Chapter XX: Review and Revision

All the most important truths of any subject may be stated in a brief space. The Author proposes to make this final chapter one of a restatement of the essentials of the subject in the light of our present-day knowledge, and with a distinct relation to practice.

The object of the speaker or singer is to produce certain sounds which shall as easily as possible convey to the listener his own state of mind. It follows that he must have a clear idea of these sounds, that he must hear them mentally prior to their utterance; in other words, the psychological must precede the physiological. Voice production for the purpose of speaking and singing implies a coöperation of the psychic and the physiological, a co-ordination of processes that are psychic, and physical, somatic or physiological.

It is well to regard the subject from as many points of view as possible, and to consider the various ways in which the same truth may be stated.

Stress must be laid on the idea of co-ordination, for processes may be independently satisfactory yet fail to lead to the desired result if they are not connected, harmonised or co-ordinated. The latter is the better term because it suggests a certain order of progress. As a matter of fact, first the psychic, then the physiological. The idea may be clear, yet from a physical defect, as in stammering, the result does not follow, though this physiological imperfection in movement may itself be the result of a psychic condition and generally is so. A clearer case is that of paralysis of the vocal organs. The ideas to be expressed may be perfectly clear in the mind yet impossible of expression. The defect is at the distal end of the combination--_i.e._, in the physical, somatic or bodily part of the process to express the same idea by the use of different terms. The consideration of conditions of defect or pathological states may make normal psychological and physiological ones clearer, as has been shown by the above illustrations. The practical importance of the co-ordination of processes is very great. It is not possible for one born deaf to speak because the necessary mental or psychic conditions for co-ordination do not exist--_i.e._, there is no sound in the mind to be expressed--not because there is any serious anatomical defect. In like manner the student of singing will produce no better tone than he has in mind no matter how much he practices vocalization. It follows, therefore, that the psychic state of the student should be kept in advance of his actual powers of execution. This he will most successfully do by listening to the best artists either directly or if this be impossible by hearing their gramophone records--all this in addition to the best the teacher can do for him by the correction of faults, giving him illustrations of better tone by his own efforts, etc. If the student has the opportunity of hearing himself by means of a phonographic record, he should not fail to do so. No one ever hears himself as others hear him.

As the mind and the brain are always associated in thought and feeling; in other words, in psychic processes, and these latter find expression chiefly through movements, in one sense a study of vocalization may be considered a study of movements. These are always brought about by the use of several muscles which act together for a definite end--_i.e._, they are co-ordinated. As such movements generally involve many muscles and to be effective must be exact and under perfect control, much practice is necessary, though "much" should have reference rather to the clearness of the mind in reference to what is to be attained and the means of accomplishing it, rather than to the amount of time spent over the actual performance. We may confidently assert that technique or the physical side of putting the ideas into execution, which is simply making certain movements, is successful largely in proportion to the perfection of the psychic processes involved. A clear head should precede the moving hand, or functioning vocal organs. The student should think technique before and after its actual execution. This is even yet, in spite of a great advance in recent years, the weakest part of the student's method of work. All that we know of science as well as the results of all rightly directed practice emphasizes the importance of this central truth.

Assuming that the psychic condition is satisfactory for the production of a definite tone--_i.e._, that it is heard mentally, what follows before it is actually produced, before it becomes a tone from the physicist's point of view? What is the chain of physical, somatic, bodily or anatomical (to use several words that express similar but slightly different aspects of the same main idea) connections involved, and what is the nature of the physiological processes; in other words, what are the parts of the body involved and how do they act? This will be clearer if we first consider the mechanism concerned and its functions in a general way.

The instrument which is played upon, which finally gives rise to the tone, may be spoken of as that connected series of cavities for which we have no single term but which are generally named the resonance chambers when regarded from the physicist's point of view. To the musician they are the instrument, to the physiologist and anatomist a set of chambers communicating with each other. Plainly all the rest of the vocal mechanism exists for them, and too much stress cannot be laid on this fact. However excellent the state of training of the part below them this is of no avail except in so far as it can affect these resonance cavities.

How is this instrument played upon and how are these cavities made actually into resounding chambers? In the answer to this, in the recognition of the relationship of the three distinct parts of the vocal apparatus lies the one great fundamental conception of the manner in which tone is produced. To understand this clearly is to comprehend in its main outlines the whole subject of voice production in a scientific way.

Before a tone is heard vibrations of the atmospheric air must reach the ear. These are set up by the vibration of the air within the resonance chambers, and this again is effected by the mechanism below them--_i.e._, by the movements of the vocal bands of the larynx which are due to the blast of air emanating from the lungs, this itself being brought into being by the movements of the chest, using the term in the widest sense, thus including the diaphragm, etc.

Breathing has for its object so far as phonation is concerned no other purpose than to so affect the vocal bands, that the resonance chambers really do resound. The question is how is this breathing best accomplished so that the instrument shall be most efficiently played upon? We cannot alter the anatomical structure of the instrument appreciably, but we can improve the functioning of the several parts of the whole apparatus. Breathing can be improved as regards power and control. More can be done with less expenditure of energy than originally if there be judicious training. How shall we train? As the outgoing stream of air alone affects the vocal bands, it is clear that we must aim to so apply and regulate this outflow that the desired result shall follow from the least possible expenditure of energy. How the air is got in is important only in relation to its expenditure. But the easier the supply is furnished the better. This law of the conservation of energy is one of the greatest importance, for all beings have but a limited supply of energy and our problem must ever be how best to husband this as a wise man should study how best to spend his limited income. One must not only consider what is called for in ordinary conversational speaking, or in singing in a small room, but also when the greatest possible efforts are demanded. In all cases when movements are concerned, indeed whenever activity of any kind psychic or physiological is involved the _law of habit_ should be borne in mind--_i.e._, one should so think and do that a habit may be established, for a habit implies, when a good one, that there is economy of both mental and bodily energy.

The aim of all training is to establish good habits--ways of doing things which will leave the subject with more capital to invest so to speak, as he wastes less. It follows that the same methods should always be used in trying to attain the same end. There are few subjects of equal importance so little considered by students of music in a conscious intelligent way. A clear conviction as to the foundation for close adherence to certain methods of doing things is an invaluable mental asset for any student.

The whole subject of breathing has been so fully considered in previous chapters--indeed more or less in all parts of this work--that it is not necessary to go into much detail now. The investigations of physiologists in the internal have only emphasised the author's teaching on this subject. The present position of the subject may be stated thus: (1) In inspiration the whole chest is enlarged, this involving the descent of the diaphragm. (2) The amount of mobility is much greater in the lower half of the chest. (3) This lower half of the chest and the diaphragm act together, constituting a special mechanism of great importance. (4) The abdominal muscles discharge a coöperative function. It follows that the advice of a present day famous tenor to "breathe low" is sound. Nevertheless, it must not be forgotten that inspiration begins above and that the upper chest has its functions also. It is not merely a region of support for the lower mechanism, important as this function is. The terms "abdominal" and "diaphragmatic" respiration have led to misunderstanding. Neither the abdominal muscles nor the diaphragm ever act alone in normal respiration, though they are important coöperative factors.

Breathing exercises should be based on broad views of the subject, and no part of the respiratory mechanism should be neglected.

Small an organ as is the larynx it is through it the energy of the expiratory act is transmitted effectively or the reverse to the all-important resonance chambers. This should be so done that there is no waste; in other words, that there be perfect co-ordination between the breathing and the laryngeal mechanism. The vocal bands must be so related in function to the expiratory mechanism that the outgoing blast of air shall be as effective as possible. There must be no waste of power--_i.e._, of the expiratory blast through escape of air that accomplishes no purpose. The blast must be so applied to the vocal bands, or, in other words, they must be so adapted to the blast that there is no waste of energy. If the bands approximate a little too late there is waste of breath power. The bands must further so beat the air of the resonance chambers as to get the greatest possible result with the least possible expenditure of energy. As all these co-ordinations imply the action of many muscles in a related way, it is plain that intelligent and prolonged training is necessary; and if our scientific knowledge had no other result than to establish such a conviction on a sure basis it would be well worth while; but it is a light unto the feet of the student and teacher at every step, only it must be a clear light, not one seen through a mental haze. If there be failure the fault must not be set down to science but to ourselves.

It is ever to be borne in mind that when anything is done in the right way not only is there no pain, unpleasant feeling or evil after-effects, but when real skill has been attained through training, the result is accomplished with a sense of ease and all the accompanying feelings are agreeable. The singer need not know that he has a throat by any disagreeable reminder. At the same time a function may be correctly discharged but continued too long, so that weariness or positive fatigue with some evil consequences may follow. Fatigue always implies more or less poisoning of the system.

Of the resonance chambers, the mouth cavity, the pharyngeal cavity and the naso-pharynx, which may both be regarded as a part of the mouth cavity, and the nasal chambers, the latter may be considered the least variable in shape; nevertheless they can, by means of the soft palate, be to a large extent shut off from the other parts of this series of chambers.

The means by which the size and shape of the resonance chambers can be varied are chiefly the soft palate and the tongue, the latter being of the greatest importance. The changes in the shape of the mouth cavity necessary for the formation of vowels are due chiefly to the movements of the tongue, and the tongue is more largely concerned in the utterance of consonants than any other moveable part of the upper voice mechanism.

For practical ends it is important to realize that one speaks with the tongue; and if one believed that everything depended on this organ, other parts--including the outer mouth or lips merely to be kept out of the way--the result would on the whole likely be gain.

In the formation of vowels the result may be good when the lips take but the slightest active part, and the student is advised to practice vowel formation without the use of the lips. He is likely to use them enough in any case provided he ensures the formation of pure vowel sounds, and people seem to have an extraordinary facility for over-doing the use of lip movements, for getting the teeth in the way and thus spoiling tone, that was begun well, before it has escaped from the mouth. It may be observed that those who get their living on the streets by the use of the voice, and who use the voice much and often speak rapidly, and in spite of this are heard well, so construct their words that the lips are not seen to move to any appreciable extent except as the lower jaw moves. The lips seem to be always apart. It is not the amount of movement that is important but the kind of movement, especially its rapidity.

Muscular efforts for the production of consonants should be neat, decisive, sharp, rather than held ones, which tend to spoil the word as a whole. As a rule, one is safe in holding the vowel as long as possible and in making the time dwelt on the consonant as short as possible--_i.e._, consistent with distinct and musical utterance.

The same applies to singing with even greater force. In speaking especially short pauses not printed in the text may be made to great advantage, and this is often better than dwelling on consonants. The mouth of the speaker and still more that of the singer should not attract the attention of the listener, so the less movement of the lips of a kind readily open to observation, the better. Besides such movements being unnecessary are a waste of muscular and nervous energy.

Singers are not warranted in departing to any appreciable extent from the pronunciation of words laid down as standard for speakers--_e.g._, "shall" should not be sung as "sholl," and in such a word as "motion," the final syllable should not be made equally important with the first one. Singers should observe the laws of a good elocution; in other words, such treatment of the language of the song as an approved reader would employ. The author would go so far as to say that no singer should appear in public till he can utter every syllable as he sings so that it is readily recognised by the listener. At present such is rarely the case even with the best vocalists. All prospective vocalists should study utterance by the speaking voice first and continue it when the study of singing has been begun. The words of every song, etc., should be mastered in all respects before they are sung.

As the degree of success in singing or speaking depends so far as technique is concerned on a series of co-ordinations the condition of both the psychic and bodily mechanism as determined by training and the general health of the individual is of great importance; and it is not to be forgotten that the mind as well as the body is to be considered in all questions of hygiene.

INDEX.

A

Abdominal muscles, 66

Acoustics, 97

Adam's apple, 80

Adductors, 82

Air, 48
complemental, 70
quantity of, in lungs, 70
residual, 70
supplemental, 70
tidal, 70

Amateurs, 274

American speech, 146

Americans, pitch of, 224

Antagonists, 53

Anatomy, 35

Art, 17, 272

Artist, isolation of, 254

Artistic, 246
perception, 245
temperament, 31

Arytenoid cartilages, 77

Aspirates, 228

Attack, 30, 125, 127, 208
best tests of a good, 129
good, 127, 232

Auditory messages, 250

Auto-laryngoscopy, 109, 110, 152, 161

B

"Backward" production, 213

Bel Canto, 211

Break, 162

Breath, 60, 72
control of, 20, 21
exercise for, 133, 134
in phonation, 130
manner of using, 172, 208
stream, 22, 125, 194

Breathing, 44-73, 118, 124
abdominal, 118
clavicular, 118, 119
deep, 63
diaphragmatic, 118, 119
exercises, 131
mechanism, control of, 120
method of, 64, 177
nose, 131

C

Cartilage of Santorini, 77
Wrisberg, 77

Cells, 36

Chest, 50, 62, 71
cavity of, 71
complete control of, 62
position of, in singing, 123
in speaking, 123

Children, public appearance of, 116
register of, 234

Choral singing, 247

Choristers, 256

Circulatory system, 37

Clergyman's sore-throat, 88

Cold, a, 77, 92
prevention of, 93

Color, 214

Composers, 116

Consonant, a, 195, 196

Consonants, 223, 225, 226, 230-235
mouth positions of, 226-228

Corsets, evil effects of, 72

Coup de glotte, 124-127, 139

Cramming, 46

Cricoid cartilage, 77, 81
thyroid, 83, 85
membrane, 81

Curwen, 156

D

Dialects, 225, 235

Diameters, 50

Diaphragm, 52, 53, 66, 71

E

Ear, 182, 236, 245, 248
connection with mouth cavity, 203
drum-head of, 240
external, purpose of, 240
for music, 244
lack of, 245, 249
inner, 237, 241
middle, 237, 241
musical, 31
outer, 237
purpose of, 238

Ease, 123, 233

English, 198
speech, 146

Epiglottis, 79

Eustachian tube, 241

Execution, 179, 256

Exercises, 131-135, 139
practical, 73

Expiration, 49

Expiratory blast, 60, 68, 88, 103, 177
current, 136, 208

Explosives, 226

Expression, 254

F

Falsetto, 154
high, 170, 178
in males, 160, 179

"Feeling-tone", 212

Food, 263

"Forward" production, 213

Fundamental principles, 179-194
application of, 195-206
tone, 231

G

Garcia, Manuel, 105, 138, 159

German language, 198
speech, 146

Germans, pitch of, 224

Glide, 258

Glottis, 47, 78, 82, 88, 126, 159
in barytone voices, 157
bass voices, 157
contralto voices, 158
mezzo-soprano voices, 158
tenor voices, 157
ligamentous, 157

H

Head, position of, 205

Hearing, 101, 236-250
difference in animals, 101
highest limit of, 102
lower limit of, 102

Helmholtz, 167

Hygiene, 33, 72, 92, 93, 251-275

Hyoid bone, 81, 95

I

Illustration of principles, 27, 28

Impulses, 236

Inhibitions, 184

Inspiration, 48, 51, 71

Intonation, 195, 196, 230
correct position for good, 131

Italian language, 198

K

Knowledge, principle of, 34

L

Larynx, 60, 74-96, 136, 148, 258
anatomy of, 21
as a musical instrument, 102
change in size of, 111
control over, 112
difference in size, 110
growth of, 138
in action, 109
in singing and speaking, 198
muscles of, 81, 95
of the male 138
photography of, 161
physiology of, 21
ventricle of, 80
vibrations of, 96
whole, 94

Laryngoscope, 91, 103, 136

Ligamentous glottis, 157

Lips, 202

Lungs, 49, 63

Lymph, 37

M

Mackenzie, Sir Morell, 156, 167, 168

Mara, Madame, range of, 111

Marcato production, 209

Marchesi, Madame, teaching of, 159

Men, register of, 234

Messages, Auditory, 250

Methods, correct, 22, 23
faulty, 32

Middle production, 214

Midriff, see diaphragm

Mind, 210

Mirror, use of, 235

Mouth, as a resonance chamber, 221
resonator, 148
cavity, 149
respiration, 131
toilet of, 262

Movements, 192

Muscles, 36, 82
abdominal, 66

Muscular action, 71
mechanism, 42
movements, 179

Music, 243
appreciation of, 247
intellectuality in, 256
intelligence in, 108
interpretation of, 21

Musical artist, 198
ear, 31
prodigy, 243
faculty develops early, 115
faults, 258
sounds, practical range of, 102
tones, 231

Musician, fundamental qualities of, 246

N

Nasal chambers, 144, 149, 214

Nasality, 231

Nerve-cells, 38

Nervous centres, 39
impulses, 244, 250
system, 38

Nervousness, 274

Neuro-muscular mechanisms, 17, 42, 181
processes, 183
system, 43

New language, learning of, 224

Noise, 218

O

Open mouth, 203, 204, 217

Ordinary speech, 230

Overtones, 231, 235

P

Palate, cleft, 149
hard, 149, 213
soft, 145, 214, 216, 231

Phonation, 192, 193
breath in, 130
example of, 193

Physics, principles of involved, 135

Physiological considerations, 34-43
teachings, 26, 31

Piano production, 259

Pillars of the fauces, 145

Pitch, 101, 136, 150, 214
favorite, 273

Portamento production, 258

Practical considerations, 88

Practice, 132, 185-192
best time to, 186, 187
by wrong method, 191
for sustained tone, 132
methods of, 194

Puberty, at, 112, 138
in boys, 114, 115
in girls, 113

Public singing, age to begin, 115
speaking, 212

Pumping, 259

Q

Quality, 101, 136, 214

R

R and s, interval between, 225

Reed, long, 157
short, 157

Reflex action, 40

Reflexes, associated, 183
protective character of, 58, 59
sets of, 184

Register, 233
change in, 169, 177
chest, 160
definition of, 176
in female voices, 160
of basses and barytones, 170
of tenors, 170

Registers, 151-178
Behnke on, 155, 156, 167
Garcia on, 155
Mackenzie on, 156, 167, 168
Madame Seiler on, 153, 165, 170
Mandl on, 158

Resonance chambers, 102, 136, 140-150, 175, 182, 198, 213, 223, 224,
228, 234
in sounding bodies, 140
of musical instruments, 140, 141

Resonants, 228

Resonator, 148

Respiration, 46, 48, 68, 69
forced, 119
hygiene of, 55
mouth, 131

Respiratory centre, 57, 58, 172
efficiency, 124
organs, 47
system, 37
tract, 26

S

Science, 17

Scripture, Prof., 150

Seiler, Madame, 153, 165, 170

Selections in public, 271

Sensations, 172, 174, 175, 178

Septum nasi, 149

Singer, purpose of, 99
range of, 269

Singing, choral, 256
class, 257
fortissimo, 121
good, 259
in schools, 247

Song, elements of, 218-229

Soprano, highest tones of, 137
light, 232

Sound, 60, 97-103, 135, 225
quality of, 102, 246
Tyndall on, 97
volume of, 101, 102, 136

Sounding body, 99

Speaker, purpose of, 99

Speaking, good, 259

Speech, elements of, 218-229
organs of, 233
purity of, 135

Sphincter action, 86

Staccato production, 209

Stammering, 268

Stop-closure, 158

Straining, 86, 175

Straw bass, 88

Stuttering, 268

Style, 254

Swell, 207, 212

T

Technique, 23, 179, 183, 185, 186, 254, 255

Teeth, 202

Temperament, 245

Tenors, 232

Throat mirror, 107
sore, 265

Thyro-arytenoideus, 84, 85
hyoid membrane, 81

Thyroid cartilage, 76, 81

Timbre, 136

Tone, 132, 135, 136
carrying power of, 126
color of, 214
ground, 231
head, 160
piano, 233
pitch of, 126
production, 132, 207-217
quality of, 128, 142, 150, 231
the sustained, 208
volume of, 126

Tones, 189
head, 177
highest, 137
lower, 137
quality of, 146
timbre of, 136
upper, 86

Tongue, 131, 145, 149, 214
control of, 202
influence of, 201

Tonsils, 145, 149

Trachea, 81

Tremolo, 128, 258, 259

Tuning fork, 99

U

Uvula, 145

V

Vibrations, 61, 98, 100, 236

Vibratives, 228

Vibrato, 258

Vital capacity, 71

Vocal athlete, 182

Vocal bands, 87, 103, 126
action of, 137
false, 78
true, 77, 78, 80, 94
vibrations of, 136
cords, false, 95
Madame Seiler on, 154
true, 95
methods, 32
physiology, 17-32
training, early weeks of, 246

Vocalises, 207

Vocalist, ideal, 198

Vocalization, 19, 31

Voice, 44, 254
breaking of, 114
brightening the, 216
carrying power of, 232
darkening the, 216
even, 84
harsh, 232
head, in females, 166
in ill health, 114
loud, 272
placed, 215
position in use of, 206
production, 22, 244
small in volume, 272
user, 17, 33, 46
exercises for, 135
well placed, 175

Voices, classification of, 260, 261
injured, 26

Vowel, a, 195
purity of, 199
sounds, 196, 197, 216

Vowels, adaptation of, to ideas, 222
and consonants, 230, 235
dark, 235
formation of, 218-221
low-pitched, 235
mouth positions of, 218
perfect sound of, 221
pitch of, 221, 225, 230
quality of, 221

W

Wagner, 257

Whispering, 225, 226

Women, register of, 234