Chapter VII: Part 7

In the foregoing it has been aimed to give the reader the general underlying principles of camouflage and low visibility, but at best this is only a resume. In the following references will be found more extensive discussions of various phases of the subject.

REFERENCES

1. A Study of Zoellner's Figures and Other Related Figures, J. Jastrow, Amer. Jour. of Psych. 1891, 4, p. 381.

2. A Study of Geometrical Illusions, C. H. Judd, Psych. Rev. 1899, 6, p. 241.

3. Visual Illusions of Depth, H. A. Carr, Psych. Rev. 1909, 16, p. 219.

4. Irradiation of Light, F. P. Boswell, Psych. Bul. 1905, 2, p. 200.

5. Retiring and Advancing Colors, M. Luckiesh, Amer. Jour. Psych. 1918, 29, p. 182.

6. The Language of Color, 1918, M. Luckiesh.

7. Apparent Form of the Dome of the Sky, Ann. d. Physik, 1918, 55, p. 387; Sci. Abs. 1918, No. 1147.

8. Course on Optics, 1738, Robert Smith.

9. Color and Its Applications, 1915 and 1921; Light and Shade and Their Applications, 1916, M. Luckiesh.

10. Report of The Submarine Defense Association, L. T. Bates and L. A. Jones.

11. Marine Camouflage Design, E. L. Warner, Trans. I. E. S. 1919, 14, p. 215.

12. The Visibility of Airplanes, M. Luckiesh, Jour. Frank. Inst. March and April, 1919; also Aerial Photometry, Astrophys. Jour. 1919, 49, p. 108.

13. Jour. Amer. Opt. Soc., E. Karrer, 1921.

The foregoing are only a few references indicated in the text. Hundreds of references are available and obviously it is impracticable to include such a list. The most fruitful sources of references are the general works on psychology. E. B. Titchener's Experimental Psychology (vol. 1) contains an excellent list. A chapter on Space in William James' Principles of Psychology (vol. II) will be found of interest to those who wish to delve deeper into visual perception. Other general references are Elements of Physiological Psychology by Ladd and Woodworth; the works of Helmholtz; a contribution by Hering in Hermann's Handb. d. Phys. Bk. III, part 1; Physiological Psychology by Wundt; E. B. Delabarre, Amer. Jour. Psych. 1898, 9, p. 573; W. Wundt, Taeuschungen, p. 157 and Philos. Stud. 1898, 14, p. 1; T. Lipps, Raumaesthetik and Zeit. f. Psych. 1896, 12, 39.

INDEX

Aberration, 19
spherical, 122
chromatic, 135

Aerial perspective, 165, 183

After-images, 24, 25, 59, 128, 186
positive and negative, 129

Airplanes, visibility of, 233
camouflage for different types, 234
size of image at various altitudes, 238
camouflage for various conditions, 240

Alhazen, 8

Angles, influence of, 76
various effects of, 81
contours and, 87
apparent effect on length, 91
theories, 98

Animals, protective coloration, 211

Architecture, 195
balance in, 201

Arcs, circular, illusions due to, 86

Areas, juxtaposed, illusions of, 96

Artist, 179

Attention, fluctuation of, 65, 106, 141, 164

Aubert, 49

Auerbach's indirect vision theory, 100

Aureole, 178

Balance in architecture, 201

Bas-relief, 143

Battleships, 222

Binocular disparity, 105

Binocular vision, 29, 31

Blending of colors in camouflage, 216

Blind spot, 21

Blue light on war-vessels, 230

Boswell, varieties of irradiation, 122

Brightness,
illusions due to
variations in, 107
and color contrasts, 114
apparatus, 115
and hue, 125
sky, 241

Brucke's theory, 37

Brunot's mean distance theory, 101

Camouflage, 210
terrestrial, 210
detection of, 215
marine, 222
airplane, 234

Carr, observations on distance illusions, 108

Chromatic aberration, 19, 135

Chlorophyl, 214

Circle, 11
arcs of, illusion, 86
contracting and expanding illusion, 98

Clouds, 235

Color, 124
after-images, 128
blending in camouflage, 216
contrasts and brightness, 114
growth and decay of sensation, 131
illusions of, 156
retiring and advancing, 138
saturation, 154
sensibility of retina, 138
warm and cold, 158

Confusability, 226

Confusion theory of angular illusions, 100

Contour, illusions of, 52
and angles, illusions, 87

Contracting and expanding circles, illusion of, 98

Contrasts, illusions of, 53
simultaneous, 124, 154
apparatus for, 115, 125
color, 114, 154, 188
brightness, 114

Convergence, illusions of, 108, 191

Cord, twisted, illusion, 88

Daylight, artificial, 189

Decoration, painting and, 179

Decorator, 188

Dember, 167

Depth and distance, illusions, 102

Direction, illusions of
Zoellner's, 76
Wundt's, 79
Hering's, 80

Disk, Mason, 132

Distance and depth, illusions, 102
and size, 35, 104, 166

Distance illusions, Carr's observations, 108

Double images, 37

Dynamic theory of angular illusions, 99

Enlargement of sun and moon at horizon, apparent, 169

Equivocal figures, 64

Euclid, 8

Extent, interrupted, illusions of, 48

External image, 15, 17, 34

Eye, physiology, 13
position, 30
adjustments, 33
defects, 19

Fatigue, 128

Field, visual, effect of location in, 44

Figures, equivocal, 64

Filters, color, 214

Fluctuation of attention, 65, 106, 141, 164

Focusing, 14

Form of sky, apparent, 166

Fovea centralis, 22, 23, 139

Frames, picture, effect of wood grain, 190

Geometrical illusions, 44

Glare, 119

Grain of wood, apparent distortions due to, 190

Grecian art, 196

Growth and decay of color sensation, 131

Guttman, 175

Hallucination, 4, 72

Halo, 178

Haze, illusions, etc., 103, 166, 183
earth and high, 240

Helmholtz, 13, 74

Hering, 74
illusion of direction, 80

Hue and brightness, 125

Illusions, geometrical, 44
equivocal figures, 64
influence of angles, 76
of depth and distance, 102
irradiation and brightness contrast, 114
color, 124
light and shadows, 144
in nature, 164
in painting and decoration, 179
mirror, 205
camouflage, 210

Image
after-, 24, 25, 59, 128, 129, 186
double, 37
external, 15, 17, 34
retinal, inversion of, 16
of airplane, size at various altitudes, 238

Indirect vision theory, Auerbach's, 100

Intaglio, 143

Interrupted extent, illusions of, 48

Iris, 15

Irradiation, 120
and brightness contrast, 114
varieties of (Boswell), 122
in architecture, 199

James, 170

Jastrow, 80

Jones, L. A., 223

Judd, 86, 93

Judgment, 1

Karrer, 160

Kepler, 8

Light, effect of spectral character, 189

Lighting, illusions of depth and distance due to, 102
contrasts, 154
diffusion, effect of, 145
direction, effect of, 144, 151
ending of searchlight beam, 160
warm and cold colors, 158

Lipps, 10, 11
dynamic theory of, 99

Location in visual field, effect, 44

Mean distance theory, Brunot's, 101

Mechanical, esthetic unity, 11

Magician, 3

Magic, mirror, 205

Marine camouflage, 222

Mason disk, 132

Mirage, 3, 176

Mirror magic, 205

Miscellaneous color effects, 140

Moon, apparent size at horizon, 8, 36, 169
theories of, 173
apparent radius of crescent, 121

Mueller-Lyer illusion, 53, 93

National Research Council, Committee on Camouflage, 234

Nature, 164

Necker, 74

Oppel, 9

Painting and decoration, 179

Painter, 2, 179, 186

Parallax, 105

Parthenon of Athens, 196

Persistence of vision, 131

Perspective, 58
in architecture, 198
aerial 165, 183
theory, 98

Photographer, 152

Photography, use in detection of camouflage, 220

Photometer, 156, 217

Pigments, 184

Poggendorff illusion, 85

Protective coloration, animals, 211

Psychology, 2, 6, 157
of light, 193

Purkinje phenomenon, 26, 139

Reflection-factors, 236

Retina, 14, 20
inertia, 130
color sensibility, 138

Retinal rivalry, 140

Retiring and advancing colors, 136

Reversal of mirror image, 205

Rods and cones, 21

Schroeder's staircase, 70

Sculpture, 204

Searchlight beam, ending of, 160

Sensation, color, growth and decay, 131

Sense, 1

Shading, counter, for vessels, 224

Shadows, importance in camouflage, 215

Size and distance, 35, 36
illusions of, 104, 166

Sky
apparent form of, 166
brightness, 241

Skylight and sunlight, relative proportions of, 215, 243

Smith, Robert, 173

Smoke-screens, 230

Spectral character of light, 189

Sphere, illusions, 145, 150, 151

Spherical aberration, 19

Sphinx illusion, 206

Spiral illusions, 90

Spraying, paint, 187

Stereoscope, 39, 142

Stereoscopic vision, 38, 41, 141

Submarines, 225
camouflage for, 232

Sun, apparent enlargement at horizon, 169

Sunlight and skylight, relative proportions in nature, 215, 243

Terrestrial camouflage, 210

Theory of influence of angles, 98
perspective, 98
dynamic, 99
confusion, 100
indirect vision, 100
mean distance, 101

Thiery's figure, 71

Thiery's perspective theory, 99

Transparencies, 185

Twisted cord illusions, 88

Uibe, 167

Vertical vs. horizontal distances, 11, 36, 46

Visibility, low, for vessels, 222
of airplanes, 233

Vision, 29
persistence of, 131
stereoscopic, 38

Visual perception, 32, 33

Warm and cold colors, 158

Warner, E. L., 227

Wheatstone, 37

Wood grain, illusions caused by, 191

World War, 213

Wundt, 10, 11, 32, 74
illusion of direction, 79

Yellow spot, 139

Zoellner's illusion, 67, 76

Zoth, 175

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Transcriber's Notes:

Passages in italics are indicated by _italics_.

Subscripted characters are indicated by {subscript}.

The following misprints have been corrected:
"imgaes" corrected to "images" (page 128)
"bove" corrected to "above" (page 177)
"verticle" corrected to "vertical" (page 239)
"colo" corrected to "color" (Index)

Other than the corrections listed above, inconsistencies in spelling and hyphenation have been retained from the original.

The inverted "8" and "S" characters at the top of page 45 cannot be properly represented in this text version.

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