Chapter XXVII: Section V (1)

SULPHUR IN ICELAND. By C. CARTER BLAKE, Doc. Sci., Hon. For. Sec.
Lond. Anth. Soc. London: E. & F. N. Spon, 48 Charing Cross. 1873.

The fact that sulphur, one of the most useful substances known, and, in the words of Mr Crookes, “the mainstay of present industrial chemistry,” has been an article of commerce throughout all time, and that a ready market has always existed for it, is familiar to all. Like the famous electrum of the ancients, its origin has been comparatively unknown. We shall briefly consider the conditions under which sulphur is found; its geographical distribution over the face of the globe; the method of its preparation for the market, and the circumstances which may lead capitalists to seek for the productive mineral at a shorter distance from our own shores than the Mediterranean or Mexico.

Sulphur is a simple, inflammable, brittle substance, of which all the forms found native belong to the rhombic or trimetric system, and are more or less modified rhombic pyramids. These crystals could not be formed at temperatures approaching that of boiling water, or be exposed to such a temperature without alteration; crystals of native sulphur must therefore have been formed at ordinary temperatures. Sulphur does not occur anywhere in sufficient quantity to constitute a rock, but is widely disseminated throughout rocks of different ages, either implanted in crystals, in small beds, nests and nodules in a pulverulent condition, as a coating, as in some lavas, or as a cement of decomposed trachyte. Dr Sullivan has said:[178]

“In volcanic regions the deposition of sulphur may result from two causes: 1st, the action of oxygen on damp sulphide of hydrogen gas, or on solutions of the gas; and 2d, the mutual decomposition of sulphide of hydrogen, H_{2}S, and sulphurous anhydride, S_{2}O. If the former be in excess, water and sulphur appear to be formed; if the latter be in excess, pentathionic acid, H_{2}S_{5}O_{6}, and water are formed; the pentathionic acid is gradually decomposed into sulphur and sulphuric acid, which produce sulphates. In connection with this reaction, it may be observed that several sulphates are associated with the sulphur found in districts where the sulphur is formed from gases escaping through fissures. Old craters having such active fissures called fumaroles, are termed solfaterras.”

So important an influence does the price of sulphur exercise upon the cost of production of bleached and printed cotton stuffs, soap, glass, and other valuable manufactures of this country,[179] that it was the express subject of a commercial treaty, and in 1838 the British Government took very decided steps to put an end to a monopoly attempted to be established in it by the Sicilian Government.

That the present supply of sulphur is inadequate to the demand is proved by its high price, by the use of pyrites as a substitute, and by the inquiries recently made by the British Government as to its existence in Mexico. That the already large demand for this important substance must increase is quite evident when we consider the purposes to which it is applied.

_Gunpowder._--Sulphur enters into the composition of this important article in proportions ranging from 10 to 20 per cent., according to whether the powder is required for war, sporting, or blasting purposes.[180] When we consider the vast quantity required by the gigantic armaments now maintained in every civilised country, as well as by the numerous mining and engineering operations at present in existence throughout the world (in which it is indispensable for blasting), we can form some idea of the immense amount of sulphur annually consumed in the manufacture of gunpowder alone.

_Sulphuric Acid._--One of the most important chemical agents required in the arts and manufactures, is used very extensively for making soda-ash for bleaching linen, woollens, etc., straw, etc.,[181] manure making, and for a variety of chemical productions; also for refining metals.[182]

_Soda-ash_ (alkali) is obtained from common salt by means of concentrated sulphuric acid. It is used instead of barilla for soap-making, as a substitute for pot and pearl ashes in glass-making; for cleaning and bleaching; and, in the form of carbonate, for medicinal and domestic purposes. In the year 1862 the enormous quantity of from 100,000 to 120,000 tons of the former, and from 25,000 to 30,000 tons of the latter, was made in Great Britain alone.[183] That quantity is now vastly increased.[184]

_Manures._--A great consumption of sulphuric acid has of late years taken place for agricultural purposes,[185] viz., in the preparation of superphosphate of lime, the most active manure for turnips, grass, and cereals.

_Oïdium._--Within the last few years it has been discovered that the use of flowers of sulphur, containing traces of sulphuric and sulphurous acid, and of carburetted hydrogen, is a protection against the vine disease--_oïdium_. Although no reliable information exists as to the exact quantity used for this purpose, yet it is known to be very considerable.

Flowers of sulphur have recently been strongly recommended as a remedy for the potato disease.[186]

Such are a few of the principal objects to which sulphur is devoted, and for which it is needed; thereby proving most conclusively that THE CONSUMPTION IS ONLY LIMITED BY THE SUPPLY.

Sulphur is found in Corfu, the neighbourhood of Rome, Transylvania, Spain, the clear or borax lake in California, the slopes of the Popocatepetl, in the province of Puebla, Mexico; in Montana, North America, and in the Andaman and the Japanese islands. Supply from these sources is practically impossible, and the whole supply of sulphur to Europe and America is derived from the Sicilian sulphur-deposits, the imports of which into this country arose from 16,686 tons in 1842 to 58,204 tons in 1859,[187] and over 75,000 tons in 1862;[188] and in France, from 6668 tons in 1820 to 33,361 tons in 1855.

Sulphur is found either (_a_) in a pure native state, (_b_) as gas, or (_c_) in mechanical admixtures with clays or other earths. The method of extraction of sulphur when mechanically combined with foreign substances is thus described in Richardson and Watts’ “Chemical Technology,” vol. i., part iii, p. 314:

“It has already been noticed that the deposits of sulphur are always associated with various mineral or earthy matters, and three processes are followed to separate the principal part of these impurities, which generally amount to more than one-half of the entire weight of the deposit.

“When the deposit is rich in sulphur it is melted in a cast-iron pot, heated by an open fire. The melted mass is stirred with an iron rake to facilitate the separation of the earthy matters, which are allowed to fall to the bottom. The liquid sulphur is then removed by a ladle, thrown into an iron vessel, and allowed to solidify. The temperature ought to vary between 250° and 300° Fahr., and never reach 480°, at which point the sulphur would take fire. The residue which remains, and contains more or less sulphur, is removed, and may be treated by either of the following plans:

“A small blast furnace, constructed of fire-brick or stone, is charged with the sulphur-stone at the bottom, which is ignited, and fresh charges of the sulphur-stone are thrown in from time to time. The working holes at the sides admit a small supply of air to support combustion on the surface, by which means sufficient heat is generated to melt the sulphur, which runs off at the bottom through a pipe into an iron pot, where it solidifies.

“The third plan is suitable for treating the impure sulphur-stone, containing from 8 to 12 per cent, of sulphur. It consists of a furnace sufficiently wide to receive two rows of earthen pots--the vessels for distillation--which are arranged in pairs somewhat raised above the sole of the furnace, upon the supports so that the necks of the pots are a little above the top of the furnace. Thus the mouths of the pots are free, and having been charged from without, they are closed by the lids, cemented on, and the distillation begins. The sulphur vapours pass over by the lateral tubes to the receivers, where they condense to liquid sulphur, which flows through into a vessel filled with water, and there solidifies.”

We have indicated the three conditions under which sulphur is found. The sulphur in a gaseous state in Iceland, where, besides the large and rapid deposit of the sulphur in and upon the ground, an immense quantity escapes in the sulphureous vapour, is now entirely wasted, but with the adoption of the improved Mexican process an enormous saving would result. Now the whole of this may be recovered by condensing these vapours in clay vessels, a method practised with great success in Mexico, where in certain places the fumes escape from the soil and can be utilised only in this manner. The sulphur thus obtained is required at the mint of the city of Mexico and at the assaying works.

Sulphur is an essential product of volcanic action: now Iceland is _par excellence_ the spot of the world where volcanic action is at its maximum, and Iceland, as a consequence, is the spot where sulphur is found most extensively. The districts round the active volcanoes of Etna, in Sicily, and Vesuvius, near Naples, supply the whole amount of sulphur now used. In seeking, then, for a new source of this commodity, we should naturally turn our attention to a volcanic district. And where in the whole world does there exist another country so pre-eminently volcanic as _Iceland_? Its fearful lava-tracts, its vast plains of scoriæ, volcanic dust and ashes, its pools of boiling water, its spouting geysirs, its vast caldrons of seething mud, proclaim its volcanic origin. It owes its upheaval wholly to volcanic agency, and is composed almost entirely of igneous rocks.

While these pages are passing through the press, the volcanic force has broken out in Iceland, and Skaptar Jökull burst into eruption for four days in the month of January last.

The wildest theories have been uttered respecting the modes of origin of sulphur. An inquirer, who investigated the southern Icelandic mines in a superficial manner, has thrown out a theory that the sulphur derived from Krísuvík, and other southern localities, has been produced by the action of water on the sulphurets of iron contained in the rocks. This idea, which rivalled some of the speculations of De Luc, was expressed by him in a paper read before the Society of Arts, on the 15th January 1873. The notion was, that the hidden fires of Iceland dwell in the crust of the earth, and not in its interior; that the boiling springs and mud-caldrons certainly do not derive their heat from the depths of our globe, but that the fire which nourishes them is to be found frequently at only a few feet below the surface, in fermenting matters which are deposited in certain strata! How far this theory is probable may be estimated when we glance at the converse hypothesis, which we must impress upon our readers. The lava at Myvatn is only a few feet, or at most, a few yards, thick; this is clearly shown by the fact that the gaseous vapour escapes from innumerable holes in the lava lying between the mines and the lake. The stoppage of an outlet for the upward flow of the gas has caused the outbreak of the fluid at spots far distant from the original central “crater” of the sulphur volcano. The geology of Mr Vincent is decidedly vague.

That a great volcanic diagonal line stretches from Cape Reykjanes to the lake of Myvatn, is a theory which is unproven by topographical science, and which a glance at the map, which shows the elevated hills of Lángjökull, Hofsjökull, and Vatnajökull extending across this imaginary line, is sufficient to disprove. The relative elevations of the mountains, from Snæfell on the east, to Eyjafjallajökull on the west, seem to indicate that the central line of volcanic action has been along a line parallel with the south-south-east coast, and which has left the formations in the neighbourhood of Lake Myvatn, with the small volcanic chain of Sellandafjall, Bláfjall, Hvannfell, and Búrfell, entirely to the north. The abrupt escarpment of the greater chain lies along its south-eastern strike, and the fissures along which the parallel rivers from the Jökuldalr to the Hrútafjörðará flow are, according to a well-known geological law, produced on the less inclined slopes. Whilst Mr Vincent’s theoretical geology verges on the speculative, his assertion of known geographical facts is inexact.

In 1857, when the temporary cessation of war by England led the British Government to look for fresh sources of gunpowder supply for Europe, Captain J. E. Commerell, of H.M.S. “Snake,” was sent to Iceland by the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty to report upon the capabilities of the mines of Krísuvík and Húsavik. He found the Krísuvík mines, though comparatively close to the sea, did not possess a safe port of debarkation nearer than Hafnarfjörðr. An _ex parte_ statement of the “objects, pleasures, and advantages” of the “truly eligible” Krísuvík sulphur mines leaves itself open to severe criticism, and the opinion of Commander Commerell that “the sulphur at Myvatn, though great in quantity, is at too great a distance from a port of embarkation to permit its extraction being carried on with any chance of competing with that from the Krísuvík mines,” may be profitably contrasted with that of A. de Capel Crowe, Esq., H.B.M.’s Consul in Copenhagen.[189]

Consul Crowe’s remarks as to the richness of these deposits are corroborated by Commander Commerell himself, who says in his report:

“I found at Námarfiall, which lies about six miles to the east of Lake Myvatn, large beds of sulphur in a very pure state; and though the quantities already deposited were very great, no signs appeared of their having been worked.”

We shall give the testimony of a few of the more distinguished Icelandic travellers relating to the value of the Myvatn fields. But quotations are only made from authors whose scientific and literary position render their opinion of value and authority.

The testimony of the Rev. Mr Henderson, the celebrated missionary in Iceland, cites the following notorious and well-known facts:

“To the east of Krabla the sulphur mines of Reykjahlid.[190]

“Of the sulphur mountains a particular description is given in the journal.[191]

“...Several huge dark mountains that are again relieved in the east by the Námar, or sulphur mountains, from the decomposition going forward, in which a vast profusion of smoke is constantly forming, ascending to a great height in the atmosphere.[192]

“Olafsen and Povelsen, describing two pools on the south-east side of Krabla, _say that the whole region completely answers to the well-known solfatara in Italy_.”[193]

Describing the neighbourhood of Myvatn, he, in an eloquent description, says:

“On either side lay vast beds of sulphur covered with a thin crust, containing innumerable small holes, through which the vapour was making its escape. In many parts the crust, which presented the most beautiful aluminous efflorescence, was not more than half-an-inch in thickness; and on its being removed, _a thick bed of pure sulphur appeared, through which the steam issued with a hissing noise_. The sublimation of the sulphur is produced by the constant ascension of this vapour; and it is found to possess greater and less degrees of purity, in proportion as the soil is more or less porous. In general, however, _these mines are_ VASTLY _superior to any other in Iceland_, owing to the intense degree of subterranean heat, and the very loose and porous nature of the earth at this place.

“The sulphur mountain rises to a considerable height from the east side of the hollow in which these mines are situate. It does not exceed a mile in breadth, but is more than five miles in length, stretching from the east end of the lake in a northerly direction, between the volcanoes _Krabla_ and _Leirhnukr_, where it joins the ridge by which these two mountains are connected. The surface is very uneven, consisting of immense banks of red bolus and sulphur, the crust of which is variegated with random mixtures of yellow, light-blue, and white colours, and in some places a soft sandstone makes its appearance through the predominant mould. I could also observe holes, out of which the sulphur has been dug by the peasants.

“The jetting is accompanied with a harsh roar, and the escape of a vast quantity of vapour strongly impregnated with sulphur.... Passing a desolate farm, and keeping at a distance from the sulphur banks, which appeared in the face of a contiguous mountain, we succeeded in reaching the base of Krabla.... On the northern margin rose a bank, consisting of red bolus and sulphur, from which, as the wind blew from the same quarter, we had a fine view of the whole. Nearly about the centre of the pool is the aperture whence the vast body of water, sulphur, and bluish-black bolus is thrown up; and which is equal in diameter to the column of water ejected by the _Great Geyser_ at its strongest eruptions.... What was visible of Krabla appeared covered with the same clay, pumice, and sand as that on which I stood, only diversified by beds of yellow sulphur.... To the west of this wilderness lay a number of low mountains, where the _Fremri_ Námar are situated. Directly in front was the valley filled with lava above described; near the farther end of which the large columns of smoke ascending from the sulphur springs had a fine effect.”[194]

The Rev. S. Baring-Gould, whose researches into Icelandic literature have been of such service to the philologist, gives the following description of the view from the slope above Reykjahlíð, looking across the Lake Myvatn:

“You see the indigo chain of Blafell, beyond which is a _field of sulphur_ and boiling mud called Fremri-Námar, not visited by travellers, as it is difficult of access, and inferior in interest to the Námarfjall springs.... (From Námarfjall) in half an hour we reach the sulphur mountains, a chain of red hills, perfectly destitute of vegetation. We dip into a glen, and find it full of fumaroles, from which steam is puffing, and sulphur is being deposited. These run along the dale in a zigzag. By the road-side I noticed a block of pure sulphur, from which every traveller breaks a piece, so that in time it will disappear altogether.

“Passing through the Námar-skarth, a winding cleft in the mountains, I came upon a plain of mud, the wash from the hills bounded by a lava-field; the mountains steaming to their very tops, and depositing sulphur, the primrose hue of which gives extraordinary brightness to the landscape.... Presently the beautiful Lake Myvatn, or Midge Lake, opened before us, studded with countless lava islets; beyond was the sulphur range, yellow as though the sun ever shone on it.”[195]

In Mr Shepherd’s work on the North-West Peninsula of Iceland, we find another lucid description:

“We rode to the sulphur mountains on the east of the lake (Myvatn). These large hills are a very wonderful sight. They are of various colours, a variety of mixtures of red and yellow. From their sides are emitted various jets of steam, and _masses of bright yellow sulphur_ are strewed all around them.... All around the soil was very treacherous, consisting of hot mud, with a covering of sulphur about an inch in thickness, which in most cases was sufficiently strong to bear a man’s weight. When the crust was broken, steam issued forth, strongly impregnated with sulphur.”[196]

The distinguished Lord Dufferin (the present Governor-General of Canada) in his charming book, “Letters from High Latitudes,” says:

“Opal, calcedony, amethyst, malachite, obsidian, agate, and felspar are the principal minerals; OF SULPHUR THE SUPPLY IS INEXHAUSTIBLE.”

M’Culloch’s “Geographical Dictionary,” vol. i., p. 585, under the heading “Iceland,” says:

“Few metals are met with. Iron and copper have been found, but the mines are not wrought. THE SUPPLY OF SULPHUR IS INEXHAUSTIBLE; large mountains are encrusted with this substance, which, when removed, is again formed in crystals by the agency of the hot steam from below. Large quantities were formerly shipped; but latterly the supplies sent to the foreign market were comparatively small.”

“Chambers’s Encyclopædia,” under the heading “Iceland,” vol. v., p. 505, says:

“The mineral wealth of Iceland has only begun to be developed. IN NO PART OF THE WORLD IS SULPHUR FOUND IN SUCH ABUNDANCE.”

An adequate idea of the value of the Icelandic sulphur fields, as compared with those of Italy, cannot be conveyed by the reports of travellers. To thoroughly comprehend this, we must bear in mind the reproductive properties displayed by solfataras, and the best means suggested by practice to extract the sulphur and yet not interfere with this peculiarity.

The process for the separation of the sulphur at the celebrated solfatara of Pozzuoli, near Naples, where the sulphur is condensed in considerable quantities amongst the gravel collected in the circle which forms the interior of the crater, is conducted as follows: The mixture of sulphur and gravel is dug up and submitted to distillation to extract the sulphur, and the gravel is returned to its original place, and in the course of about THIRTY _years_ is again so rich in sulphur, as to serve for the same process again.[197]

We thus see that the reproductive process occupies a period of THIRTY _years_ in the Italian mines, whereas the same results are produced in THREE years in the Icelandic mines, _i.e_., that A GIVEN AREA IN ICELAND WILL PRODUCE TEN TIMES THE QUANTITY OF SULPHUR, OR IS TEN TIMES AS VALUABLE, AS THE SAME AREA IN ITALY.

“The permanency of the volcano, as a source of sulphur, would depend on the rapidity with which the sulphur would be replaced, after the sand had been once exhausted. The time required for this is not necessarily fixed to periods of twenty-five or thirty years. In Iceland, at a similar spot the sulphur is renewed every two or three years.”[198]

The nearest port suitable for shipment of the sulphur is “Húsavík,” situate in the Bay of Skjálfandi; it is perfectly accessible at all times of the year. Mr Consul Crowe having been questioned on the subject, states[199] that:

“The Icelandic ports are, owing to the influence of the Gulf Stream, in ordinary years accessible to shipping all the year round, and shipments can safely be made during seven months at ordinary rates of freight and insurance. Húsavík, as a rule, is never frozen up, the only impediment to free navigation being the floating ice which at certain seasons is loosened from Greenland, and may for a time lie off the coast. Such occurrences, however, have their stated times and seasons, which are well known to navigators in those waters; in some years there are no hindrances of the kind at all, and shipments in good vessels may be made all the year round. In support of this statement, I may mention the fact that steamers leave Copenhagen for Iceland as late as the middle or end of October, and would do so later were there sufficient goods or passengers to make them pay. Again, the Iceland ‘Althing’ have recently proposed to raise funds for running steamers round the island ‘_all the year_,’ and thus supply the want of internal communication; and, if the proposal fell through, it was only on financial grounds, and not from inaccessibility of ports from ice. I am therefore simply repeating facts in stating that, as a rule, Iceland navigation is free all the year round. _The island is but a two days’ journey_ _from Scotland, and with suitable vessels an almost uninterrupted intercourse might, in ordinary seasons, be kept up_. In further confirmation of what I have stated, I may add that this same warm current from the Mexican Gulf, which is so beneficial to Iceland, keeps also all the Norway ports, from the Naze to the North Cape, ice-free all the year round.”

The road from Hafnarfjörðr to Krísuvík will certainly be improved by the formation of a railway.

It has been said by Professor Paijkull that this road is one of seven or eight hours’ journey.

“This road is one of the best in Iceland. The ‘heiði’ south of Húsavik is free from stones, and is level, although only sparsely overgrown with grass. Neither are there any hills or fjelds to be met with along it, and there are only a few small streams to be crossed. The last few miles north of Myvatn certainly consist of a sandy plain, but it is tolerably level, and the road is pretty good, owing, I suppose, to the sulphur traffic from the solfataras, near Myvatn, to Húsavik, in former days, in which 100 horses are said to have been employed at one time.”[200]

In 1868, the late foreign minister of the United States, Mr W. H. Seward, one of the most far-sighted statesmen which that country has ever produced, was able to anticipate the future importance of the Iceland sulphur mines both to Europe and to America. It was even proposed that the United States Government should purchase both Iceland and Greenland, as well as St Thomas, from the Danish Government. To promote this object, Mr B. M. Pierce was sent to Iceland to report on the mines. Extracts from his report are subjoined:

“The sulphur mountains, beds, and mines are very rich and extensive, easily worked, and of immense value. The sulphur is supplied at half the cost of that furnished by the Sicilian mines, which it is believed will soon be exhausted. _The possession of these mines as a part of our territory is a question of vital magnitude._

“...By the way of Reykjahlid and Krabla, where are the most extensive sulphur deposits of the island.

“There are two principal fields of sulphur in Iceland; one near Krabla and Reykjahlid in the north-eastern, the other at Krísuvík in the south-western corner. _The former is by far the most extensive region_, but the latter gives the purer product. Every traveller gives us a description, more or less minute, of these sulphur hills, and the beds of pure yellow, often a foot thick, which extend about them. Up to a few years ago the sulphur had only been explored in the rudest way by the natives. The industry thus carried on was almost insignificant in result, and was soon abandoned when the supply of surface material became scanty. Still the exportation of sulphur was enough during the days of the peasant mining to give the brightest hopes of what it would be under enlightened management and economy. One of the most interesting and remarkable facts connected with these mines is that a region apparently exhausted becomes re-sulphurised again, so that the stores of brimstone are PRACTICALLY as INEXHAUSTIBLE as those of the infernal regions. Although the mines of Krísuvík are twenty miles from Hafnarfjörðr, one of the best harbours in the island, and those of Krabla are farther still from the seaboard, and from the principal trading station of Húsavik, it would appear that pure Icelandic sulphur is excessively cheap, half the price, say some, of Sicilian sulphur. _With improved means of transportation it would control the market._ The Oxonian, remarking on this, says (p. 138), ‘like everything else in Iceland, the light is under a bushel.’ Our most trustworthy information comes from Forbes, who, being an officer, sees the importance of the sulphur supply, and enters energetically into a thorough discussion on the prospects of the Iceland beds. We shall give the substance of what he says: ‘The deposits are formed by the decomposition of the sulphurous fumes that burst up from the ground, and afterwards sublimate as solid sulphur. A part is mixed with clay; a part is almost pure sulphur, containing but 4 per cent. of gangue. The number and energy of these sulphur gases continually coming up is incredible. The sulphur earth, or impregnated clay, averages from 6 feet to 3 feet in thickness, and contains 50 or 60 per cent. of pure sulphur.’

“Sulphur is found also at Námafjall, in the north of Iceland, in geological circumstances analogous to those of the beds at Krísuvík. It is found there generally in concrete masses of a citron-yellow colour, quite pure, sometimes very plentiful, and generally associated with lime and silica. It is to be regretted that the Danish Government does not favour this industry, which would furnish as fine sulphur as that of Sicily, and doubtless at a lower price. Besides, Denmark possesses in Iceland immense stores, which will one day be of great value to her when those of Sicily are exhausted.”

Before the concession was granted to Mr Lock, Professor Johnstrüp was sent by the Danish Government to survey and make plans of the mines. His report is inserted at length:

“Referring to the consul’s request to me in date of the 27th of last month, I beg to inform him that on the journey which I made last year to Iceland I visited the sulphur mines belonging to the State there, which lie to the east of Myvatn, and I made maps of them, which were sent to the Minister of Justice, who will, no doubt, let you have copies of them. From these you will be able to see that the richest mines are to be found in that part called Reykjahlidar-Námar, where large deposits of the purest sulphur are to be found.

“The reproduction is _incessantly_ going on from about _a thousand small eminences (solfataras)_, which are found on the ridge, along the sides, and at the foot of Námarfjall.

“Further rich sulphur mines are to be found at the Kétill crater, called the Fremri-Námar, while the least rich mines are the so-called Krabla-Námar, but also at these there is a continual production of sulphur going on. The first-mentioned mines ARE THE RICHEST TO BE FOUND IN THE WHOLE OF ICELAND, and have the advantage of lying in the track of a PRACTICABLE ROAD _to the shipping port of_ HÚSAVIK, WHICH ROAD IS AMONG THE BEST IN THE ISLAND. As regards the position of the mines, I must refer you to Olsen and Gunnlaugsson’s map of Iceland, on which they are marked. It will be a pleasure to me should these particulars be of service to you.

“(Signed) J. F. JOHNSTRÜP, “_Prof. Mineralogy at the Copenhagen University._

“_April 30, 1872._”

The examination of these facts is quite enough to show the inquirer that the transit from Myvatn to Húsavík is more practical, and of more easy access, than that from Krísuvík to any of the ports at the south-west corner of the island, which have been extolled by Mr Vincent in his _ex parte_ glorification of the Krísuvík mines. We will now turn to the testimony of a far greater traveller, whose opinion on the subject ought, indeed, to be regarded as final. Captain R. F. Burton, in his recent exploration of Iceland, devoted much time to the examination of the Myvatn sulphur deposits. The great question is answered by him in the following letter which appeared in the London _Standard_, Nov. 1, 1872:

“Sir,--Perhaps you will allow me, in continuation of my letter of October the 14th, to attack the subject of the sulphur deposits in Iceland now belonging to British subjects.

“For many years these diggings, so valuable since the exhaustion of the supply from Sicily, were a bone of contention between France and England....

“Denmark can hardly work the mines for herself without a great expenditure of capital, which will find its way into Icelandic pockets, and thus she wisely leases her property to strangers. She relies upon the fact that sulphur has risen from £4, 10s. to £7 per ton, and consequently that her Iceland diggings must become more valuable every year.

“I spent three days--from August 7th to August 9th, 1872--at the solfataras of Mý-vatn, or Midge Lake, situated to the north-east of the island. I lodged at the farm of Reykjahlið (reeky ledge), under the roof of the well-known Hr Pètur Jónsson, whose alacrity in composing a bill of charges has won for him a wide reputation.

“On Wednesday, August 7th, I set out under the guidance of this worthy to inspect the diggings of Krafla, generally but erroneously written Krabla. And now a verbatim extract from my diary will assure the reader that my statements are completely free from the process called ‘cooking.’

“Rode to Leirhnúkr (mud knoll) in one hour fifteen minutes. At once understood an _emplacement_ very imperfectly described by old travellers. It is the northern head of a spine, a sharp prism about one mile broad, with a magnetic direction of 215 deg., in fact, nearly due north--south. It is a mass of Palagonite (sea-sand forming a stone), everywhere capped by spills and gushes of modern lava, _and sulphur abounds_ at the junction of these formations. The hillock of _Leirhnúkr is one vast mass of sulphurous deposits_. I counted seven wells upon the slope, whilst the lowlands around were spotted with unwholesome-looking eruptions. Rode east to Helvíti, which the Rev. Mr Henderson described in 1815 as a crater, not unworthy of its grim name. ‘Hell,’ here as elsewhere, has been ‘dismissed with costs,’ the placid blue lake, ruffled at times by the passing breeze, and blowing off odours the reverse of Sabæan, is now hardly worth visiting. At Hrafntinnuhryggr (raven stone ridge)--excuse the word, I did not make it--expected to find, as the ‘Obsidian Mountain’ has been described, ‘a heap of broken wine bottles shining with their jet-like colouring.’ Found nothing of the kind, but picked up some decent specimens. Rode back much edified, etc., etc....

“On the next day rode to the Fremrinámar (outer warm-springs) to the south with some easting to Reykjahlíð. Found the road utterly dissimilar to anything laid down in maps. After four hours thirty minutes of rough travelling, reached the _deposit which has been worked for some generations, but which cannot be said to have been_ EVEN SCRATCHED. The ‘lay’ is upon the north-eastern, the eastern, and the southern flank of a crater, described by the late Professor Paijkull as ‘probably the largest in Iceland.’ _Immense deposits covered the ground, and white fumes everywhere filled the air. Whole torrents_ of what Mr Crookes calls the ‘mainstay of our present industrial chemistry’--I mean _sulphur--have here been ejected_. Could not count the hissing ‘hot coppers,’ popularly called fumaroles. Returned after a stiff ride of eight hours thirty minutes, which gave a fine view of the Ódáða Hraun, the ‘great and terrible wilderness’ of lava to the south-west, etc....

“August 9th was a lazy day, spent in preparing for a trip to the desert. Inspected the Hlíðarnámar (ledge springs), from which the farm of Reykjahlíð takes its name. Bravely objected to be deterred by the ‘smell of rotten eggs,’ by the ‘suffocating fumes,’ and by the chance of being ‘snatched from yawning abysses by the guide’s stalwart arms.’ Perhaps the conviction that the abyss nowhere exceeds three feet in depth may account for my exceptional calmness in such deadly peril. The Hlíðarnámar, or Ledge Springs, lie west of the sulphur mountain, and on a lower plane than the eastern deposits. They are bounded north by two lava-streams issuing from the base of the Hlíðarfjall, and south by independent outbreaks of lava, showing hosts of small detached craters. East is the hill, and west the Mý-vatn water, and its selvage of fire-stone. The area of this fragment of the grand solfatara may be one square mile.

“The spade deftly wielded threw up in many places pure flowers of sulphur. According to Dr Augustus Vöelcker, this bright yellow matter gives 95·68 per cent., and according to the Icelandic traveller Ólafsson, it is readily renewed. Below the golden colour usually is a white layer, soft, acid, and mixed with alum; it is calculated to yield 20 to 30 per cent. Under it again are the red, the dark purple, the chocolate, and other tints, produced either by molecular change in the mineral, or by oxygen which the sulphur no longer modifies. Here the material is heavy and viscid, clogging the spade, and the yield is reported at 50 to 60 per cent. These figures will show the absolute value of the supply. Beneath, at short distances, say at three feet, lies the ground-rock, invariably Palagonite: thus ‘falling in’ merely means dirtying the boots. Between the yellow outcrops stretch gravelly tracts which the spade showed to be as rich as the more specious appearances. Many of the issues are alive, and the dead vents are easily resuscitated by shallow boring, in places even by pulling away the altered lava-blocks which cumber the surface.

“Leaving my horse in a patch of the wild oats that everywhere characterise this region, I walked up the sulphur mountain, whose white and yellow washings, so conspicuous from afar, prove to be sulphur, stones, and sand deposited by the rain upon the red clay. Here we picked up crystals of alum and lime and fragments of gypsum and selenite. The crests and box-shaped masses of Palagonite and altered lava gave fine views of the lowlands. On the summit we found some small mud-springs, which Iceland travellers have agreed to call by the corrupted name ‘Makkaluber;’ the people know them as ‘Hverar.’ This peculiarity is therefore not confined, as writers assert, to the eastern hill feet. The richest diggings lie below the crest, and here the fumes escape with a fizz and a mild growl, which vivid fancy has converted into a ‘roar.’ _I returned from the immense soufrière vastly edified with the spectacle of so much wealth lying dormant in these days of capital activised by labour_, etc., etc....

“To the question, ‘Will this sulphur pay its transport?’ I reply unhesitatingly, Yes, if great care and moderate capital be expended upon the mines. In the first place, the live vents which waste their sourness on the desert air must be walled round with stones, or, better still, with planks, and the fumes should be arrested, as in Mexico, by pans and other contrivances. The working season would be the summer, AND THE QUANTITY IS SO GREAT THAT MANY SUMMERS MUST ELAPSE BEFORE THE THOUSANDS OF TONS WHICH COMPOSE EACH SEPARATE PATCH CAN BE CLEARED OFF. In winter the produce can be sent down to Húsavík (House’s Bay), by sledges, not the Esquimaux-like affair at present used in Eastern Iceland, but the best Norwegian or Canadian. The road is reported by all travellers to be exceptionally good, running for the most part over gently undulating heaths, overlying basalt. There are no rivers of importance on the way, and the fall is about 1500 feet in forty-five English statute miles. The line is wrongly placed in Gunnlaugsson’s map: it runs on the eastern, not the western shore of the Langavatn, and it passes to the east of the celebrated Uxahver. I am also assured that the much-abused Bay of Húsavík is a safe harbour, when proper moorings are laid down, that no vessel has been lost there during the last thirty years, and that Captain Thrupp, of H.M.S. ‘Valorous,’ judged favourably of it. This also was the verdict of an old Danish skipper, who assured us that during the last twenty-five years he has been trading between Copenhagen, Hull, and Húsavík, reaching the latter place about the end of February, and making his last voyage home in October. During the ‘balance’ of the year masses of floe-ice prevent navigation.

“From such a speculation present returns may be expected. When income justifies the outlay a tramway would greatly cheapen transit. The ships which export the sulphur can import coal, and now that the officinal treatment of sulphur has been so much simplified by the abolition of train-oil, nothing else except pressed hay for the cattle is wanted. When one patch is exhausted, the road can be pushed forward to another. I am persuaded that the _whole range, wherever Palagonite and lava meet, will be found to yield more or less sulphur_. Of course it will be advisable to purchase sundry of the farms, and these, in Iceland, range in value from £300 to £800 maximum. The vast waste lands to the east will carry sheep sufficient for any number of hands; and good stone houses will enable the Englishman to weather a winter at which the Icelander, in his wretched shanty of peat and boarding, looks with apprehension. I have already spoken about the excellence of the summer climate, and any gazetteer shows that the change of temperature at Montreal is more to be feared than in Iceland.

“I am, &c.,

“RICHARD F. BURTON.

“ATHENÆUM,

“_October 16, 1872._”

The very language of Iceland seems to indicate the importance of its sulphur deposit. It is a significant fact that the Icelandic language indicates sulphur as the “burning-stone,” _Brennisteinn_, unlike the Danish _Svovel_, which is obviously derived from _Sulphur_, Lat.

Mr Vincent’s theory that sulphur is produced by the action of water on pyrites, though having some elements of probability in it, is nevertheless entirely unproven in the present state of science, and it is most unfortunate that throughout his paper, theory and fact are mingled in equal proportions, each being independent of the other. “_Tant pis pour les faits._”

It was left for Captain Burton to point out that the testimony of Commander Commerell, which appears in Mr Vincent’s paper to make the transit from Krísuvík to Hafnarfjörðr a real path of roses, did not actually speak with such unqualified enthusiasm. Commander Commerell says:

“A tramway might also be laid down, but as there are two hills to cross, with other difficulties, I could not positively state whether this were possible or not.”

Another objection by Captain Burton appears to be of greater force. It is alleged that the Krísuvík deposits extend over an area of twenty-five miles. No precise geological map is given of the locality, and it is most significant that when Captain Burton and Mr Chapman rode from Krísa’s Bay, eastward to the Little Geysir, and although they looked anxiously for the enormous area theoretically assigned to the sulphur-formation, they failed to see any sign of it. The sulphur, like the Spanish fleet, was not in sight; and the absence of the Palagonite, which is invariably in other Icelandic localities found in juxtaposition with the sulphur, ought to hint to geologists the true state of the case.

The Danish Government were not slow to perceive, and have on numerous occasions endeavoured to attract attention to, their valuable mineral products. Mr Lock, an Englishman, some years ago petitioned the Danish Government, and expressed his wish to take a lease of the sulphur mines at Myvatn. A committee was elected by the Icelandic Althing to report upon this subject. This report, which is dated the 14th August 1869, exhibits the utmost timidity in permitting an alien to acquire rights over the mineral products of Iceland. It is given at full length in the terminal notes to this paper.

It is not here necessary to narrate the circumstances under which the Danish Government declined to adopt the local recommendation. It will suffice to say that on the 13th April 1872, a contract was signed between Alfred G. Lock of London and the Danish Minister of Justice, Andreas Frederik Krieger, on the part of the Danish Government. This contract will be found in full in Note No. 1. The lease lasts for fifty years, and the terms, although costly to the English concessionaire, were satisfactory to the Danish Government. The greatest possible irritation has consequently been produced among a very small section of “Home Rule” Icelanders, who objected to the working of the mines by a stranger. The matter, however, being entirely taken out of their hands, their criticism on the arrangement becomes a mere historical question.

A fuller description of Mr Lock’s property will be of interest to the English inquirer, as it shows to what an extent capital may be productively invested.

_Description of the Property._

The property comprises the solfataras or sulphur springs, the sulphur banks or fields, and the sulphur quarries belonging to the State of Denmark, and situated in the Things Syssel in the north and east provinces of Iceland.

The sources of sulphur in this property are threefold:

1st. The _solfataras_, or sulphur springs.

2d. The _sulphur banks_, or fields.

3d. The _sulphur quarries_.

_The Solfataras._--Sulphur is formed by certain gases generated underground by volcanic action, and in solfataras these gases find their way to the surface of the earth through sand, ashes, or other volcanic substances, and in their passage sublime and deposit a certain portion of their sulphur, a certain amount escaping into the air.

This formation of sulphur is continuous and increasing, and in proportion to the strength of the volcanic influences so is the rapidity with which the sulphur is formed and the amount taken from the solfatara replaced. For this reason they are called “living.”

The solfataras of Italy require a period of twenty-five or thirty years to renew the sulphur in sufficient quantities to pay for extraction, whilst these are said to require only three years to produce the same result, the same area of solfataras in Iceland being consequently ten times as valuable as an equal area in Italy.

The methods of extracting the sulphur from these are most inexpensive, and the plant required of the simplest description.

The gases at present escaping into the air can be condensed and the sulphur obtained in a pure crystallised state, without any expenses for refining, by collecting the gases in clay vessels.

2d. _The Sulphur Banks_, or Fields.--The gases before mentioned escaping into the air condense and deposit sulphur, which, were the atmosphere always calm, would be precipitated in regular banks, but owing to the constant shifting of the wind it is blown in all directions, forming layers varying from a few inches to several feet in thickness, and extending over vast areas of the surface of the surrounding ground.

3d. _Sulphur Quarries._--In these localities the accumulation of sulphur has ceased, and when once extracted is not replaced; they are therefore called “dead.” The sulphur is found imbedded in, and mixed with, lime, clay, etc., and nearly all the sulphur exported from Sicily is obtained from this description of sulphur-bearing strata.

The same kind of strata exists in the Romagna in Italy, and in some districts of Spain, but in the Romagna the deposit is 390 feet below the surface, and only yields, in the furnaces, 15 per cent. of sulphur, while the best of those in Spain are from forty to sixty feet below the surface, and contain a varying quantity of sulphur of from 21 to 36 per cent.--the poorest strata being nearest the surface--whilst these (in Iceland) are upon the surface; and Henderson, the missionary, a most trustworthy authority, describes a valley one mile wide and five miles long in the neighbourhood of Krabla, the surface of which is very uneven, and consists of immense banks of red bolus and sulphur, with mixtures of yellow, light-blue, and white coloured earth.

Forbes found similar clays to contain, the white from 30 to 40 per cent., and the red and blue clays about 16 per cent. of sulphur.

The plans made by J. F. Johnstrüp, Professor of Mineralogy at the University of Copenhagen, by order of the Danish Government, and attached to the leasing contract, a copy of which will be found in the Appendix, show the solfataras, or living sulphur-fields, to extend over a district of more than SIX SQUARE MILES, viz.:

Acres. Sq. miles. Acres.

No. 2. Krabla-námar, about 1998 = 3 78 No. 3. Reykjahlid-námar, ” 1068 = 1½ 108 No. 4. Fremri-námar, ” 808 = 1¼ 8

As a gauge of the value of the Icelandic sulphur-fields we have been describing, it would be well to compare them with those of other countries. To arrive at this result, we shall give a comparison of the estimated cost of Sicilian and Spanish sulphur, and contrast it with that derived from Iceland.

COST OF THE SICILIAN AND SPANISH SULPHUR COMPARED WITH THAT OF THE ICELANDIC.

Cost of Sicilian sulphur, according to Signor Parodi’s Report to the Italian Government, vouched by English engineers, viz.:

Per ton of sulphur.
Fr. c.

Excavation of mineral, 13 0 Oil and tools, 5 0 Extraction of mineral, 16 5 Pumping, 10 0 Fusion, 5 5 General charges and taxes, 11 0 Carriage from mines to port, 20 0 Rent to proprietor of soil, 15 0 ------ 96 0 = £3 16 10 ------

TO ENGLAND.

£ s. d. Freight, 1 0 0 Export duty, 0 8 0 Port charges, commission, etc., 0 4 6 Insurance, brokerage, etc., 0 8 0 ------- 2 0 6

_Cost of Sicilian sulphur, per ton_, £5 17 4
--------

“_Estimated cost of Spanish sulphur_, from a Report by Mr J. Sopwith to the Hellin Sulphur Company:”

The first tin contains 21 per cent. of sulphur. ” second ” 36 ” ” ” third ” 28 ” ”

It takes six tons of Spanish ore to make one ton of sulphur.

Per ton of sulphur.

£ s. d.

Cost, 2 13 0 Carriage to railway station, 0 2 4 Railway carriage to Cartagena, 0 6 6 Loading, etc., 0 4 6 Freight from Cartagena to England, 0 14 0 Royalty to Government, 0 2 8 Insurance, 0 8 0 ------

_Estimated cost of Spanish sulphur_, £4 11 0

“This sulphur should be worth, either in England or Marseilles, from £6 to £7 per ton.

“Flowers of sulphur would cost £6 per ton, and their value would be £10.”

_Estimated Cost of Icelandic Sulphur._

Although from the fact of the deposits of the sulphur producing clay, sand, ashes, etc., in Iceland being on the surface, the working expenses of excavation (and from the closer proximity to the coalfields of England, the cost of extraction) must be far less than those of Sicily, yet it has been thought advisable to be on the safe side by taking the costs of excavation, extraction, and fusion, to be in each case the same.

The expenses of bringing the sulphur to this country will then be:

Per ton. £ s. d. Excavation of mineral, 0 10 10 Oil and tools, 0 4 2 Extraction of mineral, 0 13 9 Fusion, 0 4 7 [201] Carriage to port of shipment, 0 15 0 [201] Freight to United Kingdom, including insurance, 0 10 0 ------- _Estimated cost of Icelandic sulphur_, £2 18 4

Per ton.

£ s. d.

Cost of Sicilian sulphur, 5 17 4
” Icelandic ” 2 18 4
______

_Profit in favour of Iceland_, £2 19 0

Per ton.

£ s. d.

Estimated cost of Spanish, 4 11 0
” ” Icelandic, 2 18 4
______

_Profit in favour of Iceland_, £1 12 8

_Estimated Profit on Icelandic Sulphur_.

The market price of sulphur ranges from about £6, 5s. per ton for third quality to £8 for best. As by far the greater part of the Icelandic sulphur would be best quality, its average market price may be safely put at £7 per ton.

£ s. d.

Market price, 7 0 0 Cost price, 2 18 4 ______

_Estimated profit per ton_, £4 1 8

_Estimated Profit per Annum_.

Italy, in the year 1870, exported 52,546 tons. From the comparison between the relative formations, there is every reason to believe that as large a quantity can be exported from Iceland as from Italy; but, supposing that for the first year or two only one-third that quantity is exported, viz., 17,515 tons, at a profit of £4, 1s. 8d. per ton, the annual profit would amount to over £71,500.

NOTE I. TO SECTION V.

(_Translation._)

LEASING CONTRACT.

The undersigned, Andreas Frederik Krieger, His Majesty the King of Denmark’s Minister of Justice, Commander of the Dannebrog and Dannebrogsmand, Commander of the Order of the North Star, in virtue of the authority given him by a Royal Resolution of the 9th March 1872, hereby grants to Alfred G. Lock, of London, a lease of the sulphur mines belonging to the State, situated in the Thing Syssel in the North and East Provinces of Iceland, on the following conditions:

I. Exclusive right to work the above-mentioned mines is given to
the lessee for the duration of the lease; they consist of the
so-called Reykjahlidar, Krabla, and Fremri-Námar; on the other
hand, the present contract gives the lessee no right to the use of,
or to the possession of the land around the mines, which ground
does not belong to the State. It must be remarked that the mines on
the church lands at Theistareykir are not included in this leasing.

II. The lease is given for fifty years, reckoned from the 1st
September 1872 to the 31st August 1922, without either of the
contracting parties having the right to withdraw from it. Liberty,
however, is conceded to Alfred G. Lock to withdraw from the
contract at any time before the 31st August this year, date
inclusive.

The lessee can make over his rights acquired by this present
contract, together with his obligations, to other parties, against
whose respectability and solvency no reasonable objection can be
made, but he shall nevertheless be bound to communicate such
transfer to the Ministry of Justice. His rights likewise shall at
his death be transmitted to his heirs.