Chapter XXIV: Conclusion (1)

And now a few words regarding the process of regulating and developing the tone of a violin. It would in my judgment serve no useful purpose to attempt to publish details of the means employed, as I am satisfied that nothing short of practical exposition and demonstration (coupled with experience) will suffice to convey the knowledge which must be acquired by any one desiring to command anything like uniform success. “Thicknessing,” as it is termed, upon which such success is very largely dependent, is a variable and complex operation and cannot be learned from books; and the most that can be said is that after a violin is built its tone can be fundamentally altered, regulated, and developed by internal and external means to give such final results as the maker, or operator who develops the tone, may consider to be ideal. This is well enough understood by the best makers, but, for reasons which are fairly self-evident, those who practise it are very few indeed.

As much more is required of the student of tone development than a mere acquaintance with the means can give, a thorough working knowledge, leading to successful application, is best acquired by personal instruction from one acquainted with the complicated and ever-changing tonal problems presented by the newly-made violin, and experienced in dealing with them--just as I believe this art was imparted to pupils by masters in the “golden period” of violin-making; the measure of success achieved depending always upon the tone ideals of both the master and pupil, and the skill with which the process is employed to obtain his results. I hope a return will be made to the methods of that period, when tone reached its fullest perfection, to the end that the world may become richer in instruments possessing that quality of tone which is now almost exclusively associated with the violins produced by the “old masters.”

NOTICES

BIOGRAPHICAL AND CRITICAL

OF THE PRINCIPAL VIOLIN MAKERS OF THE VARIOUS SCHOOLS AND OF THEIR WORKS

By TOWRY PIPER

PREFATORY NOTE

In the following pages the author has endeavoured, so far as limitations of space and other circumstances would admit, to incorporate the results of observations made during a very long period of years.

Since the year 1877 he has been a more or less assiduous student of old violins and kindred instruments, and has had perhaps exceptional opportunities of handling and examining some thousands of examples of the different schools of violin-making.

Though the work does not, perhaps, come appropriately within the definition of a dictionary of the subject of which it treats, it will be found to contain notices of a considerable number of makers who have not been dealt with in previous English works on the violin.

In deciding the somewhat difficult question as to what names should be included and what rejected, the author, who has for several years been a contributor to the _Strad_ magazine, has found his experience of the correspondence department of that journal of frequent assistance in arriving at a conclusion, as it has been possible in the light of such experience to form some sort of estimate of the nature of the information most likely to be of use to violin players and owners of stringed instruments generally.

Most of the previous works of this kind will be found to contain numbers of names of old viol and lute makers who are not known to have made violins, such as Dardelli, Duiffoprugcar, and many others; but by omitting these, almost _in toto_, it has been possible to include a number of minor workmen whose instruments possess merit, without unduly increasing the bulk of the book.

To deal in anything like detail with the huge army of makers of German origin is a task which no English writer has had the temerity to attempt, nor would any useful purpose be served by so doing in a work intended for English readers. Those who desire more precise information on that branch of the subject than is hereinafter conveyed are recommended to refer to the two portly volumes of the German writer, von Lütgendorff, who, with characteristic Teuton thoroughness, seems to have hunted up nearly every one of his countrymen who ever made a fiddle. The work in question is indeed a monument of literary industry and research.

A number of the more recent Italian makers, whose work has come into prominence during the past twenty-five years, have been noticed in somewhat more detailed fashion than has usually been adopted in books of this kind, and an attempt has been made to deal in the same way with a few makers of the French school whose names, for some reason or other, have previously received somewhat meagre attention.

Stradivari, and some of the other Italians of the first rank, have already been handled so fully in works which will be found mentioned in the text that the facts already published concerning them have been digested so far as possible, to enable them to be succinctly presented, and to make room for other matter.

BEXHILL, AUGUST 21, 1916.

ABSAM, THOMAS.--Wakefield; nineteenth century to about 1850; said to have been of Tyrolese birth. Worked for Pickard of Leeds, and on his own account.

ADAM.--Mirecourt. A family of bow-makers of whom the best was JEAN DOMINIQUE, who worked to about 1860.

AIRETON, EDMUND.--London. Died about 1807. A maker of the style and period of Peter Wamsley. Worked for the dealers, Norris and Barnes.

ALBANI.--Late seventeenth and first half of eighteenth centuries. A family of violin makers originating at Botzen in the Tyrol. The chief maker, and the founder of the family, was MATTHIAS, who was born in 1621, and died at Botzen in February, 1712. Most authorities mention two different individuals named Matthias, but it seems to be established that there was but one. Matthias Albani’s work belongs chiefly to the school of Stainer, but the later and better examples show distinct traces of Italian influence, and are built upon lines more approximating to the Amati school. The arching is much less pronounced than that of older specimens, in which it is often extravagantly high; outline and sound-holes, though never losing entirely their German cut, are more Italian-looking, and the varnish, usually a brilliant red-brown, is either identical in composition with that used by Italian workmen of the period, or closely allied to it. The tone of his better instruments is excellent. The wood used is of good quality and frequently handsome. Examples with lion and other ornamental heads occur. He made violins, tenors, and basses, and the larger instruments are held in high esteem amongst players. Tradition has it that he worked for some time at Cremona or elsewhere in Italy, but anything like tangible evidence in support of this appears to be lacking. His name has been made free with by forgers and imitators, and may be seen in all sorts of worthless fiddles, ancient and modern. Spurious labels, dated in the year 1690, abound. His ordinary label reads, “Matthias Albanus fecit Bulsani in Tiroli,” with date. Other makers of the family were MICHAEL, a son who worked chiefly in Gratz, where he died in 1730; JOSEPH, a younger son, who assisted him, and died at Botzen in 1722; and JOSEPH ANTON, a nephew, who died at Botzen in 1771.

ALBANI.--Mention is made of makers of this name working in different parts of Italy in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. One, named PAOLO, is said to have operated in Palermo, Rome, and Cremona.

ALDRIC.--Paris. Eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Was living in 1843. One of the best of the French makers of the Lupot School. He was also well-known as a dealer. Excellent work and material. Stradivari model, and usually rather dark red varnish. Instruments frequently rather heavy looking in build. He used chiefly printed, but also written labels, and worked in Paris at various addresses. His violins and other instruments have sometimes been relabelled and sold as the work of Nicholas Lupot.

AMATI.--The family name of the founders of the celebrated school of Cremona. Their record as makers begins about the middle of the sixteenth century, or perhaps a little later, and ends in 1740. The pioneer of the family was ANDREA, the date of whose birth is unknown, but there is evidence in the Archives of Cremona showing that he was alive in 1611, and buried his second wife in that year. The appearance and general character of his works point to Brescia as the school from which he derived his inspiration, but beyond tradition there is no evidence to prove that Bertolotti (known as Caspar da Salò) was his actual master. Very little of his authentic work is now in existence. A few violoncellos, and some bass and double bass viols survive, and a very few violins of small or three-quarter pattern. A wellknown example of these last was put up to auction in London recently. The arching of the instruments is high, the sound-holes, of Brescian type, are rather wide open, the wood and workmanship good, the backs of the violins generally in one piece cut slab wise. The labels seem to be dated in Roman numerals. It was this maker’s sons, ANTONIUS and HIERONYMUS, more especially the latter, who produced the type of violin which will ever be associated with the name of Amati. They worked in partnership during their joint lives, but their individual workmanship is distinct; ANTONIUS, the elder brother’s instruments retaining certain Brescian characteristics which were wisely discarded by Hieronymus, who produced examples of great elegance of form, and possessing a tone which for beautiful quality has never since been surpassed. The date of Antonius’s birth has not been discovered, nor that of his death, but it is generally believed that the latter occurred after the year 1640. Hieronymus’s birth-year is also undiscovered, but there is an entry in Cremonese registers, proving that he died of the plague in November, 1630. The violins bearing the label of the firm vary in size, and a considerable number still survive, the larger and rarer specimens, measuring about 14 inches in length of body, being of more value than the smaller patterns. The usual label of the firm is “Antonius & Hieronymus Fr. Amati Cremonen Andreae fil. F. 16....” The brothers are credited by Messrs. Hill, of Bond Street, with having been the earliest makers known to have produced violas of the smaller dimensions, measuring about 16-1/4 inches long, which is now accepted as the standard length for the viola. Their violoncellos were of large size--well over 30 inches long--but appear to have been all, or almost all, reduced, to fit them for modern playing. In the violins slab backs in one piece are frequently seen, but many of them, especially those of later date, have jointed backs, the wood of which is cut “on the quarter.” Numbers of labels exist or are cited in books, bearing dates long after the deaths of both brothers must have occurred. No very satisfactory explanation of this seems to be forthcoming unless we assume that Niccolò Amati, the son of Hieronymus, and the most celebrated maker, continued to use the style and tickets of the firm for a long period before finally adopting his own label. We may now turn to NICCOLO AMATI, who was born in Cremona on December 3, 1596, and died there on April 12, 1684. An earlier Niccolò is mentioned as having been a brother of Andrea, and the name has been copied time and again by successive compilers of lists of makers. Nothing whatever appears to be known of such a person, and there is no good reason for supposing that he ever existed. Niccolò, son of Hieronymus, closely followed his father’s pattern and teachings for a considerable time, and does not seem to have begun to use the ticket with his own name until about 1640, by which time he would be forty-four years of age. He made violins of varying sizes, the ordinary type being about 13-7/8 inches long. His sound-holes are generally similar in design to those of his father, but in later work the opening is frequently rather wider, and the angle at which it is set in the instrument a trifle more slanting. He also extended the arching in some of his work, carrying it nearer the sides, and somewhat diminishing the grooves running around these. The term “Grand Amati” which is associated with his name was at one time well understood to apply to a type of violin 14 inches long, with rather produced corners, and a somewhat sudden dip beginning not far from the centre of the back and belly, forming in fact a distinct ridge in the long axis of the instrument. But the term “grand” appears nowadays to be loosely applied to almost any Niccolò Amati violin of somewhat larger size than the ordinary pattern above mentioned. In addition to greater length measurement, the Grand Amati exhibits considerably greater width, which is especially noticeable in the upper portion of the body. On these large violins the enhanced fame of this great maker chiefly rests, and their money value is much greater than that of the smaller forms. They are very scarce, and there is strong reason to suppose that some of the few which exist were largely, if not altogether, the handiwork of pupils, amongst whom may be mentioned Andrea Guarneri, although that maker in his own signed work does not very often follow that pattern. It has been adopted with success by several other makers of high repute, _e.g._ Francesco Ruger, Sanctus Seraphin of Venice, Jacobs of Amsterdam, Banks of Salisbury, Vincenzo Panormo (rarely), and hosts of other copyists. Stradivari does not seem to have been attracted by it, and only in one or two minor features do any of his known works exhibit any resemblance to it. Niccolò Amati’s varnish is generally of the yellow type associated with the works of earlier members of his family, and the wood used for the backs and sides is of native growth and small, though often very handsome, figure. In some later work wood with a broader curl may be seen, but examples are rare. The violoncellos were originally of large size, but are seldom or never seen uncut. Niccolò Amati had numerous notable pupils and followers, the most important being, of course, Antonio Stradivari. Of these there is not space to append a list, but their names and work will be found noted in the following pages. There is good reason to believe that for at least ten years prior to his death he did not take much active part in the business of his workshop. HIERONYMUS AMATI II., born 1649, died February 21, 1740, was the third son of Niccolò, and apparently the only one who was a violin-maker. It is now well recognised that he was a workman of much ability, and there is no room for doubt that numbers of the instruments made in the latter part of his father’s lifetime were either wholly or partially his handiwork. Many violins dating from about 1670, and bearing genuine Niccolò Amati labels exist, which exhibit a very high degree of finish, great neatness of workmanship, and other characteristics which do not appear in examples by other workmen employed by Niccolò, but which, when compared with instruments admittedly made by Hieronymus II. after his father’s death, are sufficient to proclaim their authorship. In these the cutting of the scrolls and sound-holes is clearly the work of a maker in the full maturity of his powers. The varnish on some, at least, is of a somewhat redder hue than the typical Amati yellow, and the rise of the arching more gradual. The instruments are not after the grand pattern in their design and proportions. Messrs. Hill suggest that Stradivari may have been concerned in the making of some of them, as probabilities point to that maker having continued to work for Niccolò (besides working on his own account) down to the time of his death. Hieronymus II. continued to produce and repair instruments after his father’s death, and his label, stating that he executed repairs, may still be seen in a few old instruments. The writer has seen more than one such. When he first began to insert his own labels in his work does not seem to be clear, but most of those cited in books, and all seen by the writer, have been dated after 1700. In most of his tickets he states that he was Niccolò’s son. For some reason--possibly because his father’s death left him in easy circumstances--specimens made by him after that event are by no means plentiful, and the information about them contained in most of the books on the violin is meagre, unreliable, and quite fails to do justice to his undoubted abilities. A fine violin of his make, dated 1710, is figured in the last edition of the work on “Violin Makers” by the German writer, von Lütgendorff.

AMATI, NICOLAUS.--Bologna; about 1720 to 1740; commonly called “Dom Nicolaus Amati;” was a priest who made violins and other instruments of moderately good workmanship and fair tone. The writer has met with two or three violins and a viola of his make. It is not known if he was related to the Cremonese family.

AMBROSI, PETRUS.--Rome and Brescia; first half of eighteenth century. According to labels the maker was a Cremonese, and in some the name is spelt “Ambrogi.” Moderate workmanship and varnish. Rough Stradivari pattern. The name may not unfrequently be seen in common fiddles, such as are sold in pawnshops.

ANDERSON.--At least three makers of the name worked in Scotland during the nineteenth century; one named JOHN was a pupil of Matthew Hardie and a prolific workman. He lived chiefly in Aberdeen, and died there in 1883.

ANTONIAZZI.--The name of several makers in Italy in the last century. GAETANO (died 1897 in Milan) was a good workman, and obtained medals for his productions; another, ROMEO, was working in Cremona recently, and makes instruments in various styles, but has a model of his own.

AUDINOT.--A Mirecourt family of the nineteenth century who have made many useful instruments. The best known is NESTOR DOMINIQUE, born in 1842, who is in good repute both as a maker and repairer in Paris.

BAADER, J. A. AND Co.--Mittenwald; contemporary. A well-known firm who manufacture instruments of various classes on an extensive scale.

BACHMANN.--The name of several German makers; the two best known, ANTON and KARL LUDWIG, worked in Berlin in the eighteenth century.

BAGATELLA, ANTONIO.--Paduna. Died in 1829. Instruments scarce. Writer has seen one or two double-basses of some merit which were assigned to him. Best known as the writer of a pamphlet, published in 1782, on scientific violin making.

BAILLY, PAUL.--A well-known modern French maker, who worked in Mirecourt, Paris, and London. He was a pupil of J. B. Vuillaume, and died recently.

BAIRHOFF, GIORGIO.--Naples; latter half eighteenth century. Like several other makers working in Naples he was of German origin. Has produced useful instruments of the Gagliano type.

BALDANTONI, JOSEPH.--Ancona; 1784-1873. Was a clever mechanic and an inventor in a small way; he has left a number of well-made instruments of good form and tone.

BALESTRIERI, TOMMASSO.--Mantua; appears to have worked until after 1770. His instruments have long been appreciated amongst players on account of their tone, which is usually of a rich sonorous quality. He was an unequal workman, some of his violins and basses exhibiting a high amount of finish, whilst others leave a good deal to be desired in this respect. On some specimens the varnish is of excellent quality, but there are others in which it is much inferior both in appearance and texture. He seems to have used a variety of labels, from which it appears that he was a native of Cremona. Spurious tickets are fairly plentiful. The form of his violins bears a rough general resemblance to some of those of Stradivari, but he is no longer accounted a pupil of that maker, as was formerly the case. He is said to have worked in Cremona until 1757, when he removed to Mantua. The writer has seen a considerable number of his instruments, but does not recall meeting with specimens dating from Cremona. Messrs. Hill, in their monograph on Stradivari, state that he was a pupil of Peter Guarneri (“Peter of Mantua”). Some of his violoncellos are exceptionally good. Another Balestrieri, named PETER, worked in Cremona, and in his tickets calls himself a pupil of Stradivari.

BANKS.--The name of a Salisbury family of makers, of whom the best was BENJAMIN, born 1727, died February, 1795. His work belongs to the school of Wamsley. Copied Amati with uncommon skill, and instruments have sometimes been re-labelled, and passed as the work of Niccolò. He used on his best productions a very fine reddish-brown varnish, which resembles Italian. Violins and violoncellos are substantially built, and have stood wear well. The violoncellos are splendid instruments, and the larger ones fetch high prices; some of the violins are also excellent, and the resemblance to Amati work is close. In the sound-holes he did not always succeed in catching the true form of the originals he copied. They bear a resemblance to those of Stainer, and the scrolls in all his work are German in character and cut. He stamped the blocks and interiors of many of his productions with his initials, but some of his finest efforts are unstamped. He was assisted by various workmen, including three sons: BENJAMIN, who also worked in London, and Liverpool, where he died in 1820; HENRY and JAMES, both of whom died in Liverpool in 1830 and 1831, respectively. He made instruments of inferior quality for the trade, some of which bear the stamp of Longman and Broderip.

BARNES, ROBERT.--London. Died 1794. Principally known as a dealer, and member of the firm of Norris and Barnes.

BARRETT, JOHN.--London; to about 1740. Long-bodied, high-built instruments, having ink lines in place of purfling. Tone small, but generally of good quality.

BARTL (or PARTL).--Vienna. The name is usually spelt “Partl” in labels. Several makers of this name worked in Vienna in the eighteenth century. In some specimens the work is good.

BARZONI.--The trade name of a well-known class of modern cheap instruments made on the Continent. They are well made, and the tone is usually good.

BAUSCH.--Dresden and Leipzig; nineteenth century. A family chiefly noted as makers of bows, many of which are highly esteemed, but there are many spurious specimens about.

BEARE, JOHN and ARTHUR.--London; contemporary. Well known dealers and repairers. Arthur Beare is an excellent repairer, and a sound judge of old instruments.

BELA, SZEPESSY.--Contemporary. Born in Buda Pesth, and well known amongst English amateurs.

BELLOSIO, ANSELMO.--Venice; eighteenth century. Said to have worked with Serafino. Tone usually good, but instruments are of unequal merit and workmanship.

BERGONZI.--A celebrated Cremona family of makers, the last of whom, BENEDETTO, died in 1840, and seems to have been chiefly occupied as a repairer. CARLO, an artist of the first rank, was born in or about the year 1686, and is said to have died in 1747. The date of birth was discovered by the late Signor Sacchi, who ascertained from the Registers of the suppressed Church of San Matteo in Cremona, that Carlo Bergonzi was living in 1746 in the house formerly occupied by Stradivari, and his age was stated to be sixty years. Two of his sons, Michael Angelo and Zosimo, were then living with him. He worked with and for Stradivari, and in some of his instruments copied him with great exactness. In other examples he introduces modifications of the great master’s patterns; these are chiefly noticeable in the form of the sound-holes, which are of slightly pointed form, and the corners, in which a decided droop is observable. The boss of the scroll is frequently more prominent than in Stradivari violins. The arching varies, but the declivity is generally inclined to flatness. Wood usually very handsome, and varnish of different shades, from amber to deep red. It is of beautiful quality, and apparently similar in composition to that of Stradivari. The violins are from 13-7/8 to 14 inches long, and, so far as writer’s experience goes, he did not exceed the latter measurement. The tone of great beauty, but distinct from that of Stradivari. His fiddles have been repeatedly relabelled and sold as the work of Guarneri, del Gesù, and genuine labels are not very plentiful; even in his own work the dates and tickets cannot always be relied on, as they have in some instances been inserted to replace forged Stradivari and Guarneri labels, attached by unscrupulous dealers and others. Some of the better judges question the existence of either violas or violoncellos of his make, but very fine examples of both forms of instrument exist which have been assigned to him by connoisseurs of the first rank. The same remark applies to a few double-basses of great merit whatever their authorship. Strange as it may seem, none of his sons would appear to have used varnish of the true Cremonese type. Carlo’s name and label may be found in many instruments, both genuinely old, and of the “modern antique” class, with the making of which he had nothing to do. NICOLÒ, his eldest son, is supposed to have worked until about 1782. He was a good workman, and seems to have made many instruments, but they are very inferior in style to those of his father. Wood and varnish are of second-rate quality, the latter, judging by appearances, being of a hard alcoholic nature. MICHAEL ANGELO BERGONZI, the second son, was born, according to the registers quoted from by Sacchi, in 1722, and worked until about 1765-70. The finish is very passable, but pattern generally inelegant, the corners in some examples being elongated in unsightly fashion. The third son, ZOSIMO, born 1725, worked until about 1780, according to dates in instruments. It is said that his violoncellos are his best instruments. The writer has not met with any, but has seen a few violins of good tone, large pattern, somewhat high arching, and outline of Amati character. The varnish, a somewhat dull dark red, of soft quality. A second CARLO, who died about 1820, and was a son of Michael Angelo, seems to have been chiefly a guitar maker, and repairer of instruments.

BERNARDEL.--A well-known family of makers and dealers who carried on business in Paris in the nineteenth century, and were associated with the equally well-known Gand family under the style of Gand and Bernardel. The founder was AUGUSTE SEBASTIEN PHILIPP, born at Mirecourt in 1802, died 1870. Worked with Lupot, and later with the elder Gand. A clever maker whose instruments are in high esteem. Other members of the family were ERNEST AUGUSTE, died Paris, 1899; GUSTAVE ADOLPHE, born 1832; and LEON, born in Paris, 1853. All these have continued to follow the style and traditions of Nicholas Lupot.

BERTOLOTTI.--Brescia; sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. The chief member of this family was the celebrated GASPAR DA SALÒ, born at Salò (province of Brescia) in or about 1542, died in City of Brescia, April, 1609. He certainly made violins, usually of rather small form, at least a dozen of which are recognised by the best authorities as authentic; but it is by no means clear that he was the first man to make a fiddle strung with four strings and generally of the form in which the instrument is now seen. The authorship of the true violin has been assigned to others: _e.g._ Duiffoprugcar, a viol maker, whose claims have long since been dismissed by competent judges as unsupported by evidence of any value. Gaspar’s violins, as might be expected, are of primitive appearance and character. One of them, belonging to the late Lord Amherst of Hackney, and of unquestioned authenticity, was seen many years ago by the writer, and is the only violin by da Salò of undisputed genuineness with which he has met during a long course of years. Several violas of large size (“tenores”) still exist, but the majority have been reduced, often very unskilfully, in size. Of those seen by the writer all have been remarkable for their fine tone. A number of large bass viols (violoni) still survive. They were built to carry a number of strings, but have mostly been converted by modern repairers into three or four string double basses. A very fine and perfect example of these is in the possession of the Reverend Leigh Blake. It is said that he made violoncellos, but this is probably incorrect. Instruments of various types formerly assigned to him are now recognised as the work of his pupil and follower, Gio. Paolo Maggini. Interesting information relating to him, including the date of his death, was discovered, and published in 1891, by Cavalier Livi, who also ascertained that his father was a viol maker, and that a son FRANCESCO, who died in 1614, assisted him. Gasparo’s genuine labels are undated.

BERTRAND, NICHOLAS.--Paris; _circa_ 1685-1730. Best known as a viol maker. Writer recently saw and repaired a violin by him with manuscript label, date 1710, of good workmanship and sweet tone; arching high. Some examples are branded.

BETTS.--London. A well-known family of makers and dealers in old instruments. The founder of the business was JOHN EDWARD BETTS, “Old John Betts,” born Stamford, 1755, died London, March, 1823. Worked with Richard Duke, and made some instruments, but employed in his own business the best workmen of the day: Bernhard Fendt, John Carter, Vincent Panormo and his sons, together with several others. The instruments made for him generally bear his stamp under the button, and this has been forged of recent years in the most wholesale manner; it may be seen, in pawnshops and elsewhere, on instruments of the commonest class and foreign make. Betts was a first rate judge of old Italian work and many fine examples passed through his hands. A nephew, EDWARD, was associated with him; he was a careful workman and made some good copies; he died about 1820. Other members of the family were at one time or other connected with the business, amongst whom may be mentioned two named Arthur Betts, the first a brother of John, and the second a nephew.

BIANCHI, NICCOLÒ.--1796-1881. Born in Genoa, died Nice. A clever workman who was employed by several makers of repute, including Bagatella, G. B. Ceruti, and Pressenda. He was for some years in Paris; his own instruments are said to be very good, but he was much employed as a repairer.

BIMBI, BARTOLOMMEO.--Siena and Florence; second half of eighteenth century. Violins usually of rather small pattern, high built, and with very pretty red-orange varnish.

BINDERNAGEL, JOHANN WILHELM.--Gotha. Died 1845. Instruments highly valued in Germany. Copied Amati pattern chiefly, but also Stradivari. Was a pupil of Ernst.

BISIACH, LEANDRO.--Milan; contemporary. Is regarded as one of the cleverest workmen and imitators of old instruments now working in Italy. His best violins and other instruments display very fine workmanship, have generally an excellent tone, and are already in much request amongst players.

BITTNER, DAVID.--Vienna; died 1887. A good copyist of Italian work.

BLAIR, JOHN.--Edinburgh; to about 1820. Worked with M. Hardie. Instruments branded “J. B.”

BLAISE, JOSEPH.--Mirecourt and Geneva; died 1882. Little known, except as instructor of P. and N. Silvestre of Lyons.

BLANCHARD, PAUL FRANÇOIS.--Lyons. Born Mirecourt 1851. Worked formerly for Silvestre’s firm. Has made some excellent copies with good varnish.

BODIO, GIO. BATTISTA.--Venice; to about 1830. Moderate work. Examples scarce. Writer has seen a violin with belly inlaid with ebony at edges of sound holes. Seems to have made instruments with ornamental heads.

BOIVIN, CLAUDE.--Paris; about 1840. Chiefly guitars and similar instruments. Violins rare.

BOOTH, WILLIAM.--Leeds. Died 1856. Little known. Said to have been a good workman.

BOQUAY, JAQUES.--Paris. Worked until about 1735-40. One of the better makers of the older French school. Violins in two sizes, the pattern resembling Amati. Good wood, dark red-brown varnish. Back usually stamped with initials. Tone frequently very good. Very well cut scrolls, but original heads are often absent, having been transferred to old instruments by other makers.

BOULLANGIER, CHARLES.--London. Born Mirecourt, 1823; died London, 1888. A well-known and excellent maker. Worked in Paris with Vuillaume and Gand. In 1849 employed by Edward Withers, senior, with whom he remained until 1856. Copied both Stradivari and Guarneri with skill, and employed red varnish of different shades.

BOUMEESTER, JAN.--Amsterdam; seventeenth century. One of the best of the older Dutch makers, but his labels are not very often seen. It has been surmised that in many cases they have been removed and the tickets of Italian makers substituted.

BOURGEOIS, SÉRAPHIN.--Geneva; about 1830. A few years ago a large violin by a maker named Bourgeois was the subject of a law-suit, certain “experts” having declared it to be the work of Guarneri, del Gesù.

BOVIS, FRANÇOIS.--Nice; contemporary. Maker to the orchestra at Monte Carlo.

BRAGLIA, ANTONIO.--Modena; about 1800. A good bow-maker.

BRANDILIONI, FILIPPO.--Brescia. Said to have worked there in latter half of eighteenth century. Work is described as resembling that of Mittenwald rather than Italy.

BRANDNER.--Name of numerous family working in Schönbach in the last century.

BRANDSTAETTER, MATTHÄUS IGNAZ.--Vienna; died 1851. Maker and excellent repairer.

BRAUN.--There were numerous German makers of this name in the last century.

BRETON, LE.--Mirecourt; died 1830. Good work, but rather commonplace in style. Instruments branded on back, and stamp may be seen on many spurious examples. An earlier Breton worked in Paris.

BROWN.--London; eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Makers of the name worked principally for the dealers. The best known is JAMES BROWN, “Brown of Spitalfields,” a good workman, who died about 1830.

BRUGÈRE.--Nineteenth century. A well-known Mirecourt family who worked in Paris, Marseilles, and elsewhere. The best known is CHARLES, born in 1865. A careful workman; frequently uses a large ornamental ticket.

BRUNO, CARLO COLOMBO.--Turin; contemporary. Has obtained medals for instruments in Paris, Turin, and Marseilles.

BUCHSTETTER, GABRIEL DAVID.--Ratisbonn; second half of eighteenth century. Instruments not often seen in this country.

BUTHOD.--Mirecourt; nineteenth century. A maker of the name worked for J. B. Vuillaume. Labels may be seen in large numbers of cheap violins, etc., of the “factory class.”

CABROLY.--Toulouse; about 1740. Said to have come from Milan. Instruments seemingly scarce.

CAHUSAC.--London; eighteenth century. The label may be seen in many old fiddles which were obviously the work of different makers, but he seems to have made some himself. Writer has seen examples of Amati outline, and with very pretty varnish.

CALCAGNI (CALCANIUS), BERNARDO.--Genoa; to about 1750. Medium size violins, slightly arched and with very pretty reddish-yellow varnish. General workmanship well finished.

CALVAROLA, BARTOLOMMEO.--Bergamo; _circa_ 1750-1770. Instruments scarce. Medium workmanship without much character. Yellow and yellow-red varnish. Pattern looks rather narrow. Scrolls small and of poor design.

CAMILLI, CAMILLO.--Mantua; to about 1760. A maker whose instruments have rapidly risen in value of late years. They are of unequal merit and workmanship. In good examples the wood and form are handsome. Sound-holes rather short and wide open. Varnish red, of varying shades and good texture. The tone usually excellent. The pattern usually seen bears some resemblance to violins of Stradivari. Labels both written and printed.

CAPPA, GOFFREDO.--Saluzzo; born 1647, died August, 1717. It is important to note the dates of birth and death, as in most books on the violin these appear as having occurred fully a century too early. Cappa’s name and work have been the subject of almost wholesale fraud, forgery, and misrepresentation. His own genuine labels are very rarely seen, and the frequent appearance of Amati tickets in his instruments gives some colour to the theory, propounded in Hill’s work on Stradivari, that he himself inserted them. Whatever may be the truth, the resemblance to Amati in his smaller pattern violins is very marked, both in form and choice of material. The varnish also is of similar quality and colour. The sound-holes, which are much more slanting than in Amati fiddles, at once betray the maker to the experienced eye; and the heads are quite unlike the type associated with the Amati name. The violins of larger build are rare, and those seen by the writer have differed so materially in form and build from those just described that they might easily be taken to be the work of another hand. Violoncellos of good form and style exist, and generally command high prices. Other makers of the name and of very doubtful existence are mentioned by different writers.

CARCASSI.--A Florentine family of makers of the eighteenth century, numbering about half a dozen members. Of these the principal workmen were LORENZO and TOMASO, who worked both independently and in partnership from about 1740 onwards. The pattern belongs chiefly to the school of Amati, though no very close resemblance exists. Work in some cases well finished, arching fairly high, pretty wood, and varnish of good colour and texture. The name is one of those which have been freely used by forgers, and a number of spurious examples are to be met with.

CARTER, JOHN.--London; about 1790. Worked on his own account in Wych Street, but was chiefly employed by Betts.

CASINI, ANTONIO.--Modena. Seventeenth century, to about 1690.

CASTAGNERI, ANDREA.--Paris. Worked to about 1750. He was of Italian extraction, and his genuine violins are Italian in style. Flat arching. Outline of Stradivari type. Tone generally powerful. An earlier maker of the name is said to have been his father, and to have worked in Paris.

CASTELLO, PAOLO.--Genoa; latter half of eighteenth century. Well built violins of good form and tone. Middle bouts sometimes appear rather narrow.

CAUSSIN, FRANÇOIS.--Neufchâteau. Also spelt Coussin. Worked between about 1845-81. Was a very clever imitator of old Italian work and varnish, and his instruments have frequently been sold as originals. Pattern varies.

CELONIATI, GIAN. FRANCESCO.--Turin; _circa_ 1730-50. The work somewhat resembles that of Cappa. Outline generally of Amati character. Varnish clear and of yellow or yellow-brown colour. Instruments generally well finished, and the tone of good quality.

CERIN, MARC ANTONIO.--Venice; about 1790.

CERUTI.--Cremona; eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. A family well known to modern players. GIOVANNI BATTISTA, the earliest of the name, worked with Storioni, and succeeded to his business, dying somewhere between 1817 and 1820. Made a large number of instruments of varying patterns, in some of which the characteristics of more than one of the classic makers are combined. The wood of the backs and sides is often of native growth and small figure, and the varnish varies both in colour and quality. Tone frequently excellent. He used a label with an ornamental border, and containing a monogram within a circle. His son JOSEPH died in Mantua in 1860 and was a clever workman. He worked with his father, whose label has been found in his earlier productions. A younger son, ENRICO, died in 1883. Instruments well made and of varying form. He obtained exhibition medals for some of his work.

CHANOT.--A name famous in the annals of fiddle-making. The first maker of the name was JOSEPH, a native of Mirecourt, who died about 1830. FRANÇOIS, an engineer, was born at Mirecourt, 1788, died at Brest, 1823. He experimented much upon the form and construction of the violin, and made, amongst other things, guitar shaped fiddles. GEORGES CHANOT I. born at Mirecourt, 1801, died Courcelles, 1883, was the most celebrated maker of the family, and worked in Paris. He was one of the best judges of old instruments of his time. His best violins and basses are beautifully made and chiefly of Stradivari and Guarneri pattern. They command at the present day good prices and are rising in value. A son, GEORGES II., worked for many years in London, and was also well known as a dealer and repairer. He died in 1893. His sons, GEORGE ADOLPHUS, FREDERICK (died 1911), and JOSEPH ANTHONY, have all become known as makers. G. A. Chanot lives in Manchester, and Joseph Anthony is established in Wardour Street, London.

CHAPPUY, NICHOLAS AUGUSTIN.--Paris, Mirecourt; 1750-90. Instruments of unequal merit, some being of a very common class, inferior varnish and finish. Good examples have generally a tone of good quality and considerable power. What may be described as his own pattern is inelegant, flattish model, short corners, and broad in the waist; yellow and yellowish-brown varnish.

CHARDON.--Paris; contemporary. A well-known firm. JOSEPH MARIA CHARDON was a pupil of Georges Chanot, whose daughter he married.

CHARLES, J.--Marseilles; about 1780. Pretty work in style of Guersan. He was a nephew of that maker.

CHERPITEL, NICHOLAS ÉMILE.--Paris; died 1893.

CHEVRIER.--Nineteenth century. A Mirecourt family who worked there and in Paris.

CHRÉTIEN, HIPPOLYTE.--Lyons, Paris; contemporary. A good maker. Nephew of Silvestre, whose name he assumed. Firm Silvestre and Maucotel.

CLAUDOT.--Nineteenth century. Mirecourt family numbering several makers. CHARLES CLAUDOT, 1794-1876, adopted the brand often seen on the backs of instruments, “Marquis de l’air l’oiseau.” Other members of the family branded their names on their work.

CLÉMENT, JEAN LAURENT.--Paris; about 1800-48. Substantially made instruments with good varnish, usually red-brown, and handsome wood. Large pattern violins.

COLLIN-MEZIN, CHARLES JEAN BAPTIST.--Paris; contemporary. Born Mirecourt. Some of the instruments made about thirty years ago are esteemed and possess a good tone. Later specimens seem to be of the “factory class,” and are of little account.

CONTRERAS, JOSÉ.--Madrid; eighteenth century. Little known in this country. Instruments frequently handsome, and work Italian in character. A good many seem to have been re-labelled with the tickets of better known Italian makers.

CORSBY, GEORGE.--London; nineteenth century. A well-known dealer in Prince’s Street, Leicester Square. Seems to have been himself a workman, but employed others to make instruments for him. Another Corsby of Northampton made some good double-basses.

COUTURIEUX, N.--Toulon; about 1840. Made useful instruments of flat pattern. Branded inside with initials “N. C.”

CRASKE, GEORGE.--Born 1795, died, Stockport, in 1888. Worked in Bath, Leeds, Sheffield, Birmingham, Manchester, and elsewhere. Made a huge number of instruments of varying patterns, but readily identifiable after seeing a few examples. Work sometimes good, but more frequently only passable or indifferent. Tone not usually of good quality.

CRISTOFORI, BARTOLOMMEO.--Florence; seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Pupil of Niccolò Amati. Instruments very scarce, but some fine violoncellos, and at least one double-bass, are known. Is with some probability identified with Cristorfori who is usually accounted the inventor of the pianoforte.

CROSS, NATHANIEL.--London; to about 1745-50. Some well-made violins and basses exist, which exhibit a pattern and characteristics of German style. Yellow varnish. He was associated with Barak Norman (_q.v._).

CUYPERS, JAN.--The Hague. Born 1723-24, died about 1810-12. In several violins of late date he states his age, which in 1806 was 82. Instruments have risen rapidly in value of late years. They are soundly made, of good wood, and with yellow varnish of good quality. Pattern, shape of sound holes, and outline vary considerably. Scrolls heavy and boldly cut, but not handsome. The name is met with in books on the violin with the spelling “Koeuppers,” presumably copied from labels. Writer has not seen such.

DALINGER, SEBASTIAN.--Vienna; latter half of eighteenth century. Stainer pattern, dark varnish. Some examples have lion heads.

DALLA COSTA, PIETRO ANTONIO.--Treviso; about 1740 and later. Prints his name as “a Costa” in some of his tickets. Genuine instruments not very often seen. Generally Amati outline, good red or red-brown varnish. Well-finished work.

DALL’ AGLIO, JOSEPH.--Mantua; nineteenth century to about 1830.

DARCHE.--Nineteenth century. A well-known Mirecourt family working in Brussels and Aix. Their instruments are of the style and character of Vuillaume.

DAVIS, WILLIAM.--London; to 1846. Was a dealer and repairer in a large way in Coventry Street.

DEARLOVE, MARK WILLIAM.--Leeds; nineteenth century. The violoncellos and double-basses show good work and are in favour amongst orchestral players. He was for some time in partnership with John Fryer.

DE COMBLE, AMBROISE.--Tournay; about 1735 and later. Reputed to have worked with Antonio Stradivari, which is unlikely. Work not usually highly finished. Varnish red, of fine quality. Well-cut scrolls. Labels are written. There seem to be more violoncellos than violins of his make in this country.

DECONET, MICHELE.--Venice. Seems to have worked until after 1780. There are, or were not long ago, a certain number of spurious “Deconets” in this country; one individual, well known amongst London dealers, is said to have “specialised” in such things. Deconet used a variety of labels, written and printed, and his name is frequently spelt with a small “d.” His work is not unlike that of Montagnana, by whom he is said to have been employed. Good (sometimes excellent) varnish of the Venetian type, and red or red-brown colour. It is said that in later life he worked in Padua.

DEGANI, EUGENIO.--Venice; contemporary. A good workman who has obtained several medals for his instruments. Frequently uses purfling made in five strips (three black and two white) and works on a model of his own design.

DERAZEY, HONORÉ.--Mirecourt, Paris; to about 1875. Some of his copies are good sound instruments; chiefly Stradivari pattern. His son, JUSTIN DERAZEY, was a manufacturer on a large scale, and bought the business of “didier” Nicholas from the latter’s widow.

DEROUX.--Mirecourt, Paris; nineteenth century. There were two makers of the name. GEORGES, died 1889 (Reims). Worked for Derazey, and Mougenot of Brussels. Work branded, and name sometimes pencilled in instruments. His son, AUGUSTE, born 1848, worked with Hippolyte Silvestre, and Miremont. Is a good repairer and a medallist.

DESPINE, ALEXANDER.--Turin. Worked until about 1845. Was employed by Pressenda, and made some fine violins which bear that maker’s ticket. Occasionally copied Guarneri, del Gesù. Piatti at one time possessed a violoncello made by him.

DE VITOR, PIETRO PAOLO.--Venice, Brescia; about 1740. Made some large fiddles of Maggini pattern.

DIEHL.--A number of makers of the name worked in Germany in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.

DODD.--An English family, chiefly distinguished as bow-makers, in the late eighteenth and the nineteenth centuries. There were seven or eight workmen. JOHN, born at Stirling, 1752, died in Richmond Workhouse, 1839, was the best-known bow-maker, and at least two EDWARDS, one of whom attained the age of 105 years, were also makers. THOMAS DODD, who died in about 1820, had a business as instrument dealer and maker in St. Martin’s Lane, London. He does not seem to have made instruments personally, but discovered a fine varnish which he put upon excellent instruments made for him by Bernhard Fendt, John Lott, and other workmen. These instruments, especially the violoncellos, are of great merit and handsome appearance, and realise good prices.

DÖRFFELL, _also_ DÖRFFLER.--The name of fully a score of German makers working in Klingenthal and Markneukirchen; eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.

DOLLENZ.--Trieste; nineteenth century; there were two of the name.

DUCHESNE, NICHOLAS.--Paris; about 1750. Branded instruments of no great merit.

DUKE, RICHARD.--London; _circa_ 1750-85. A celebrated English maker. Chiefly copied Stainer, but also Amati, and more rarely Stradivari. Well-finished work. Usually red-brown varnish of rather dull hue, but lighter shades are seen. Instruments commonly stamped under the button. Spurious and counterfeit “Dukes,” many not in the least resembling the originals, abound. His son, Richard, attained no distinction.

DULFENN, ALEXANDER.--Leghorn; about 1700 and later. Specimens seen by writer were of wretched material and poor workmanship.

DVORAK.--Prague. Died 1890. A good copyist, who has left some well-made fiddles and violoncellos.

DYKES, HARRY, AND SONS.--London; contemporary. Well-known dealers and repairers. The sons, George and Arthur D., are both skilful workmen.

EBERLE.--Various makers of the name worked in Prague and elsewhere during the eighteenth century. The chief Prague maker was JOHANNES UDALRICUS EBERLE, 1699-1768, a skilful workman who has left a good many instruments, generally on the lines of Stainer, with handsome wood and well-cut scrolls. Varnish on many of them is excellent and of considerable brilliancy. TOMASO EBERLE worked in Naples down to about 1790. It does not appear whether he was related to the Prague family. There is little or no trace of German teachings in his violins, which are of the Gagliano class, and often bear Gagliano tickets. He may have worked with Niccolò Gagliano or some other member of the family. The varnish is similar to that used by that family; the work usually neat and well finished. Wood well-chosen and sometimes handsome.

EMILIANI, FRANCESCO DE.--Rome; eighteenth century. Rather high built. Work of the Tecchler school. He possibly assisted that maker. Scrolls very neatly cut.

ERNST, FRANZ ANTON.--Gotha. Died 1805. Work little known in this country. Said to be of Stradivari pattern. He was also a violinist and composer.

EURY.--Paris; early nineteenth century. An excellent bow-maker.

FABRIS, LUIGI.--Venice; 1860. Obtained medal in 1872 at Treviso.

FAGNOLA, ANNIBALE.--Turin; contemporary. A maker whose instruments have lately attracted attention. His imitations of Pressenda and Rocca’s instruments are clever and not unfrequently pass as originals. Some are not well finished. Writer has recently seen a very good example made in the style of J. B. Guadagnini.

FENDT.--London; late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. A gifted family of makers. The first, BERNHARD FENDT, was a native of Innsbruck, born _circa_ 1775; died, London, 1832. An admirable workman who copied the best features of the great Italian makers. He worked much for Thomas Dodd (_q.v._) and in association with John Lott. Later he worked for old John Betts, continuing to work for the house after the death of that maker. Work so made bears Betts’s stamp. BERNHARD SIMON FENDT, his eldest son, died in March, 1852. Worked for Betts and was for some time partner with one Purdy (“Purdy & Fendt”). He was a wonderfully clever copyist, and made, amongst other types, instruments of all sizes, from violins to double basses, in imitation of the Brescian style (Gaspar da Salò and Maggini). These instruments have been constantly mistaken for genuine Brescian examples--particularly the double-basses, of which a number are in existence. JACOB FENDT, third son of Bernhard I., died comparatively young in or about 1849. His abilities were also of a high order. He worked for Davis, of Coventry Street, and for Turner, the dealer, producing “modern antiques,” chiefly of Stradivari type, in which the appearance of wear and time are most skilfully imitated. The tone of his copies is usually of excellent quality. Other members of the family were MARTIN, WILLIAM, and FRANCIS; all good workmen.

FENT, FRANÇOIS.--Paris; _circa_ 1760-91. Related to above family, and stated to have been uncle and instructor of the first Bernhard Fendt. In his labels he omits the “d” from his name. Said to have come from Innsbruck. His best work has never been surpassed and seldom equalled by any maker working in France. The violins are of Stradivari form, and the style is Italian throughout. Wood of handsome figure, and the finish irreproachable. Varnish, a beautiful red brown. The tone of very fine quality even in inferior examples. His instruments, unfortunately, were obviously made in different grades; and the commoner types, which frequently bear his name stamped in various places, are of relatively little importance and money value. Some of his varnish is much oxydised (almost black), and the wood of both backs and bellies worm eaten. His finest fiddles have sometimes passed as genuine Strads, and occasionally Lupot’s labels have been inserted; but the work is less heavy and more graceful than that of Lupot. His ordinary label has an ornamental border, bears no date, and contains errors of spelling.

FICHTL.--A number of German and Austrian makers of this name are mentioned. Two named MARTIN MATTHIAS worked in Vienna in the eighteenth century and followed the Stainer pattern.

FICKER.--The name of fully a score of Markneukirchen and other German makers. JOHANN GOTTLOB, who died in 1832, is amongst the best known. Used a brand with his initials. Other Fickers followed the same practice.

FIORINI.--Two makers of the name may be mentioned. RAFFAELE worked in Italy, chiefly in Bologna, and died there in 1898. He made some well-finished instruments, amongst them a number of violoncellos. Varnish varies in colour, but is often a rather dark red. He was also reputed a good judge of old Italian work. GIUSEPPE, his son, migrated to Munich, where he was at work recently.

FISCHER.--Upwards of thirty German and Austrian makers of the name are enumerated.

FLORENO.--Bologna; eighteenth century. There appear to have been at least two makers who adopted the common practice of placing the surname first in their tickets. The Christian name, GUIDANTUS, has therefore appeared as the surname in various books. Writer has seen a few specimens bearing the label, with brilliant varnish. High built, and outline of Amati character.

FONCLAUZE.--Paris. Died 1864. A most skilful bow maker. He worked for several others, including Vuillaume.

FORSTER.--A well-known English family, who came from Brampton in Cumberland. Three were named WILLIAM, the second of whom died in 1808, and is best known as “Old Forster.” Very good work of Stainer or Stainer-Amati pattern. Oil varnish of a durable but not very clear texture. His violoncellos are more valued than the violins, though the work in the latter is often excellent. He employed various assistants, was patronised by Royalty, and his instruments commanded good prices in his own day. His grandson, SIMON ANDREW FORSTER (died 1870), was joint author with Sandys of a well-known history of the violin. A very readable, but not conspicuously accurate compilation, which has been humorously dubbed “the history of the Forster family.” He was himself a maker, and some of his work is of considerable merit.