Chapter XI: Part 11

Would it not be possible to make an employer liable for them all? Undoubtedly an employé could make a contract of this kind if he wished and his employer was willing to do so, but if they did the employer would be unwilling to pay as high wages. The greater the risk assumed by the employé the larger is the compensation paid; the one thing is graded by the other. It was stated when considering the rights and duties of common carriers that they have been lessening their liabilities; on the other hand, they are carrying for smaller prices than they once did. Doubtless a carrier would be willing to assume more risks--every kind of risk, in short--if he were paid enough for it, but shippers ordinarily are willing to assume many risks for the sake of the lower rates and insure their risks in insurance companies. Just so the working-men prefer higher wages and assume many risks of their employment. There is nothing unfair in this. For example, the persons who are engaged in making white lead run an unusual risk in pursuing their employment. It is said nowadays that if they use the utmost care in protecting themselves from inhaling the fumes that arise in some stages of this process, they can live quite as long as other people. But unless they do exercise every precaution their system finally becomes charged with the poison that arises from this process and their lives are shortened. They well understand this before beginning the work; they are told of the risks and are paid high wages. If, therefore, they undertake such employment, well knowing the risks, they have no right to complain if their health after a time suffers. No fraud has been practised on them, and we do not know that they do complain if they suffer any ill effects from their work.

XVII. LIABILITY OF EMPLOYERS TO EMPLOYÉS (_Continued_)

In our last lecture we stated some of the principles relating to the liabilities of employers to their employés; in this lesson the subject will be continued. _An employer is bound to use some care or precaution, and if he does not will be responsible for his neglect._ One of these is he must employ persons who are fit for the work they are set to do. If an employer in mining should put a man to work by the side of another to mine coal who he knew was not a skilful workman, and, in consequence of this unskilful workman's unskilfulness, other miners were injured, he would be responsible for hiring such a man. Every one will see the justice of this rule.

_The employer must also give proper instructions to the person employed whenever he does not understand his duties._ If a person is employed to run a laundry machine who does not understand how to work it, and other employés are injured through his ignorance, the employer would be liable. He must, therefore, tell such a person what to do; he has no right to hazard the lives of others by putting any one who has no knowledge of a machine to work without instructing him properly. Again, if a person pretends to be capable, and the employer, believing him, engages him, and it is soon found out that he is not, then it is the duty of the employer either to dismiss him or to give him proper instructions. The rule, however, on this subject is not the same everywhere. It is sometimes said that if an employé continues to work by the side of another after knowing that this other is incompetent, it is his duty to give notice to the employer, and if the employer continues to employ him, to quit. If he does not he assumes the greater risk arising from his knowledge of the incompetency of the other.

_It is the duty of the employer to furnish proper appliances for his workmen._ He must furnish proper tools and machinery and safe scaffolding, and in every respect must show a reasonable degree of care in all these particulars. But the courts say that he is not obliged to exercise the _utmost_ care, because the employé takes on himself some risk with respect to the tools and machinery he uses. For example, it is said that employers are not obliged to use the latest appliances that are known or appear in the market for the use of their workmen. If an employer has an older one that has been in use for years, and the employés have found out all the dangers attending its use, and a new one appears that is less dangerous to use, the law does not require the employer to throw the older one away and get the other. It is true that in many States within the last few years statutes have been passed by the legislatures requiring employers to be much more careful than they were formerly in protecting their machinery. Many injuries have happened from the use of belting, and the statutes in many cases have stated what must be done in the way of enclosing belts, and of putting screens around machinery, and in various ways of so protecting it that persons will be less liable to suffer. Furthermore, inventors have been very busy in inventing machinery with this end in view. The old-fashioned car-coupler was a very dangerous device, and many a poor fellow has been crushed between cars when trying to couple them. A coupler has been made in which this danger no longer exists; in truth, there has been a great advance in this direction.

_An employer must also select suitable materials on which to work._ This is a well-known principle. If he does not, then he is responsible for the consequences. In one of the cases a person was injured while erecting a scaffolding from the breaking of a knotty timber. The testimony was that the knot was visible on the surface and if the stick had been examined the defect would have been seen. That seemed a slight defect, surely, but the consequence of using the timber was very serious, and the court rightly held that as this defect could have been seen, had the timber been properly examined, the employer was responsible for the injury to a workman who was injured by the breaking of it.

_An employer must also select suitable places for his employés._ In one of the cases a court said a master does not warrant his servant's safety. He does, however, agree to adopt and keep proper means with which to carry on the business in which they are employed. Among these is the providing of a suitable place for doing his work without exposure to dangers that do not come within the reasonable scope of his employment. In one of the cases a company stored a quantity of dynamite so near a place where an employé was working that he was killed by its explosion. The court held that it was negligence on the part of the company in requiring its employé to work so near the place where this explosive material was kept.

It is said that if an employé knows that a machine which he is to operate is defective when accepting employment he can recover nothing for the consequences. He assumes the risk whenever he thus engages to work. If the service be especially perilous and yet he clearly understands the nature of it and is injured when performing it, he can get nothing. Doubtless in many of these cases he is paid a larger sum for working under such conditions. Whatever may be the truth in this regard, the principle of law is well understood that, if he has a full knowledge of the risk of his situation and makes no complaint about the nature of the machinery that he is to operate, he accepts the risks, however great they may be. In one of the cases an employé was injured by the kick of a horse belonging to his employer, but he recovered nothing, because he understood the vicious nature of the animal. The horse had kicked others; in fact, its reputation for kicking was well known, and the employé began work with his eyes wide open.

This rule also applies if tools, machinery, etc., become defective and the employé continues to work after the defects are found out. Of course, every one knows that tools wear out and machinery becomes weaker, and that is one of the natural consequences of using them. And so it is regarded as one of the risks ordinarily taken by an employé, and therefore he can get nothing whenever he is injured through the operation of a defective machine caused by the natural wear and tear of time.

EXAMINATION PAPER

NOTE.--_The following questions are given as an indication of
the sort of knowledge a student ought to possess after a careful
study of the course. The student is advised to write out the
answers. Only such answers need be attempted as can be framed
from the lessons._

1. (_a_) What is a contract? (_b_) What is the difference between a
simple and a special contract? (_c_) What contracts can be made
by a minor? When and how can he ratify them? (_d_) If a person
makes a contract to work for one year and breaks it after working
six months can he collect six months' wages? (_e_) Give
illustrations of six different kinds of contracts.

2. (_a_) When is it necessary that contracts be in writing? (_b_) In
what case is a failure of consideration a good defence to a
contract? (_c_) Is a consideration required to make an offer
binding? (_d_) Is the delivery of goods essential to make a sale
complete?

3. (_a_) What are the different kinds of warranties? (_b_) Suppose A
should buy goods and pay for them, but not take them away, and
afterward B should buy them and take them away--could A recover
the goods from B?

4. (_a_) What is the difference between a public and a private
carrier? (_b_) Must a public carrier take everything offered?
(_c_) What rules of liability apply to common carriers, and how
can they be modified?

PREPARING COPY FOR THE PRESS AND PROOF-READING

I. PREPARING COPY

Our purpose in these few lessons is to give some explicit directions as to the general make-up of manuscripts intended for printing. Every person who has even a business card or a circular to print should have a knowledge of the common phraseology of a printing house.

As to paper, the size in most common use for manuscripts is what is known as _letter_. The sheets in any case should be of uniform size. Avoid all eccentricity and affectation in the preparation of your manuscript, or "copy," as printers call it. The more matter-of-fact and businesslike it is the better.

If at all possible have your manuscript type-written, and under no circumstances should you roll the sheets when preparing them for the mails. There are a number of large publishing houses which positively refuse to touch rolled manuscripts. The very first impression created by such a manuscript is one of extreme irritation. A rolled proof is pretty nearly as discouraging, yet many printers still follow the annoying practice of rolling their proofs.

Every printing establishment of any note has its methods and customs as regards orthography, the use of capitals and of punctuation. As a rule it is best to leave doubtful points to the printer. Any little deviation desired may be easily remedied in the proofs.

Paragraphs should be boldly indicated by setting the line well back in the "copy." Extract matter included in the text should be clearly shown, either by marking it down the side with a vertical line from beginning to end or by setting the whole well back within the compass of the text. Such matter is commonly set in slightly smaller type.

With regard to the corrections in the proofs it must be remembered that the more carefully an article is written the smaller the expense for author's corrections. This charge is often a great source of contention between the author and the printer, and, altogether, is an unsatisfactory item. A printer is bound, with certain reservations, to follow the "copy" supplied. If he does that and the author does not make any alterations there is no extra charge and nothing to wrangle about. A small correction, trivial as it may seem to the inexperienced, may involve much trouble to the printer. A word inserted or deleted may cause a page to be altered throughout, line by line, and a few words may possibly affect several pages. The charges made for corrections are based on the time consumed in making the necessary alterations.

II. ON THE NAMES AND SIZES OF TYPE

The beauty of printed matter depends very largely upon the selection of a suitable style of type. For books and newspaper work there are in use two general classes known as (_a_) _old style_, (_b_) _modern_. These names refer to the shape of the letter and not to its size. The several sizes of type commonly used in all plain work are as follows:

1. PEARL.
2. AGATE.
3. NONPAREIL.
4. MINION.
5. BREVIER.
6. BOURGEOIS.
7. LONG PRIMER.
8. SMALL PICA.
9. PICA.
10. ENGLISH.
11. GREAT PRIMER.

PICA is universally considered as the standard type, just as the _foot_ is the standard of measurement. The twelfth part of a pica is the unit, called a _point_, by which type bodies are measured. In many printing offices the type is known as _6-point_, _8-point_, _10-point_, _etc._, instead of as _nonpareil_, _brevier_, _long primer_, _etc._ The following specimens show the sizes of the type in common use:

The student must bear in mind the fact that these names refer to the _size_ of the type. For instance, there may be a dozen different styles of brevier or of pica; a particular specimen of printing may be entirely in long primer, yet some words may be capitals, others italic, others boldface, and so on.

AGATE is the size of type used in measuring advertisements. There are fourteen agate lines in an inch.

A complete series of type of a particular size is called a _font_; as a font of brevier, or of pica. Such a font would include:

CAPITALS
SMALL CAPITALS
lower-case
_ITALIC CAPITALS_
_italic lower-case_.

Also _figures_, _fractions_, _points_, _references_, _braces_, _signs_, _etc._ Printers divide a font of letters into two classes:

1. _The upper-case_ } _sorts._
2. _The lower-case_ }

The _upper-case sorts_ are _capitals_, _small capitals_, _references_, _dashes_, _braces_, _signs_, etc.

The _lower-case sorts_ consist of _small letters_, _figures_, _points_, _spaces_, etc.

Type lines are often bulked out by the insertion of thin strips of lead, this being called _leading_. Where no leads are employed the matter is said to be _solid_.

III. THE TERMS USED IN PRINTING

COMPOSITION. This is the name given by printers to the work of setting the type. The compositor holds in his hand a _composing-stick_, into which he places the type letter by letter, adding the spaces where necessary. A great deal of the newspaper work of the present day is set by type machines.

DISTRIBUTING. The type of a particular page or article after it has been used on the press or for electrotyping is distributed letter by letter in the _cases_. This work is much more rapid than composition. Type to be used a second time is said to be _standing_ or is called _standing matter_.

SPACES. Spaces are short blank types and are used to separate one word from another. To enable a compositor to space evenly and to "justify" properly, these spaces are cast to various thicknesses. An _em quadrat_ is a short blank type, in thickness equal to the letter _m_ of the font to which it belongs. Quadrats are of various sizes.

CALENDERED PAPER. This name is given to very highly rolled or glazed paper such as is used in illustrated work. _Laid_ paper has a slightly ribbed surface. _Antique_ paper is rough and usually untrimmed at the edges. It is made in imitation of old styles.

CAPS. and LOWER-CASE. These names are used to designate capitals and small letters.

CLARENDON. This name is commonly given to a _bold_ and _black-faced type_, such as used in text-books to bring out prominently particular words.

DUMMY. An imitation in style and size of a book or pamphlet that is wanted, usually made up with blank paper.

ELECTROTYPE. Electrotype or stereotype plates are made from type. Books are usually printed from such plates.

GALLEY PROOF. As the type is set up it is removed from the composing-stick to long forms called _galleys_. A proof taken of the whole galley at once is called a _galley proof_. Book work should be revised in galleys before it is made up into pages.

IMPRESSION. A _flat-pull_ or first impression is a simple proof usually pulled in job offices by laying a sheet of damp paper on the inked type and pounding with a flat-surfaced weight to get the impression.

INDENT. To set a line some distance forward, as in the case of a new paragraph.

LETTERPRESS. Printed matter from type as distinguished from plate printing.

MAKE-UP. To measure off type matter into pages.

OFF-SET. It frequently occurs that as the result of insufficient drying or from other causes the impression of one sheet appears on the back of another; such work is said to _off-set_.

OVERLAYS. In making ready for the press the pressman finds it necessary to add here and there, by pasting, thicknesses of paper to his roller to bring out properly the light and shade of an illustration or to get an even ink impression from the type or plates. This work is called _making overlays_. In expensive illustrated work specialists are engaged solely for the purpose of making overlays.

PRESS PROOF. The final proof passed by the author or publisher.

PROCESS-BLOCKS. Blocks produced by the photoengraving and other mechanical processes.

QUERY. A mark made on a proof by the printer to call attention to a possible error, sometimes expressed by a note of interrogation (?).

REGISTER. The exact adjustment of pages back to back in printing the second side of a sheet.

SIGNATURE. The letter or figure at the foot of a sheet to guide the binder in folding; also used by printers to identify any particular sheet.

The various marks and signs used by printers will be explained in the lesson on proof-reading.

IV. MARKS USED IN PROOF-READING

The most important of the signs used in making corrections for the printer are as follows:

1. Delete or expunge.

2. A turned letter.

3. Wrong-font letter.

4. Change capital to small letter, ("lower-case").

5. Insert period.

6. Transpose words or letters as indicated.

7. Change roman to _italic_.

8. Change _italic_ to roman.

9. Space to be inserted.

10. Matter wrongly altered to remain as it was
originally. Dots are placed under the matter.

11. A bad or battered letter.

12. Space to be reduced.

13. Close up.

14. Push down space or lead.

15. New paragraph.

16. Something foreign between the lines, or a wrong-font
space making the type crooked.

17. Line to be indented one _em_ of its own body.

When letters or words are set double or are required to be taken out a line is drawn through the superfluous word or letter and the mark No. 1, called _dele_, placed opposite on the margin. (_Dele_ is Latin for _take out_.)

A turned letter is noted by drawing a line through it and writing the mark No. 2 on the margin.

If letters or words require to be altered to make them more conspicuous a parallel line or lines must be made underneath the word or letter--namely, for capitals, _three lines_; for small capitals, _two lines_; and for italic, _one line_; and on the margin opposite the line where the alteration occurs the sign _caps._, _small caps._, or _ital._ must be written.

Where a letter of a different font is improperly introduced into the page it is noted by drawing a line through it and writing _w. f._ (_wrong font_) on the margin.

Where a word has been left out or is to be added a _caret_ must be made in the place where it should come in and the word written on the margin. A caret is made thus: ^

Where letters stand crooked they are noted by a line, but where a page hangs lines are drawn across the entire part affected.

Where a faulty letter appears it is denoted by making a cross under it and placing a similar mark on the margin.

Where several words are left out or where new matter is to be added the added matter is written wherever convenient, and a line is drawn from the place of omission to the written words.

In making a correction in a proof always mark the wrong letter or word through and insert the alteration in the margin, not in the middle of the printed matter, because it is liable to be overlooked if there is no marginal reference to the correction. To keep the different corrections distinct finish each off with a stroke, thus /; and to make the alterations more clear or less crowded mark those relating to the left-hand portion on the left margin and those relating to the right-hand portion on the right margin.

* * * * *

The hints given here are intended for the general public and not for the printer, and to the student of these lessons let us say that the first essential of good proof-reading is clearness. Be very sure that the printer will understand the changes which you desire him to make. Quite often it is an advantage if you wish a particular style of type used to cut out a sample of that style and paste it on your copy or on your proof, indicating that you want it to be used. Instructions to the printer written either on the copy or on the proof should be surrounded by a line to separate them from the text, or to prevent any confusion with other written matter intended as copy or as corrections.

When the corrections have been duly made and approved by the author or editor it is customary to write the word "press" on the top of the first page. If intermediate proofs are wanted, mark on the proofs returned to the printer "Send revise." The final or "press" proof is always retained by the printer in case of any dispute. It is his voucher, and he retains it for future reference.

It is a good plan to make corrections in a different coloured ink from that used by the printer's proof-reader. If you are having a pamphlet or book printed the different proofs will reach you in the following order:

1. _Galley proofs._
2. _Revised proofs_ (if any).
3. _Page proofs._
4. _Foundry proofs._

So far as possible, make all the necessary changes while the type is in galleys. Once made up into pages, a very slight change, particularly such a change as the crossing out or addition of a sentence, may make a great deal of trouble. When the pages are passed upon they are sent to the foundry for casting. The foundry proofs are the last proofs pulled. Corrections made on these make it necessary to alter the electrotype plates, which is rather an expensive process. To change a word, a piece of the metal plate has to be cut out and another with the new word soldered in.

A page is said to _overrun_ if it is too long. If the space to be occupied is limited it is a good plan to adapt your copy to it by counting the words and by comparing the count with that of some printed page in the same size of type.

Return proofs to your printer or publisher as promptly as possible. As a rule printing houses cannot afford to keep type locked up and unused waiting for the return of proofs. There are many imperfections in typography, such as wrong-font and inverted letters, awkward and irregular spacing, uneven pages or columns, crooked words and lines, etc., which it is the business of the printing house to correct. No book or pamphlet, therefore, ought to go to press until it has been read and revised by an experienced reader.

Strict uniformity should always be preserved in the use of capitals, in spelling, and in punctuation.

Where authors have their manuscripts type-written and make two or three revises upon the type-written sheets before their copy is turned over to the publishing house, the labour of proof-reading and the expenses of corrections are reduced to a minimum.

The errors shown in our illustration are more numerous than are likely to appear in any proof sent out from a publishing house.

+------------------------------------------------+ | Transcriber's Notes | +________________________________________________+ | | | Page 35 favorable changed to favourable | | 49 favor changed to favour | | 65 (5) changed to 5. | | 115 contantly changed to constantly | | 130 Ierland change to Ireland | | 150 battle-ships changed to battleships | | 152 BREAD-STUFFS changed to BREADSTUFFS | | 162 duplicated "from" deleted | | 163 bread-stuffs change to breadstuffs | | 205 June, 1898 changed to June 30, 1898 | | 208 proportiona t changed to proportion at| | 223 duplicated "in" deleted | | 258 typewritten changed to type-written | | 350 everyday changed to every-day | | 384 comma added after figures | | 389 colored changed to coloured | | 390 nessary changed to necessary | +------------------------------------------------+