best remembered of the yachts built by John Scott were the cutters _Hawk_ and _Hope_, constructed for himself, and the _Clarence_, built for his son-in-law, the late Robert Sinclair. The _Hawk_ was a boat of about 30 tons, the _Hope_ was rather smaller, and was used for cruising rather than for racing; and the _Clarence_ was about 18 tons.

The _Hawk_ was a successful racer, and secured many cherished prizes, but the _Clarence_ was her superior, and was the first of a long line of prize-winners which have brought renown to the Clyde. Indeed, in all she won over thirty challenge trophies, and in her best season never suffered defeat. Robert Sinclair, the owner, was himself a keen and accomplished yachtsman.

In the races held in 1833-34--most prominent years--John Scott, with the _Hawk_, won the Anglesey Cup at Dublin, and the Oban and Helensburgh Cups; while Robert Sinclair, with the _Clarence_, won the Ladies' Cup at Oban, the Kintyre Cup at Campbeltown, the Dublin, Adelaide, and Booth Cups at Dublin, the Stewart Cup at Greenock, the Largs Cup and the Dunoon Cup. These two yachts were indeed close rivals, although the principal honours rested with the _Clarence_. On one occasion, however, the _Hawk_ unexpectedly defeated the _Clarence_ in an important race at Dublin, and the owners were anxious to have the cup in Greenock as soon as possible for a special reason. Recognising that the _Clarence_ was really the faster boat, they handed over the trophy to her crew to take to the Clyde port; but the luck which enabled the _Hawk_ to win the cup stood by her on the passage home, and she made the port a considerable time before her rival.

The _Clarence_ became a pilot boat, and was unfortunately run down off Garroch Head, while the _Hawk_ was transferred to the fishing trade. In later years John Scott, C.B., had the laudable desire to secure as a relic the vessel his grandfather had owned, but the negotiations failed; and the boat is probably still at work among the islands of Scotland.

The Royal Northern Club's fleet in the 'thirties numbered about fifty, but there were no steam vessels on the list until 1855. Among the principal boats in the club were the Duke of Portland's ketch, the _Clown_, of 156 tons; the Duke of Buccleuch's cutter, the _Flower of Yarrow_, of 145 tons; Mr. John Scott's cutter, the _Lufra_, of 81 tons; Mr. Robert Meiklem's schooner, _Crusader_, of 126 tons; and Mr. Lewis Upton's cutter, _Briton_, of 91 tons. The membership was about one hundred and fifty, the aggregate tonnage of the fleet about 2000 tons, and its cost, at a fairly generous estimate, about £20,000.

What a contrast is suggested by a review of the fleet of yachts owned to-day by Clyde yachtsmen! There are now eight clubs in the Firth recognised by the Yacht Racing Association, and one of the largest of these--the Royal Clyde--alone has over a thousand members, with a fleet of over three hundred and seventy yachts, of a collective tonnage of 26,000 tons, and of a first cost of a million sterling. The club-house at Hunter's Quay, which cost about £20,000, is representative of the best of its kind. Many of the yachts--sailing and steam--are of considerable size, and have international repute for their excellence, either as racers, or as comfortable seaworthy cruisers.

The origin of the Royal Clyde Club in itself affords interesting suggestion of the development of the pastime on the Clyde. Owing to a rule enforced by the Royal Northern Club during the earlier period of its existence, boats smaller than 8 tons could not be enrolled; many enthusiastic owners of small craft were thus debarred from membership, and in 1856 they decided to form a new club. This, first named the Clyde Model Yacht Club, became, a year later, the Clyde Yacht Club; and, having grown immensely in influence, obtained, in 1872, Queen Victoria's sanction to the appellation of "Royal." To-day the Royal Clyde Yacht Club is one of the most important in the Kingdom.

John Scott (1752-1837) was long a prominent member of the Royal Northern Club. His son, Charles Cuningham Scott, was an original member, but did not take the same active part in the pastime, the claims of a quickly-developing industry being probably the reason. But the records of the family were again revived by his sons--John Scott, C.B., Robert Sinclair Scott, and Colin William Scott. They displayed a preference for steam craft, although the first-named owned several cutters, beginning with the _Zingara_; later several beautiful yachts, each successive ship being named the _Greta_, were built for him. The first of these, of 1876, and the last, of 1895, are illustrated on the Plate facing this page. He was elected Commodore of the Royal Clyde Club in 1895 in acknowledgment of his services to the club and to yachting generally, and he occupied the post until his death in 1904.

These were exciting times in Clyde yachting. It was then that Lord Dunraven and Sir Thomas Lipton made their gallant but unsuccessful efforts to recover the America cup with Clyde-built boats, while the performances of the _Britannia_, owned by the then Prince of Wales, now His Majesty the King, and of the _Meteor_, belonging to the German Emperor, gave a distinction to the sport which it had never enjoyed before.

The Mudhook Yacht Club was formed in 1873 by a few skilled yacht designers and yachtsmen, and included Robert Sinclair Scott, Colin William Scott, and James Reid. The membership was limited to forty, and the aim of the founders was to "encourage amateur yacht sailing." There were many inspirations connected with the founding of the club; there is a tradition that when a "Mudhooker" was being initiated, he was usually confronted with a coil of rope, a small marlinspike, a chart and dividers, a forecastle bucket and other implements; and, before the hand of fellowship was extended to him, he was exercised, with more or less of solemnity, as to their uses. From the foundation of the Club until his death in 1905, Robert Sinclair Scott was Admiral of the Club. For twenty-nine years from the same period his brother, Colin William Scott, acted as Honorary Secretary, and his great services were recognised on the club attaining its majority in 1894, by the presentation by the members of a set of old candelabra and fruit dishes. The present Honorary Secretary is R. L. Scott, son of John Scott, C.B.

Although, as we have said, the Scotts never owned racing yachts, they have built for themselves and for others a long succession of beautiful steam yachts, as recorded in the Table on page 69. In all, seven yachts have been built in succession for the Scotts themselves. Each was named the _Greta_, after a small stream which runs through the Halkshill Estate, excepting the last, which was called the _Grianaig_, the Gaelic for Greenock.

The last _Greta_ is exactly double the length of the first, while the yacht tonnage is practically eightfold. The successive steps are marked. The _Greta_ of 1876 was 76 ft. long, and of 53 tons, and she was at once purchased by a Kilmarnock lady, Miss Finnie. The vessel built for John Scott, C.B., in the following year was slightly larger, and she also was coveted and secured. In 1878 a still larger ship was built, and for many years this craft continued in the possession of its original owner, but in 1892 was displaced by a vessel of greater size, of 135 ft. 6 in. in length, and of 230 tons yacht displacement. Other vessels followed at periods of three years, and the _Greta_ of 1898 was 154 ft. long, and of 393 tons.

Many other notable vessels were constructed in the same period for other owners; and while it is not possible to refer to all of them, mention may be made of the _Tuscarora_, built in 1897, for William Clark, Esq., of Paisley. This vessel, which is illustrated on Plate XXIV., is 170 ft. long, and of 775 tons. She had a bridge and promenade deck 104 ft. long; and there were ten state-rooms and large saloons for the owner and his guests. Built for oversea cruising, she had a very complete installation of refrigerating machinery. The triple-expansion engines with which she was fitted developed 1030 horse-power when running at 150 revolutions, equal to a piston speed of 675 ft. per minute. Steam was supplied by a single-ended boiler.

A much larger vessel--indeed, the largest of the type constructed by the firm--was the _Margarita_, constructed for A. J. Drexel, Esq., of Philadelphia, to the designs of the late Mr. G. L. Watson, who did so much for the advance of the science of naval architecture as applied to sailing and steam yachts. This vessel is of 272 ft. in length, with a displacement of 2522 tons. For the owner and his guests there are thirteen large state-rooms, and the general saloons include dining, drawing, and smoking rooms, a boudoir, and a children's nursery. The yacht is equipped with all the accessories of the modern liner, including refrigerating appliances. It is propelled at a speed of over 17 knots by twin-screws, operated by two independent sets of triple-expansion, four-cylinder engines, balanced to obviate vibration.

TABLE VI.--GENERAL PARTICULARS OF PRINCIPAL STEAM YACHTS BUILT BY SCOTTS' SHIPBUILDING AND ENGINEERING COMPANY, LIMITED, GREENOCK.

-----------+---------+-------+--------+--------+---------+------
| | | | | |
| Date of | | | |Displace-|
|Construc-| | | | ment in |
Name. | tion. |Length.|Breadth.| Depth. | Tons. |Speed.
-----------+---------+-------+--------+--------+---------+------
| |ft. in.| ft. in.|ft. in.| |knots.
| | | | | |
_Greta_ | 1876 | 76 0 | 12 0 | 9 3 | 53 | 7.5
| | | | | |
_Greta_ | 1877 | 84 0 | 12 6 | 9 6 | 73 | 8.25
| | | | | |
_Greta_ | 1878 | 90 0 | 14 0 | 9 6 | 86 | 9.33
| | | | | |
_Ulva_ | 1879 |162 0 | 21 0 | 15 6 | 350 | 11.08
| | | | | |
_Griffin_ | 1879 |120 0 | 16 6 | 11 0 | 152 | 9.8
| | | | | |
_Eagle_ | 1879 | 84 0 | 12 6 | 9 6 | 77 | 7.7
| | | | | |
| | | | | |
_Retriever_| 1884 |123 0 | 17 0 | 12 0 | 144 | 11
| | | | | |
_Alca_ | 1887 | 80 6 | 14 0 | 10 0 | 93 | 10
| | | | | |
_Santanna_ | 1887 |180 0 | 24 0 | 15 6 | 495 | 13.6
| | | | | |
_Foros_ | 1891 |236 0 | 30 6 | 20 6 | 1170 | 12.5
| | | | | |
_Greta_ | 1892 |135 6 | 18 6 | 12 0 | 230 | 11
| | | | | |
_Kittiwake_| 1893 |113 0 | 21 0 | 13 6 | 210 | 9.55
| | | | | |
_Lutra_ | 1894 |117 0 | 18 0 | 12 0 | 200 | 10.75
| | | | | |
_Greta_ | 1895 |145 0 | 22 0 | 13 5 | 338 | 11
| | | | | |
_Erin_ | 1896 |252 0 | 31 6 | 20 6 | 1330 | 15.6
| | | | | |
_Tuscarora_| 1897 |170 0 | 26 6 | 15 7 | 775 | 12.5
| | | | | |
_Greta_ | 1898 |154 0 | 22 9 | 13 6 | 393 | 12.25
| | | | | |
_Lutra_ | 1899 |140 0 | 21 0 | 13 0 | 348 | 11.65
| | | | | |
_Margarita_| 1900 |272 0 | 36 6 | 28 0 | 2522 | 17.1
| | | | | |
| | | | | |
| | | | | |
| | | | | |
_Waihi_ | 1900 | 82 0 | 14 6 | 10 0 | 102 | 10.3
| | | | | |
_Saevuna_ | 1901 | 76 4 | 14 6 | 9 3 | 95 | 8.4
| | | | | |
_Grianaig_ | 1904 |160 0 | 23 9 | 14 0 | 435 | 12.6
| | | | | |
_Beryl_ | 1904 |160 0 | 25 0 | 14 6 | 500 | 13.3
-----------+---------+-------+--------+--------+---------+------
------------+------------------------+------+------+-------------------
| |Indi- | |
| |cated |Boiler|
| |Horse-|Pres- |
Name. | Type of Engines. |power.|sure. | Owner.
-----------+------------------------+------+------+-------------------
| | | lb. |
| | | |
_Greta_ | Compound | 58 | 74 |John Scott, Esq.,
| | | | C.B.
| | | |
_Greta_ | " | 76 | 78 |John Scott, Esq.,
| | | | C.B.
| | | |
_Greta_ | Compound tandem | 105 | 78 |John Scott, Esq.,
| | | | C.B.
_Ulva_ | " " | 277 | 70 |F. A. Hankey, Esq.
| | | |
_Griffin_ | " " | 130 | 78 |C. E. Dashwood, Esq.
| | | |
_Eagle_ | Compound | 74 | 75 |Count Stackleberg,
| | | | St. Petersburg.
| | | |
_Retriever_| " | 215 | 90 |O. Randall, Esq.
| | | |
_Alca_ | Triple-expansion | 110 | 160 |Colonel Malcolm,
| | | | Poltalloch.
| | | |
_Santanna_ | " " | 780 | 150 |M. Louis Prat,
| | | | Marseilles.
| | | |
_Foros_ | " " | 960 | 160 |M. Kousenzoff,
| | | | Moscow.
| | | |
_Greta_ | " " | 280 | 160 |John Scott, Esq.,
| | | | C.B.
| | | |
_Kittiwake_| " " | 185 | 160 |Lord Carnegie.
| | | |
_Lutra_ | " " | 250 | 160 |Colonel Malcolm.
| | | |
_Greta_ | " " | 340 | 170 |John Scott, Esq.,
| | | | C.B.
| | | |
_Erin_ |Triple-expansion, 4 cyl.| 2500 | 180 |Sir Thomas Lipton,
| | | | Bart.
| | | |
_Tuscarora_| " " " | 1030 | 170 |Wm. Clark, Esq.,
| | | | Paisley.
| | | |
_Greta_ | " " " | 480 | 170 |John Scott, Esq.,
| | | | C.B.
| | | |
_Lutra_ | " " " | 480 | 170 |Lord Malcolm of
| | | | Poltalloch.
| | | |
_Margarita_| {Twin-screw, triple} | 5200 | 200 |A. J. Drexel, Esq.,
| {expansion, four } | | | Philadelphia,
| {cylinders in each } | | | U.S.A.
| {engine } | | |
| | | |
_Waihi_ | Triple-expansion | 130 | 170 |J. Bulloch, Esq.
| | | |
_Saevuna_ | Compound | 75 | 130 |Maurice Bernard
| | | | Byles, Esq.
| | | |
_Grianaig_ | Triple-expansion | 740 | 190 |R. Sinclair Scott,
| | | | Esq.
| | | |
_Beryl_ | " " | 910 | 200 |Baron Inverclyde.
-----------+------------------------+------+------+-------------------

The _Erin_, now owned by Sir Thomas Lipton, Bart., was designed and built in 1896 for a Sicilian nobleman and was purchased later by the popular baronet and sporting yachtsman. One of the largest vessels of her time, she was 250 ft. long, and of 1330 tons displacement. The four-cylinder, carefully-balanced engines, of 2500 horse-power, gave her a sea speed of 15-1/2 knots. A view of this well-known yacht is given on Plate XXI., facing page 63.

Much might be written about the decoration of these yachts; but it may suffice to give illustrations of the dining- and drawing-rooms in the steam yacht _Beryl_, owned by the Right Hon. Baron Inverclyde. The saloons are in the Old-English style, and are treated with decorative freedom, but with strict simplicity. The walls in both cases are framed in solid figured white Austrian wainscot oak, highly finished and polished. The drawing-room has silk tapestry panels, relieved with chaste carving on the window canopies, dado rail and mantelpiece, and divided with bevelled and carved pilasters, with carved Corinthian capitals. In the dining-room, on the other hand, there is no tapestry, the whole being of oak, suitably carved. In the ports there are large plate-glass windows, fitted with Greenwood springs. In each room there is a large cupola skylight, which, with its rich stained glass, gives a fine decorative effect. The drawing-room cupola is fitted with a brass mushroom ventilator. The ceiling in each case is of yellow pine, moulded, ribbed, and beamed in the Tudor style, and painted flat white, picked out with gold.

The drawing-room has a slow-combustion grate having brass mounts, with richly-carved oak mantelpiece, marble jambs, tiled hearth, and fire-brasses and fender. The dining-room has a steam radiator enclosed in a cabinet with Numidian marble top and brass-grilled front.

The _Beryl_ is a vessel of 160 ft. in length, with a displacement of 500 tons at slightly less than 12-ft. draught. She steams at 13.3 knots with the engines indicating 910 horse-power, steam being supplied from a large single-ended boiler with three furnaces.

As typical of the engines adopted in the yachts built by the Scotts, we give an illustration on Plate XXVI., facing page 72, of the engines of the _Grianaig_. In the thirty years that have elapsed since the first _Greta_ was built, the ratio of horse-power to tonnage has increased from 1 to 1 to 2 to 1, the steam pressure from 74 lb. to 200 lb.; and the piston speed from about 300 ft. to 675 ft. per minute. The aim has been to ensure reliability by a steady- and easy-running engine.

An effective appearance has always been aimed at, and the result has invariably been a highly-finish design. Yachts' engines are invariably balanced, whether so specified or not, as the gain in comfort to all on board, owing to the absence of vibration, is so marked as to more than compensate for the extra cost involved. Forced lubrication has also been applied, although the engines may be of the ordinary open type: the main bearings, crank-pins, cross-heads, eccentrics, valve gear, pump gear, etc., are all included in the system, which has given every satisfaction.

The _Grianaig's_ engines developed on trial 740 indicated horse-power at 148 revolutions per minute, with a boiler pressure of 190 lb. per square foot, and a condenser vacuum of 26.5 in. Some of the details, being typical of the practice of the firm in respect of yacht machinery, are quoted from the specification on the next page.

The arrangement of cylinders is as follows: H.P. 14 in. in diameter, I.P. 22 in. in diameter, L.P. 35 in. in diameter, Stroke 24 in. The piston and connecting-rods are of steel; the guide-shoes for the crossheads are of cast iron, the ahead face having white metal, and the astern face being left plain. The back columns are of the usual cast-iron box type, the front columns, being steel, are turned. The high-pressure cylinder has a piston valve, and the intermediate- and low-pressure cylinders flat slide-valves. None of the cylinders is provided with liners. A single-stroke reversing engine is situated at the back of the main engine, but is operated from the starting platform. The condenser is of the surface type with a circular cast-iron shell; the total cooling surface is 1300 square feet.

Steam is supplied to the main engine by one single-ended cylindrical boiler 13 ft. 9 in. in diameter by 10 ft. long, working at a pressure of 190 lb. per square inch. There are three furnaces, the mean internal diameter being 3 ft. 5-3/4 in. and the length 6 ft. 10 in. The grates are 6 ft. long, giving an aggregate area of 61.5 square feet. The boiler tubes are 3-1/4 in. in diameter and 6 ft. 10-3/4 in. long, the total heating surface being 1899 square feet.

DRAWING ROOM IN THE STEAM YACHT "FOROS." (_See page 81._)]

The Twentieth Century.

Prophecy has its allurements even in the domain of applied mechanics; and having reviewed progress during the past two centuries in naval architecture, as embodied in sailing ships, merchant steamers, warships, and yachts, there is a temptation to speculate on the prospects of the future. The possibilities of the steam turbine, for manufacturing which the Scotts are laying down a special plant; the potentialities of the producer-gas engine as applied to the propulsion of ships; and even the solution of the problems which stand in the way of the application of the universally-desired oil turbine, are all topics which would prove interesting, even although no conclusion could be arrived at. It is enough, however, to say here, that each is having careful consideration by the firm.

The historian is not, however, concerned with the future, and the only justification for the title given above is the intention here to briefly review the state of marine construction, as represented at the beginning of this new century by typical vessels built or being built by the Scotts. It is difficult, where so many ships of distinctive design and equipment have been constructed, to select a few representative types. Amongst the countries which have had new ships in recent years are France, Russia, Italy, Denmark, Holland, Portugal, Greece, India, the Straits Settlements, China, Australia, New Zealand, Brazil and other South American Republics, and the United States of America. This list of foreign _cliéntele_, however, is being diminished, owing to the influence of subsidies paid by foreign Governments to shipowners or shipbuilders.

Taking account only of large vessels built during the past fifty years, there are one hundred and five of Scotts' steamers now trading in China seas, twenty-six in the Indian Ocean, ten on the North Atlantic, nine in the South African seas, thirty in South American waters, eighteen in the Colonial service, and ninety-seven on the European coast; while in home waters there are many more.

One of the gratifying features in connection with the commercial relationship of the Scotts, too, is the continuance of confidence over a long period of years of several of our large steamship companies. This is, perhaps, the best indication of the satisfactory character of the work done. The Holt Line have had built for them within forty years, by the Scotts, forty-eight vessels of 148,353 tons. The China Navigation Company have had a greater number of ships, namely, sixty-four, but as the size is smaller the total tonnage is less, namely, 115,600 tons. An important Continental firm has had twenty-one vessels; while for a Portuguese Company five large vessels were built, and for the French Trans-Atlantic Company eleven fast liners. Other cases might be mentioned, but these suffice.

As regards fast steamers, the recent warships built and described in a previous chapter may be accepted as typical in so far as the problems of marine engineering are concerned. In each of these cases the design of the machinery has been prepared by the firm, and the difficulties were more complicated than in the case of merchant work. Moreover, it must be remembered, that the maritime predominance of Britain is due as much to that enormous fleet of moderate-speed intermediate and cargo ships, which maintain exceptionally long voyages with regularity and economy, as to the fast ships engaged on comparatively short routes. Of the nine thousand odd British ships included in _Lloyds' Register_, less than 2-1/2 per cent. have a speed of over 16 knots: a fact which in itself proves that economy, rather than speed, is the primary consideration.[68]

The new Donaldson liner, now being constructed by the firm, may be accepted as representative of one of the most useful types of steamer in the British fleet. An illustration of this vessel is given on Plate XXVIII., facing page 74. While primarily intended for the Atlantic passenger trade, she is of such moderate dimensions as to suit almost any service, having a length of 455 ft. between perpendiculars, a breadth of 53 ft., and a depth, moulded, of 32 ft.; the draught will not be more than 26 ft. with a displacement of 13,500 tons. While designed to carry 8000 tons of deadweight cargo in the four holds, the vessel has accommodation for a large number of passengers, who are afforded more room than on the larger and faster liners, with the same luxury and comfort. This latter fact accounts in large measure for the growing preference of a great proportion of the travelling public for the intermediate ship.

The machinery has been designed with the view of attaining the highest economy. For driving the twin screws there are two separate three-cylinder triple-expansion engines, which are to indicate together 5500 horse-power when running at the moderate piston speed of 680 ft. per minute. The cylinders are respectively 26 in., 42 in., and 70 in. in diameter, the stroke being 48 in. There is a very complete installation of auxiliary machinery. In all, there are fifty-seven steam cylinders in the ship, each having its special function.

Steam for all of these is supplied at a pressure of 180 lb. per square inch, by two double-ended boilers 20 ft. long, and two single-ended boilers 11 ft. 6 in. long, the diameter in all cases being 15 ft. 9 in. The total heating surface is about 15,000 square feet, and the grate area 435 square feet. In the design and construction of the engines and boilers every consideration has been given to strength in order to ensure reliability.

In dealing with the development of the steamship we had occasion to refer to the Holt liners, which inaugurated the first regular steamship service to the Far East, _viâ_ the Cape of Good Hope. That was in 1865, and since then a long series of most successful steamships has been constructed by the Scotts for the China trade of the Ocean Steamship Company. As representative of the modern ship for this service we take four vessels just completed, three of them taking the names of the pioneer ships of the line--the _Achilles_, _Agamemnon_, and _Ajax_, while the fourth is named _Deucalion_; one of these is illustrated on Plate XXIX., facing this page.

Throughout the forty years that have elapsed since the first vessels were built, each successive steamer of the forty-eight built by the Scotts has marked an increase in size, and an improvement in economy. In the former respect the advance is not perhaps so striking as in some other trades; but it must always be remembered that a ship which is to steam for 12,000 or 13,000 miles without many opportunities of coaling cannot be of high speed; otherwise the bunker capacity would be so great as to seriously reduce the available cargo space; while the running expenses would be so heavy as to materially decrease the utility of the vessel as an aid to the development of commerce. There is ever the happy mean, which has here been realised with characteristic prudence and enterprise.

The forty years' progress in the case of the Holt liners has brought about an increase of 50 per cent. in the dimensions of the ship, the later Scotts' vessels being 441 ft. between perpendiculars, 52 ft. 6 in. in breadth, and 35 ft. in depth moulded, with a gross register of 7043 tons. In respect of deadweight capacity, however, there has been considerable development, due to the adoption of mild steel having permitted a reduction in the weight of boilers and engines, and in the scantlings of the hull. The new vessels, with a draught of 26 ft. 6 in., carry 8750 tons of deadweight cargo--two and a-half times the weight carried by the earliest Holt liners.

In forty years the steam pressure in the Holt liners has increased from 60 lb. to 180 lb.; and the piston speed from 400 ft. to 720 ft. per minute. The heating surface in the boilers has decreased from 6 square feet to 3 square feet per unit of power; and the condenser surface from 1.83 square feet to 1.3 square feet per unit of power. On the other hand, each square foot of grate gives now 14 horse-power, as compared with 6.6 horse-power formerly.

As a result of increased steam pressures and greater efficiency of propulsion, it may be taken that, notwithstanding the increase in dimensions and capacity of the ship, and the consequent advance in engine power, the coal required for a voyage half way round the world has been reduced to one half that of 1865.

Another notable feature in the economy of the ship is that twenty-five derricks have been fitted for dealing rapidly with the cargo, and one of these has a lifting capacity of 35 tons, to take such heavy units of cargo as locomotive boilers and tenders. In addition, there are eighteen steam winches. The reduction in the time spent in port, because of the facilities thus provided, is another element in the economy of the modern ship.

The largest oil steamer yet constructed, the _Narragansett_, was completed by the Scotts in 1903. This vessel, built for the Anglo-American Oil Company, carries in her sixteen separate compartments, 10,500 tons of oil, at a speed of 11 knots, for a fuel consumption of 4.9 lb. of coal per 100 tons of cargo per mile. This result is deduced from steaming, in ordinary service, over nearly 24,000 miles, and is consequently as reliable as it is interesting.

The _Narragansett_, which is illustrated on Plate XXX., facing this page, has a length between perpendiculars of 512 ft. and overall of 531 ft.; the beam is 63 ft. 3 in., and the depth, moulded, 42 ft. The deadweight carrying capacity on a draught of 27 ft. is 12,000 tons. The engines are of the triple-expansion type. Interest in the machinery is associated principally with that fitted for the pumping of the oil cargo. There are two pump-rooms, one located conveniently for the oil in the eight compartments forward of the machinery space; the other in a corresponding situation for the same number of tanks abaft the propelling engines. The 10,500 tons of cargo can be loaded or discharged in less than twelve hours. While primarily for the Atlantic trade, the vessel was designed to undertake, if required, the much longer voyage of the Eastern service.

Because of the uniformly good results with ordinary coal, we give the details as received from the superintending engineer of the owners:--

TABLE VII.--RECORDS OF COAL CONSUMPTION OF STEAMSHIP "NARRAGANSETT."

----------------------------------------------------------------------
Voyage No.
+------------------------------------------------------------
| Coal, Indicated Horse-Power per Hour.
| +-----------------------------------------------------
| | Total Coal on Voyage.
| | +----------------------------------------------
| | | Coal for Boilers only.
| | | +---------------------------------------
| | | | Sea Miles on Voyage.
| | | | +------------------------------
| | | | | Cargo Carried.
| | | | | +---------------------
| | | | | | Average Speed.
| | | | | | +-------------
| | | | | | | Horse-Power
| | | | | | | On Voyage.
---------+------+------+------+--------+--------+-------+-------------
| lb. | tons | tons | miles | tons | knots | I.H.P.
---------+------+------+------+--------+--------+-------+-------------
15 | 1.60 | 918 | 822 | 3,447 | 10,298 | 10.85 | 3,713
| 1.58 | | | | | | 3,900
16 | 1.59 | 923 | 834 | 3,403 | 10,289 | 10.80 | 3,951
| 1.64 | | | | | | 3,775
| 1.63 | | | | | | 3,668
17 | 1.50 | 924 | 836 | 3,469 | 10,499 | 10.40 | 3,949
| 1.53 | | | | | | 3,796
18 | 1.50 | 847 | 775 | 3,441 | 10,563 | 11.10 | 3,937
| 1.50 | | | | | | 3,720
19 | 1.44 | 837 | 760 | 3,423 | 10,570 | 10.85 | 3,909
| 1.43 | | | | | | 3,813
20 | 1.50 | 780 | 707 | 3,312 | 10,641 | 11.50 | 4,107
| 1.32 | | | | | | 3,817
21 | 1.56 | 846 | 766 | 3,330 | 10,651 | 10.60 | 3,909
| 1.44 | | | | | | 3,870
| 1.46 | | | | | | 3,746
---------+------+------+------+--------+--------+-------+-------------
Totals | | 6075 | 5500 | 23,825 | 73,511 | |
Averages | 1.51 | 868 | 786 | 3,404 | 10,501 | 10.87 | 3,848
---------+------+------+------+--------+--------+-------+-------------

The China Navigation Company of London, for whom the Scotts began building in 1875, have had in the thirty years sixty-four vessels, which have been an important factor not only in the development of trade in China, but also in the advancement of British interests in the Far East.

In an earlier Chapter we referred to the extent of the service conducted by these vessels, and also to the Company's continuous progressive spirit, which, for instance, induced them, on the suggestion of the Scotts, to adopt twin-screws. The launch of one of these ships is illustrated on Plate XXXI., facing this page, while the next Plate, XXXII., illustrates the _Fengtien_, which was built in 1905 in an exceptionally short period of time. The contract was made in the closing week of 1904, the first keel-plate was laid on the 15th January, 1905, the vessel was launched on the 20th April, and arrived in Shanghai on the 14th July--less than twenty-six weeks from the date when the building was commenced. This performance indicates not only the satisfactory character of the organisation, but also of the equipment of the shipyard and marine engineering works.

The _Fengtien_ has a length between perpendiculars of 267 ft., a beam of 40 ft., and a depth, moulded, of 18 ft., with a deck-house having accommodation for thirty-three European first-class passengers; while on the top of this house there is, as shown in the engraving, a promenade for passengers. The accommodation provided for first-class passengers is exceptionally satisfactory, both in respect of state-rooms and of public saloons. Fifty-six first-class Chinese passengers are also carried, as well as seventy steerage native passengers. In addition to this considerable source of revenue, the ship carries 1720 tons of deadweight cargo on a draught of 14 ft.

The _Fengtien_ on her trial, when developing 2146 horse-power, attained a speed of 13-1/4 knots, which was considered highly satisfactory, in view of the unusual dimensions. The engines are of the triple-expansion, three-cylinder type, fitted with every accessory which experience has shown to ensure regularity of working, with the minimum of expense in respect of upkeep and working cost. Steam at 190-lb. pressure is supplied by two boilers, 15 ft. in diameter and 11 ft. 6 in. long, having 5184 square feet of heating surface, and 121 square feet of grate area.

We have referred generally to the passenger accommodation in the ships built by the firm, and it may be interesting to refer here to the character of the work done and illustrated on Plate XXVII., facing page 73. The first view shows the dining-room of one of four Portuguese steamers. This room is designed in the Jacobean style. The walls are framed and panelled in solid walnut, and all the mouldings, cornices, architraves, pilasters, columns, pediments, and also the furniture, are beautifully carved. The floor is laid in mosaic tiles, in geometrical patterns, with Brussels carpet runners in the passage-ways. The ceiling is of yellow pine, moulded, ribbed, and broken up with carved panels, painted a flat white and relieved with gold. The dome skylight is in teak, with richly-carved beams and mouldings; and glazed with embossed plate glass, while the side windows are fitted with jalousie blinds, stout double-line teak shutters, and glass bull's-eyes in brass frames. The upholstery is in crimson Utrecht velvet, and seating accommodation is provided for sixty-eight saloon passengers.

The other view on Plate XXVII. illustrates the drawing-room of the steam yacht _Foros_, built for M. Kousenzoff, of Moscow. It is in the Elizabethan style. The walls are framed in solid East Indian satinwood, highly finished and French polished, with figured silk tapestry panels of a shade that harmonises and blends with the wood-work. Neat and delicate carving in low relief is introduced where most effective. The ceiling, of yellow pine, has square panels of Tynecastle tapestry, relieved with rich carving in cornices and beams. The room is lighted and ventilated by eight large round lights in the ship's side, each enclosed in a recess with a sliding screen of beautifully-stained and leaded glass. The large circular skylight in the centre of the room, finished to suit the ceiling, has large opening sashes, glazed with stained glass. The floor is laid with oak parquetry, with a Parisian mat in the centre. The room is heated by a slow-combustion grate with rich brass mounts, tiled hearth, fire-brasses and fender. The mantelpiece and overmantel, in satinwood, is a beautiful piece of work--carved and relieved with colonnades and pilasters. This room is fitted with a complete installation of electric bells and lights, with two graceful electric candelabra, one on each side of the fireplace. The stained glazing is illumined at nights by electric lights on the outside. The drawing-room is completely and artistically furnished with high mirrors, fitments, writing-tables, card and occasional tables, and with a variety of beautifully upholstered chairs and sofas. All the metal-work is of ormolu.

The British India Steam Navigation Company is another of the old clients of the Scotts. This Company, originally formed in 1856, under the title of the Calcutta and Burmah Steam Navigation Company, which was changed in 1862 to the title now known in all maritime countries, had its first steamship built by the Scotts, and it is therefore interesting to illustrate the one recently built at the same Works--the _Bharata_. This vessel is of the intermediate type, carrying a large number of British and native passengers, and nearly 4000 tons of cargo. The length between perpendiculars is 373 ft., the beam 45 ft., and the depth, moulded, 29 ft. 6 in. The cargo carried on a draught of 24 ft. is 3940 tons, and this is handled by eight hydraulic cranes, some of them of high power. The passenger accommodation, in the centre part of the ship, includes state rooms and saloons for forty-two first-class and thirty-six second-class European travellers, while in the 'tween decks a large number of native passengers are accommodated.

The machinery of the _Bharata_ gives a speed of 16 knots, when the displacement is 5560 tons. The engines are of the triple-expansion type, and develop 6000 indicated horse-power. Five single-ended boilers supply steam at 180 lb. pressure. This vessel in service carries her cargo of about 4000 tons and her passengers at a speed of 16 knots, for a consumption of ordinary coal of about 50 tons per day.

In our historical Chapters it has been clearly shown that the Scotts took a prominent part in the evolution of Channel steamers, and reference may be made to the latest vessels of this class now being built at the Company's works--two steamers for the old and successful firm of G. and J. Burns, Limited. These vessels, the dimensions of which are:--Length 233 ft., breadth 33 ft., depth 24 ft., are to have a speed of 13 knots. They are to be employed on the service between Glasgow and Manchester, and are fitted for steerage passengers, and also for conveying cattle, horses and sheep. The machinery consists of three-cylinder triple-expansion engines of 1750 indicated horse-power, having cylinders 23 in., 36 in., and 58 in. in diameter respectively, with a stroke of 42 in. The boilers, of which there are two in each ship, are 14 ft. in diameter and 12 ft. 6 in. in length, with a heating surface of 4000 square feet, and a grate area of 120 square feet. They work under natural draught at a pressure of 175 lb. per square inch.

We might continue almost indefinitely describing different types of ships, but will content ourselves with a reference to the fleet of Thames passenger steamers built in 1905 for the London County Council. Of the thirty vessels constructed for the Council, twenty had their boilers and engines from the Scotts' Works. Ten of the steamers, in which this machinery was fitted, were built on the Clyde by Messrs. Napier and Miller; six at Southampton, by Messrs. John I. Thornycroft and Company; and four at Greenwich, by Messrs. G. Rennie and Company. These vessels are 130 ft. long, and of very light draught--2 ft. 10 in. when loaded. An idea of their proportions is given by the engraving on Plate XXXIV., facing this page, showing one of the Clyde-built vessels ready to steam from Greenock to London.

The engines for all of these vessels are of the compound, diagonal, surface-condensing type, the two cylinders being 16 in. and 31 in. in diameter, with a stroke of 3 ft.

One set of engines is illustrated on Plate XXXV., adjoining page 85. They have forged steel guide columns, to bind the cylinders to the three entablature frames. The crank-shaft is a solid steel forging, 6-5/8 in. in diameter, coupled to the steel paddle-shafts by flexible couplings. The surface-condenser, cylindrical in form and constructed of light brass sheets, is placed below the guide bars close to the cylinders. The water-ends are of cast brass, arranged for double circulation of the water. The air-pump, of the trunk type, is driven by bell-crank levers off the low-pressure connecting-rod. Two independent feed-pumps are driven off the same crosshead.

The auxiliary machinery includes a circulating pump with auxiliary air-pump attached, a direct-acting feed and bilge pump, a fan and engine for the forced draught, and an electric engine and dynamo.

Each steamer has one cylindrical steam boiler, 9 ft. in diameter by 9 ft. 3 in. long. The working steam pressure is 110 lb. The boilers are also illustrated on Plate XXXV. The twenty sets of engines and boilers were completed in a remarkably short space of time.

These steamers were designed for a service speed of 12 statute miles per hour, and a trial speed of 13 miles per hour, or 11.285 knots. The best trial performances were attained by the _FitzAilwin_ and the _Turner_, both built on the Clyde; they attained a speed of 14.1 miles per hour, or 12-1/4 knots, with the engines making 69.8 revolutions per minute, and indicating 360 horse-power. This is nearly 1 sea mile per hour more than was required by the contract.

We illustrate on Plate XXXVI., facing page 86, a typical set of triple-expansion engines. The practice in respect of the design of engines and boilers is necessarily very varied. From the designs for a small steam launch to those for a first-class cruiser or battleship there is a wide range, and all classes of work, with not a few of special interest, come between those extremes. In connection with the three-crank triple-expansion engine, now generally adopted for merchant work, an arrangement well favoured for sizes up to about 1000 indicated horse-power is that in which the high-pressure cylinder is in the centre with a piston valve, the intermediate-pressure cylinder being forward, and the low-pressure cylinder aft, each with a slide valve at the extreme ends. This has been found to give a handy arrangement of gear, and to be easily accessible. With twin-screw engines of this power it is customary, and has been found very convenient, to lead all the hand-gear for both engines to a pedestal placed midway between the engines and ahead of the forward cylinders.

A description of the types of engines built by the Scotts for the China Navigation Company during the past thirty years would be practically a history of the progress of marine engineering during that period. The customary sequence of cylinders has in the main been adhered to in the design of these engines--viz., high-pressure cylinder forward and low-pressure cylinder aft in the case of compound engines: the intermediate-pressure cylinder, in the case of triple-expansion machinery, is placed between the high- and low-pressure cylinders. Indeed, this latter is the arrangement invariably adopted by the firm in the design of all large-size ordinary cargo steamer engines. The valve gear is forward of its cylinder in each case. This has also been the design adopted in the case of recent high-class passenger and mail steamers with three cylinders, and in the case also of steamers for special trades. Twin-screw engines present little deviation from the above, and such as there is mainly affects pipe connections.

All engines of whatever type up to about 1000 indicated horse-power are usually arranged with forged columns in front. The condenser is ordinarily designed to form part of the engine structure, having the columns cast on, and supporting the cylinders; but not infrequently it is entirely separate from the main engines, and is carried either on the back of the columns, or fitted in the wing of the ship.

Of engines for the Navy nothing need be said beyond stating that they form quite a class by themselves, and all present the special features of design so characteristic of Admiralty work referred to in an earlier Chapter. The latest types of large-size engines for the Admiralty are being fitted with a system of forced lubrication to main bearings and crank-pins.

The Scotts' practice with respect to paddle engines has been no less varied than that in the case of screw machinery, ranging as it does from the ponderous side-lever engine of past years to the stern-wheel engine of the shallow-draught steamers of the present day. Oscillating and diagonal engines, both compound and triple-expansion, are also within the experience of the Company, the three-stage expansion being the type now usually adopted.