Chapter II: Preface (2)

In any of the usual methods employed it is first necessary to spread ink on the type face with an ink roller. A small hand roller is used in combination with a smooth steel or stone surface on which to distribute the ink. The composition of the roller should be well seasoned and the roller should be well cleaned. A good grade of slow-drying black ink of the quality known as "book" ink is necessary for the usual work. A very thin ink or a very stiff ink is not suitable. The amount used should be just enough to give a clear impression of the type, and no more. This is graduated to the lightness or boldness of the face, and also to the finish of the paper. A glossy coated paper will need less ink than a machine-finish paper; while an antique-finish paper will need much more ink than either. As a general rule, proofs are made on smooth-finish paper with a minimum quantity of moderately stiff ink.

A proof planer is a block of wood about 8 inches long by 3-1/2 inches wide and 2-1/2 inches high, having its face covered with a piece of thick cloth or felt. A planer proof must be made while the type is on the imposing stone or some other solid surface. When ink has been rolled on the type a sheet of thin paper, slightly damp, is laid on the type and the planer is used for taking the impression. The sheet should be dampened evenly all over with a sponge, enough to be a little limp. The unsponged side of the sheet is laid on the type very carefully to avoid slurring the impression. The proof planer, held in the left hand, is placed steadily on top, and a mallet in the right hand is used to tap the planer. If the planer does not cover the whole page, it must be lifted from one part to another until the whole surface is covered. This requires some practice, to avoid a shifting of the sheet on the type and making a double or smeared impression.

A firm foundation for the type and a steady blow, graduated in force to the size of the printing surface, are necessary for a clean impression. The mallet should hit straight, without glancing sidewise, and the planer should be held level and steady.

The kind of type forms adapted for proving by this method are those with paragraphs of plain matter and strong faces which will not be easily battered. Those with large open spaces and small lines, and those with delicate lines like scripts and kerned italic letters, should not be proved with a planer if another method is available. Small groups of type standing alone, like page numbers and small imprints, require very careful treatment in proving, to avoid unnecessary impression which may batter the face or break off the kerns. When it becomes necessary to take proofs of fine or small types standing without surrounding support, it is a good plan to place near the type, on two sides if possible, type-high blocks upon which the planer may rest while the impression is being tapped.

The proof planer is not the common method of taking proofs, but is employed in places where there is no regular proof press, and also under conditions where a proof press cannot readily be used. The latter condition is in the case of a large form beyond the capacity of the proof press, locked up on the imposing stone, when a proof is required, either of a part or of the whole, for verification of some detail before sending the form to press for printing.

The other and more common method of taking proofs is on one or another of the several kinds of proof presses, as described in text-book No. 5 of this series, "Proof Presses," to which the reader is referred for a detailed consideration of the subject.

_Making Corrections_

When a line of type has been set in the composing stick it should be read over with care, compared with copy, and any mistakes corrected before the line is justified. A habit of doing this will make cleaner proofs and save a great deal of time and expense. An error corrected at this time saves a second justification of the line. If the error is an omitted word or syllable or a word inserted twice its detection will save the probable over-running of several lines or even of a whole paragraph later.

The lines should also be scanned before being taken from the stick to the galley. A turned letter or a wrong type overlooked in the first examination may be changed by lifting the line a little until the type can be picked out and the right one put in its place.

Do not try to correct a line in the stick when another line or part of a line is in front of it. If a correction makes necessary a change of spaces or a re-justifying of the line, take out all the lines in front, then correct and justify again. This allows the stick to be held in the hand and the types can be handled in the same manner as for the original setting. This will be more convenient than to lay the stick on the case while re-spacing a line in the middle of a stickful.

The use of a bodkin or tweezers is seldom necessary for correcting in the stick or on the galley, unless the type is very small and the measure is narrow.

A little care in revising the lines as they are set, before the first proof is taken, will result in cleaner proofs and will reduce the time for proofreading as well as for later corrections.

Even though the lines have been carefully revised while being set, errors of various kinds will probably be marked on the proof when it comes back from the proofreader. If there are many lines and a number of serious errors the corrections are made at the case. The galley is placed at one side of the case if possible, rather than on top of the case, with the head of the galley and the top of the lines toward the right. When only one stand can be used it may be well to put the type case in the rack under the working shelf and to put the galley on the shelf. This will permit free access to the case for the letters needed in correcting and will give a good resting place for the galley and composing stick.

The compositor stands with his right side to the galley and works with the tops of the lines toward him. The composing rule with a nib is useful at this time. Lines in which corrections are to be made should have leads or rules beside them to help keep them from _pi_-ing during the operation. If the lines are set solid, leads or rules should be inserted temporarily and taken out when the correcting is finished.

Simple errors like the exchanging of one type for another of the same width, the turning of an inverted character, or the transposition of letters or words, are corrected by pressing the line at both ends to lift it up about one-third of its height and picking out the wrong types with the finger and thumb. The line is then dropped in place and the right types put in.

A line in which there is a change of the spaces or of the justification should be lifted into a composing stick of the right measure for correction. Any important change in a line of type should always be made in a stick, where accurate justification is most readily secured. First place the composing stick conveniently at hand, with its back toward the compositor. Insert the composing rule down at the top of the line in the galley, press both ends of the line together, and raise it up gently; when it is clear of the other lines turn it so that the rule is under, and then transfer to the stick. As a rule, lines of type should be carried in a position which keeps the types themselves horizontal, not perpendicular. In this manner they are supported by the lead or rule underneath. If carried with the feet of the types down they are liable to drop out unless perfectly justified and firmly held.

Many careless compositors persist in correcting lines on the galley in a puttering, botchy manner which results in badly justified lines. The beginner is usually inclined to do the same thing because he has not yet learned to perform with ease and safety the trick of transferring lines back and forth from the galley to the stick. Instead of shirking this operation because it looks difficult, he should practice it until he can do it safely and quickly. A compositor who does not justify his lines properly is rated as a careless workman. If he has nothing to do with the later locking up of the forms for the foundry or the press he is prone to slight this part of his work and thus make additional duties for other workmen, as well as increase the risk of subsequent error or accident.

Corrections in type matter often call for the over-running of the lines; that is, the words must be taken from one line to another, requiring changes in other lines beside the one in which the correction was marked. This procedure takes time and is costly. It means that the entire matter thus re-arranged must be revised to see that new errors have not crept in.

There are two ways of handling the lines for over-running. When a few lines are to be thus changed lift them out one at a time and put them on an extra galley above the working galley, standing them in sequence along the lower rim with the nicks up. Put the first line into the stick, take out words or insert new ones as directed in the proof, then take the words in order from the galley, make any corrections called for, re-space and justify to the end. If the lines are long, a brass rule or composing rule of the right length should be used to measure off the new lines, and these may be taken into the stick a line at a time instead of a few words at a time.

Another method of over-running does not require the extra galley if there is some spare room at the bottom of the matter on its own galley. Insert the rule at the top of the line where the over-run commences and move the matter down the galley a distance equal to the length of the lines and an inch farther. Take the first line into the stick. Then turn a half dozen or more of the following lines so that the nicks of the type are toward the lower rim of the galley, keeping the ends of the lines against the matter farther down. Put a piece of 4-em metal furniture at the other end of the turned lines to prevent letters from falling down. Correct the line in the stick and proceed by taking the words in order from the turned lines. If more lines are to be over-run, take them from their regular position in the galley and turn them nicks down in the same way as the first lot.

The spacing of over-run lines should be done as carefully as for the original setting. Sometimes lines too thinly or too widely spaced in the original may be improved in the re-spacing. Unfortunately, much work of this kind is done in a rush and the second justification is neglected. Yet the difference in time taken to do good spacing and that spent on careless work is often very little.

Hand compositors now do a great deal of correcting and page make-up on type set by machines. This work is often in the nature of specialties, yet the general rules of good spacing and justifying apply here also. Usually greater speed is required, and this means more skill and oftentimes the employment of some special facilities adapted for the particular class of work in hand.

It is a rule that any lines of type pied during corrections and reset must have a mark around them on the revise proof to call attention to them for another reading to be sure that no new error has been made.

_Importance of Uniform Spacing_

The beginner will realize after he has set his first few stickfuls that the part of the operation which gives him the greatest trouble is not finding the types for the words of his copy, but it is getting uniform spaces between the words to justify the lines. To the uninitiated the words of a well-set page appear to be separated with spaces of equal thickness. This is far from the fact; it is only in rare instances that several lines in a page have spaces that are exactly alike. A close examination of a page will show a great variety of white spaces between words, although the difference may not be readily recognized by the ordinary reader.

In order to make the reading easy and legible the words should be spaced enough to make them quickly distinguishable at a glance. In order to make it comfortable and pleasing the words should be spaced uniformly and the lines arranged orderly, with neither undue huddling together nor unnecessary separation. Good typesetting means that the spacing must be approximately even and that the average space must be carefully proportioned to the style of the type face, the distance between the lines, and the size and shape of the page.

Uniform spacing between the words in a line is always desirable. A thin space on one side of a word and a wide space on the other is an inexcusable fault. An exception is made of the space between sentences, where the ending of one and the beginning of another occurs in the same line. In this case it is customary to leave a wide space after the period.

Lines should not be wide-spaced at one end and thin-spaced at the other. Absolute evenness may not be easily secured, but an appearance of uniformity may be given by observing some of the methods described further on in these pages.

Good spacing means also that all the lines of a composition should be spaced as nearly alike as is practicable. The extremes of a wide-spaced line and a thin-spaced line in the same paragraph, or of a wide-spaced paragraph and a thin-spaced paragraph of similar types on the same page, should be avoided.

The last line of a paragraph should not be spaced wider than the average spacing in the paragraph itself. Many compositors have a habit of wide-spacing a line which happens to have a few words in it, with the evident aim to make these few words fill the line as much as possible. This often results in lines needlessly wide-spaced.

_Rules for Spacing_

The standard space between words in ordinary roman lower-case type is the 3-space. This thickness is commonly accepted as the average spacing required for legibility in a printed page to be held in the hand. It gives comfortable legibility in sizes of type from 8-point to 14-point. Smaller sizes may be spaced with an average slightly wider, like the en quad, while for large types to be read at close range the spacing may be less than the 3-space average.

Wide measures, as a rule, require relatively wide spacing. Narrow measures are preferably thin-spaced, whether the lines are leaded or solid.

An apparently equal spacing between all words in a line means that in some cases there must be a slight variation in the width of the actual spaces used. The size and shape of the letters at the ends of words will often affect the amount of white space, especially in the larger faces of type.

There are several combinations of word endings which call for spaces thinner or thicker than the average in the line in order to make all the spaces appear equal. These little variations can be made while changing the spaces to justify the line. They need not, for the most part, take any extra time, while the resulting evenness in the spacing of the page will be noticeable. Good spacing without spending unnecessary time is usually a matter of following a few simple rules.

When necessary to use thinner spaces to get a complete word or syllable in the line, put these thin spaces after a comma, or between word endings like ----e w----, ----y a----. Word endings like ----y A----, ----w v----, ----y u---- can be very thinly spaced if necessary.

On the other hand, if a little extra space is needed to fill the line, increase the spaces between words ending with tall letters,----d l----, ----f b----, etc.

Abbreviated words and initials with the period (Mrs. Rev. M.D. Ph.D. etc.) are places where thin spaces are properly used.

A thin space is required before colons, semicolons, question marks, and exclamation marks, when these are cast on thin bodies. These points should be followed by an extra-wide space. That is, if the line is spaced with a 3-space as the average, a semicolon should have a 5-space before it and an en quad after. If the line is thin-spaced, the spaces before and after the semicolon are reduced also. In some fonts of type these punctuation marks are cast on thick bodies which furnish a slight shoulder on each side of the face of the mark. In such cases the extra spaces may not be required in ordinary composition.

When a question mark or an exclamation mark finishes a sentence, it should be followed by a space equal to that used after periods in other parts of the same matter.

The em dash usually should have a little space on each side of it, especially if the line is spaced with 3-spaces or wider. If the line is thin-spaced, the dash also may be set close to the adjoining words. Whenever possible avoid putting the dash at the end of the line in paragraphs; try to keep it within the line.

A short line, consisting of a word or syllable of two or three letters only, should be avoided at the end of a paragraph, especially in a measure of ordinary width. In a very narrow measure it may not be avoided. Where the other lines of the page are fairly well filled this short line will make an objectionable break in the matter. If it cannot be taken back to the preceding line, a little wider spacing of these lines will allow an additional word or syllable to be brought over to lengthen the objectionable short line.

It is desirable to end a paragraph with an em quad, if this is practicable, rather than fill the last line flush. Do not leave an ordinary space after the period.

When justifying the last line of a paragraph or a headline in which quads are used, keep the justifying spaces next to the types. Do not put small pieces at the end of a quad line or scatter them between the large quads. They will be easier to distribute if placed after the period.

Hyphenated words in a widely spaced line should have a hair space on each side of a thin hyphen; but this may not be necessary if the hyphen is cast on a thick body, as it is in some fonts.

The dollar sign $ is set close to the whole numbers in printing amounts of money: $25. When specifying fractions of a dollar (in tabular columns only) put a space between the sign and the decimal: $ .25. The symbols for English money are also placed close to the figures, thus £10 5s 2d.

When justifying lines some compositors commence respacing at one end of the line and increase the spaces in order till the line is full, regardless of the length of the words or the word endings, repeating this line after line. The result is that one side of the matter is spaced wider than the other--a most inexcusable fault. If a few spaces wider than the average must be used in the line, put these between long words or words with tall letters; and _vice versa_, if thin spaces are necessary, put them between short words or words with small letters. Do not wide-space short words and leave long words in the same line with thin spaces. Do not, however, if it can be avoided, allow wide spaces to be repeated nearly under each other, to produce noticeable straggling white spaces or "rivers" up and down the page. Spacing of this sort is particularly objectionable for good printing.

An old-time rule required an em quad after a period before beginning another sentence in the line. This is the practice in many places now, but there is an objection to the unnecessary large white spot which it makes in the ordinary page of reading matter. As a distinction between sentences it seems too conspicuous except in matter that is wide-leaded and wide-spaced. The modern practice in good work is to reduce this space to the double 3-space or the en quad, or even to the 3-space in small pages.

Another unnecessarily large space in narrow measure of solid or single-leaded lines is an em quad after the period or Roman numeral in numbered paragraphs. Where the period is used an en quad following it is sufficient.

In good composition quotation marks should not be crowded close against the words which they enclose, unless the lines are close-spaced. Commas and apostrophes cast on very thin types usually need a little space between the quote-marks they form and the words they enclose, especially if they are next to tall letters. A large capital A or a sloping italic capital at the beginning may not need the separating space after the inverted commas, and a period or a comma between the last word and the final quote-mark will furnish the needed separation.

"Quote-marks properly spaced."

"These are not well spaced. "

"'Quotes' within 'quotes' are like this."

In open-spaced matter there should be a thin space between an exclamation or question mark and the final quote-mark, thus:

"Do you wish to become a good compositor?"

Letter-spacing, or inter-spacing, is frequently employed in headings and in job and display composition. It is rarely a good practice in ordinary lower-case composition in paragraph form. In very narrow measures, where word length or word divisions do not come right to make the lines the desired length, the letter-spacing of a few words is sometimes resorted to in order to extend the words. This should be done with care to avoid making such words conspicuous in the general appearance of the page. It is better to letter-space the whole line a little rather than to put excess spacing in one unimportant word.

Black-letter, Old English, Priory Text, Cloister Black, and similar varieties should not be wide-spaced, nor should they ever be letter-spaced. The beauty of such letters, which are now used for their decorative rather than utilitarian qualities, depends upon the consistent, well-balanced relation between the white and black spaces of the composition. The compactness of the letter shapes makes words that are compact and unified. As there are relatively close spaces between the strokes of the letters, so there should be thin spaces between the words of the lines and between the lines. Wide spaces between words do not necessarily make them more legible. A comparison of the two groups of lines following will show one as easy to read as the other, while the close-spaced example is less confusing in its detail.

These Two Lines Are
Spaced About Right

These Two Lines
Are Wide Spaced]

_Spacing of Italic_

A paragraph of italic type is more difficult to space evenly than the same lines in roman letters. Usually the average spacing may be about the same as the companion face of roman; but more frequently than in roman types the spaces in a line may need to be of unequal thickness in order to give a uniform appearance to the spacing. Overhanging letters are frequent and when these come at the beginning or end of words they require a little more space than is used for words ending or beginning with small letters. Word pairs with letters like _--f p--_ and _--l h--_ will in most cases need wider spaces than are used between pairs like _--e w--_ and _--s A--_.

Some italic capitals have extra shoulder-space on the left of the face, like _T_, _W_, _V_, which should be allowed for by thin spacing when they follow small lower-case letters. This extra shoulder is made on letters of this kind to protect the overhanging kern of an adjoining letter when words are set in capitals.

Where an italic _f_, _j_, or other kerned letter comes at the beginning or end of a line a thin space should be placed outside of it to keep it from projecting beyond the side of the page, where it is easily broken off. This is important if the matter is to be moulded for electrotyping.

On account of the frequency of overhanging letters italic types require very careful handling during composition, correcting, and locking up. If the kerns over-ride an adjoining type or are subjected to a slight blow of any kind they are easily broken off.

_Spacing Capital Letters_

Words in capitals need wider spacing than those in lower-case of the same size. Capitals occupy more space on the type body than small letters and consequently they need a little more openness between the words and between the lines to give them a proportionate relief of white space for legibility.

Roman capitals of the standard faces are often sufficiently spaced with the en quad if the words are short. Long words in a headline may need double 3-spaces, while lines of round open capitals in an open area may need the em quad.

A simple rule to follow is to space wide letters with wide spaces, and thin or condensed letters with narrow spaces. This may be put another way by saying that the spacing should approximate the average width of the letters used, taking an entire alphabet as the basis. Thus, if the alphabet of capitals measures 18 ems, the average width of the letters would be 18/26ths, or approximately 2/3 of the em.

Like all rules, this is subject to modifications in special cases. The shapes of the letters which end and begin the words may make it desirable to increase or decrease the spaces in some places. Word endings like --L T-- and --Y A-- should have a little thinner space than is used between those ending and beginning with full-bodied upright letters like --M R--.

VERY AGED BOTTOM RIM]

In small types the inequalities in white space around letters of different shapes may not be readily seen, but in large sizes these differences increase in noticeable degree. A careful compositor will select his spaces to equalize these little differences and thus avoid the numerous inconsistent defects sure to result from mere mechanical justification of the lines.

Combinations of capitals like the following example show distinctly uneven white spaces between the letters of the word. These should be equalized wherever possible by the use of thin leads or cards between the close-fitted letters.

VAINLY ATTEMPTED
VAINLY ATTEMPTED]

This differential spacing will also be desirable in a line having abbreviations or initials. The following example spaced with en quads in every place shows an excess of white between the initials because of the presence of the periods.

HON. JOHN L. SMITH MARK HARRIS, D. D. S.
HON. JOHN L. SMITH MARK HARRIS, D. D. S.]

A thinner space between the initials gives uniform spacing through the line.

Large initials used in groups, as in college degrees and military titles, are often set close together with simply the period for separation. This style is preferred in any close-spaced matter; though for more open matter a thin space may be used after the periods.

Two or more lines of capitals of the same size should be spaced as nearly alike as possible. The disproportionate spacing of the following three lines is sometimes seen, but is not pleasing:

A PRIMER OF INFORMATION
ABOUT WORKING AT THE CASE
AND SETTING TYPE BY HAND]

Lines of small capitals of normal size are often sufficiently spaced with the 3-space and slightly wider when in paragraph form. When used in headings and open-leaded matter en-quad spacing is required.

LINES OF SMALL CAPITALS OF NORMAL SIZE ARE OFTEN
PROPERLY SPACED WITH ONE THREE-TO-EM SPACE WHEN
IN PARAGRAPH FORM.

IN HEADINGS AND OPEN MATTER, EN-QUAD
SPACING IS REQUIRED.

EXTENDED OR WIDE-FACED LETTERS NEED
WIDER SPACES THAN CONDENSED OR THIN-
FACED LETTERS, AS SHOWN IN THESE LINES

Type of Condensed Shape should, in all ordinary conditions, be thin
spaced. To select thin letters and then to wide space them is hardly
logical.

SPACING OF THIS KIND IS OBJECTIONABLE.]

_Wide Spacing_

Letters and words huddled together so that they are not readily recognized at a glance do not make easy reading. On the other hand, very wide spacing does not necessarily result in a proportionate increase of legibility; it may even produce results as confusing as very thin spacing.

LIGHT-FACED GOTHIC THIN-SPACED
IS CONFUSING TO THE EYE OF
THE AVERAGE MAN OR WOMAN]

A general rule affecting wide spacing is that the average distance between the words in the line should be less than the distance between the lines themselves. Notice in the above example how the words group themselves up and down the page rather than in order along the line for the eye to follow. Note also how wide spaces between the words form distinct, irregular streaks up and down the page to lead the eye away from its course along a single line at a time.

WIDE SPACING FOR EASY READING
HAS LITTLE ADVANTAGE UNLESS
THE LINES ARE LEADED OUT]

Wide spacing for easy reading has little advantage unless the lines are leaded out in equal proportion.

Double-leaded lines are well spaced with an average of an en quad. When this is used the limit of space would be the double 3-space, while the thin space would be the single 3-space.

An average spacing wider than the en quad is rarely ever necessary in roman lower-case matter even if the lines are separated with more than the double leads. The only excuse for the wider spacing is the necessity for making words and syllables fill the line.

In some kinds of composition wide spacing and wide leading are desirable. Wide measures and ample white space up and down the page naturally call for open spacing of type lines. Large advertisements, wall cards, placards, and other forms intended to be read at a distance farther away than the book or magazine in the hand, are properly wide-spaced and wide-leaded. Extremes in openness, however, are not safe to follow. A study of the work of the leading designers in typography will show a compact grouping of both words and lines which gives unity and orderliness with ample readability. In contrast with this the disconnected, patchy, scattered effects shown in commonplace type composition will prove that habitual wide-spacing is often unnecessary.

_Paragraph and Other Indentions_

There are several styles of indention employed in type composition. These are known as (1) regular paragraph, (2) hanging indention, (3) half-diamond indention or inverted pyramid indention, with its variation of lozenge-shape formation, (4) squared indention, and (5) diagonal indention.

Hanging indention is where the first line of a
paragraph begins flush and the second and
succeeding lines are indented, as in this
paragraph. It is a common form in catalogs,
tabular work, and also in poetry.

Half-diamond indention is when successive lines are indented at
both ends, each one being shorter than the preceding
line, as shown in this paragraph. It is
commonly used for title pages
and display matter.

INDENTIONS
WHICH MAKE THE
LOZENGE-SHAPED PANEL
ARE OFTEN USED
FOR TITLES
AND BITS
OF DIS-
PLAY

It is often advisable to indent lines at
both ends, to make several short lines
instead of one or two long lines. In
cases of this kind the first line is not
indented more than the others, as
shown in this paragraph. Squared indention
is used for short paragraphs in
advertising matter, bits of minor display,
and miscellaneous composition.

Diagonal indention is when the lines of
type are so arranged that they follow
after each other diagonally in this style.

Another manner of indenting lines, somewhat rare in this country but common in Europe, is termed French motto indention. This is usually made with small types, the paragraph being set in squared-up fashion at the right side of the page, within the measure.

An indention should be enough to indicate the paragraph clearly, yet not be so wide as to make it a conspicuous white spot on the page. Its purpose is to show the reader a change of subject or a minor subdivision of the matter. The amount of indention necessary to attain this will vary in different forms of composition, and therefore only general rules can be given.

The usual indention of paragraphs in plain reading matter is an em quad at the beginning of the first line. If the lines are more than average length the indention may be increased to one and a half ems, two ems, or more. Indentions of over two ems, however, are seldom allowable in ordinary reading matter like books and periodicals.

Wide indentions should not be made in narrow measures; nor should indistinct, insignificant indentions be made in broad measures.

Paragraphs set in 10-point or 12-point type in measures from 15 to 20 picas wide are sufficiently indented by the em quad, while 6-point type in the same measure should be indented with a two-em quad.

Wide-leaded, open matter will call for a little more paragraph indention, as a rule, than is given to thin-spaced solid-line paragraphs. In pamphlets, circulars, advertisements, and job work, where wide leading and broken lines of a miscellaneous character are frequent, paragraph indentions may be wider than in book pages. On the other hand, in composition of this kind where other means of showing the commencement of a subject are used, indentions are omitted and the paragraphs begun flush at the margin.

The indention of paragraphs should be uniform throughout any single book or job. It is rare that more than two different widths of indention are needed to give a clear idea of the classification of any group of subjects. A variety of indentions on the same page is confusing and often spoils the orderly arrangement of the matter which the copy writer sought to obtain. Even where there are several sizes of type on the page, if the paragraphs are the same width, the indentions should be alike.

A common defect that is made conspicuous when wide indentions are made in paragraphs following each other is the occurrence of a single short word or syllable in the last line of a paragraph, as shown in this example:

Every printer's apprentice should carefully read and
study these simple rules for the indention and spacing of
type.
He should study all the books of this series.

This constitutes a "bad break" and should be avoided either by thin-spacing the last two or three lines of the paragraph to take the short word back and save the line, or by over-running the lines with wider spaces to bring more words to the last line. The choice of these expedients will depend upon the openness or closeness of the composition, in many cases upon the make-up of the page. If a line can be saved, take the solitary word back; if the line is needed, space out the preceding lines, provided it may be done without making bad spacing.

_Setting Poetry_

The indention of lines of poetry is sometimes a puzzling matter for the inexperienced compositor, unless he is given printed copy or carefully prepared manuscript in which the line indentions are clearly indicated. There are few rules which govern the subject and these few are sometimes ignored in practice.

If the composing stick will accommodate each line of verse in a line of type the composition will be much simplified. The first consideration will be to indent the lines so that the general body of the poem is approximately near the middle of the page or column. When the lines vary in length a great deal some calculation is needed to get the right indention without going over them the second time. The longest line should be set first and the indention of the others made to accord with this. In this case some lines will be set a little at the left of the page.

Indention of poetry is made with even em quads of the type used. The variations in indention are also graduated by ems; usually one em, but sometimes two, three, or more, according to the relative length of lines. The odd spaces needed for justifying are put after the last word in the line.

As a rule, lines which rhyme with each other are indented alike.

Pick and click
Goes the type in the stick,
As the printer stands at his case;
His eyes glance quick and his fingers pick
The type at a rapid pace.

One of the commonest forms of verse is that in which the alternating lines or the second and fourth lines rhyme. In this case the second line of each pair is indented one em beyond the first. If the lines are long and the type small the indention may be two ems.

(Rhyme of first and third, second and fourth lines.)
When Freedom from her mountain height
Unfurled her standard to the air,
She tore the azure robe of night
And set the stars of glory there.

(Rhyme of second and fourth lines.)
There is no wrath in the stars,
They do not rage in the sky;
I look from the Evil Wood
And find myself wondering why.

In many cases, however, rhymes like those above are set without varying the indention.

When the rhyme follows at certain intervals, the rhyming lines are indented alike:

My country, 'tis of thee,
Sweet land of liberty,
Of thee I sing;
Land where my fathers died,
Land of the Pilgrims' pride,
From ev'ry mountain side
Let freedom ring.

In blank verse the indention of lines is uniform, the only consideration being to indent the lines so that the general group will be somewhere near the middle of the page.

Who draws a line and satisfies his soul,
Making it crooked where it should be straight?
An idiot with an oyster shell may draw
His lines along the sand, all wavering,
Fixing no point, or pathway to a point.
An idiot once removed may choose his line,
Struggle, and be content; but, God be praised!
Antonio Stradivari has an eye
That winces at false work and loves the true,
With hand and arm that play upon the tool,
As willingly as any singing bird
Sets him to sing his morning roundelay,
Because he likes to sing and likes the song.

A uniform indention is also given to poems in which the rhyme is in two adjoining lines.

He spoke of the grass and flowers and trees,
Of the singing birds and the humming bees;
Then talked of the haying, and wondered whether
The cloud in the West would bring foul weather.

When a line is too long to come into the page width the surplus words are turned over to the next line; to avoid confusion this turn-over is indented differently from the beginning of a regular line commencing with a capital.

Gallop and sing, gallop and sing!
With the open road before,
And my good horse laying his hoofs to
the ground
As I ride by the shouting shore.

If the compositor is given any discretion in setting poetry, care should be taken to regulate the length of line and the indentions so that lines will not turn over into extra lines unnecessarily; yet, when the measure is narrow it is better to turn over an occasional long line rather than to place the whole poem out of the center.

_Headings_

The usual heading, termed a center head, is set in the middle of the line. It may be in capitals of the text or in a larger size. If capitals and lower-case are used the size should be several sizes larger, or the face should be bolder. In any case a main heading should be a little more prominent than a line of the text.

A sub-heading is a secondary heading and may be in the center of the measure or a side heading at the beginning of the line. In the latter place it may be in a line by itself, set flush, in italic, in caps. and small caps., or in small bold face; or it may be set in the first line of the paragraph, with the regular indention.

A cut-in head is set in a panel, with or without rule, after the second or third line of the first paragraph.

A running head is at the top of each page of a book or other work of a number of pages. In books and pamphlets the page number is usually at the outside end of the running-head line.

Box headings are enclosed in rules at the top of columns in tabular matter.

In modern practice no punctuation is placed at the end of headings, except the question and quotation marks when these are required. In a heading of two or more lines where a comma or semicolon comes naturally at the end of the first or second line, its omission may change or confuse the sense of the phrase. In such cases it should be used, even if the period is left off the end of the heading.

For additional comment on headings and punctuation see other title of this series: Book Composition (No. 20); also Punctuation (No. 33) and Capitals (No. 34), etc.

_Initial Letters_

An initial at the beginning of a chapter or other text requires nicety of spacing and justification. In modern practice the use of initials is often overdone, being used in many cases where they might better be omitted. Before the invention of typography, and since, the initial letter has been considered the feature of a page that could be used for decorative purposes. Early manuscripts show many elaborate, beautifully colored initials done by artists and illuminators. It was the custom of early printers to leave blank spaces in their printed pages for initials to be drawn in later. In some cases a small letter was printed in the middle of a large space as a guide to the artist. These small letters would be covered by the larger letter, but sometimes they were left as printed and the decoration drawn around them to fill the space. Later the ornamental initials were cut on wood or cast in metal and printed with the text.

As an initial is usually a prominent spot on a page its selection should be a matter of care. A plain letter of a style of face similar to the text is always a safe choice; an old-style letter for a text set in oldstyle roman, or a modern-cut Bodoni for Bodoni text. If the text is in italic an italic initial is more suitable than an upright letter. Extremely bold initials are not suitable for small types or light-faced text matter.

The size of an initial should be considered in relation to the size of the page and the size of the type used. In small pages of type of 10-point or smaller, a two-line letter will often be large enough; while a large page will require a large initial. If the initial is an ornamental letter it should be of a similar style of ornament to a head-piece or other decoration that may be on the page. Two different styles of initials or other decorative features of a page should be avoided.

In setting an initial into the beginning of a paragraph the letter is placed in the stick and the first line of text set after it. The letters of the first word are set in capitals usually, unless the first word is very long and the line of capitals is too prominent, when small capitals may be used. If the first word contains two or three letters only the next word is also set in capitals. The top of the initial should be even with the top of the first line of the text. If the initial has more shoulder than the body type, which is usually the case, a lead or more may be needed at the top of the first line. This should be properly lined up in the stick.

The spacing between the initial and the text depends upon the particular letter of the alphabet used, if a plain letter, or upon the decoration around the initial. The other letters of the first word are kept close to the initial, but the beginning of the second and succeeding lines are separated from it a little. In this way the initial has a closer relation to the word to which it belongs. The space at the right of the initial, between it and the text, should be apparently equal to that below it. It should not be extra wide in either place, or it will give the initial a detached appearance. To avoid this extra wide space it may be necessary to trim off some of the shoulder from the type, especially below the face. The proper size for an initial-letter should be equal to the number of text lines which it covers. This is not always practicable when miscellaneous types are selected from other fonts. If they are to be put back in their fonts after use as initials they may not be trimmed to odd sizes of body; nor should they ever be trimmed so without express permission of the foreman. For the usual work it is possible to use an initial that is a multiple of the text size with or without leads. An 18-point letter may be used for two-line initial in an 8-point text with 2-point leads; or a 24-point letter in leaded 10-point text.

The width of initials is very likely to make text lines after them of odd length rather than even picas or nonpareils. If the text is solid, this odd length of line is easily justified to the measure; but in case leads are used and even-pica leads do not fit it may be necessary to cut a few special odd-length leads to fit the lines. First, however, after the top line has been justified, put a few leads of even picas in the stick and try a short lead or two up and down beside the initial to fill in to the even-pica leads. If these extra vertical leads do not leave too much space around the initial they will do to take up the odd measure. Sometimes a thin space of a size two points larger than the text may be used.

_Making Up Pages_

Make-up is the term describing the various operations of dividing composed matter into pages of uniform length, adding the headings, page numbers (folios), inserting small engravings, and otherwise preparing the pages for locking up in a chase for the press or the electrotype foundry.

Newspaper pages and other large page forms of two or more columns are customarily made up on the stone or a similar flat surface in a special chase, with side-sticks and lock-up fitted for the form.

Pages for books, catalogs, and other small and medium sizes are made up on a broad galley placed on the inclined top of the compositor's stand or cabinet. The compositor who does this work regularly has the working top of his stand fitted with material and conveniences which should help him to do the work without waste of time. There are several styles of make-up cabinets furnished by dealers in printers' goods. These are designed with the object of keeping near the workman a supply of leads, rules, furniture, and other articles frequently used, so that he may save steps and minutes in doing his work.

It is important that the make-up galley should set firmly and that the bottom should not sag. If it is liable to move at a slight touch, or the bottom is uneven, the type lines will fall down easily, thereby adding to the care and time needed for the work.

The galley is laid with its closed end or head at the right hand. A strip should be nailed on the shelf at the right to act as a stop to hold the galley in place while working on it, especially to prevent it from moving when the lines are pushed up to test the length of the page.

The make-up compositor works with his right side inclined toward the stand, as when making corrections on the galley. The galley should not be so high as to be uncomfortable for the right arm, which must be held over it while working on the pages.

The common practice in making up is to handle the pages sideways, with the top toward the right hand, so that the sequence of lines follows to the left down the galley. In this way the beginning of each line rests against the lower galley rim, and by the use of leads or rules one or any number of lines can be taken out or moved back and forth on the galley with safety. Some job compositors handle small forms with the top line along the lower rim of the galley. This method may suffice with a few lines of large type, but it is not recommended. It is not practicable for pages of many lines or for lines without leads.

The galley matter should be corrected and revised before making up begins. This is important in a work of a number of pages, as any considerable changes after the pages are tied up usually require extra labor. If the revise proofs show only a few corrections, these may be made in advance, a galley or more at a time, by the make-up hand.

The justification of the lines requires particular attention, and all faulty lines should be re-justified. If there are many lines requiring extra time for rectifying the fact should be reported to the foreman or the compositor at fault. Badly justified lines should not be passed over and allowed to go to the imposing stone, in the expectation that they may be rectified when the locking up is done. All justifying should be done and all corrections made as far as possible while the matter is on the galley.

When there is enough composition for a number of pages a gage should be made to measure the exact length of the pages. For a few pages, like a circular or a program, an ordinary pica measure may be used, the length being defined as a given number of picas or lines. If there are to be a number of pages, a page gage should be made from a strip of reglet or brass rule. The gage should include the length of a full page, over all, from the top of the running head down to the foot slug. It may be marked on its upper edge to show the depth of the running head and any other uniform division to be repeated on several pages.

For book pages set in one size of type the length should be determined by even lines of the type used and the running head. No extra leads should be put here and there between the lines or paragraphs of a regular text page; these are used only in broken pages, above and below headings, engravings, or in separating extracts, foot notes, etc. If the pages contain several sizes of type the gage should indicate the exact length of the printed face, as different sizes of type have different amounts of shoulder below the face. For example, a page set in 12-point type would have a pica slug below the last line; if the next page contained a foot note set in 8-point, with the pica slug below, and both pages were exactly the same length, the face of the 8-point note would be a point below the face of the 12-point line on the first page. In this case a 1-point lead should be taken from above the 8-point note and put between the note and the foot slug.

For a book, periodical, or other work that is to be made up frequently from time to time there should be a durable steel or brass page gage, carefully marked for depth of running head, chapter sinkage, drop folio, or any other feature to be kept in uniform position.