Chapter XII: Author’s Voyage to Europe.--Some Account of the Island of Ceylon

On the 12th of March 1789 I embarked at Cochin in order to return to Europe, that I might proceed to Rome and deliver the letters which I had received from the procurator of the Missionary Establishment on the coast of Malabar, and from the agents appointed by the _Propaganda_ for its correspondence with the Christians of St. Thomas. The ship in which I took my passage was the Calypso frigate of thirty guns, having on board three hundred and forty persons, partly seamen and partly marines. This vessel was commanded by Count Kergoriou Loemaria, knight of the order of St. Louis, and member of that also which was instituted by the American congress[245]; a man who acquired great honour by his conduct in the American war when he commanded the Juno frigate. The Calypso had been sent out to protect the French trade in India, accompanied with the Astræa, Medusa, and Penelope, the last of which was lost at the Cape of Good Hope. The commodore of the whole squadron was M. St. Riveul. As this gentleman was, at that time, on board the Medusa frigate, in the road of Cochin, my friend Count Kergoriou procured from him permission for me to return to Europe in his vessel, at the expence of Louis XVI. king of France.

We directed our course towards Cape Comorin, called in the Malabar language _Comari_, or _Canyamuri_, which we sailed past two days after, on the 14th of March. The pleasure we enjoyed in this agreeable passage, and the beautiful prospects with which our eyes were gratified, can hardly be described. Having kept as close to the land as possible, the whole coast of Malabar appeared before us in the form of a green amphitheatre. At one time we discovered a district entirely covered with coconut trees, and immediately after a river winding through a delightful vale, at the bottom of which it discharged itself into the sea. In one place appeared a multitude of people employed in fishing; in another, a snow-white church bursting forth to view from amidst the thick-leaved trees. Whilst we were enjoying these delightful scenes with the early morning, a gentle breeze, which blew from the shore, perfumed the air around us with the agreeable smell wafted from the cardamom, pepper, betel, and abundance of aromatic herbs and plants. Towards noon, however, there arose a brisk gale, which sweeping the surface of the ocean, hastened the course of our Calypso, and soon carried us beyond the view of this enchanting country.

On the morning of the 18th of March we cast anchor in the harbour of Colombo, in the island of Ceylon, where we found two European ships, and one Savoyard, the owner of which was a French merchant named Le Fabre. M. Van de Graaf, brother-in-law of the often before-mentioned commandant of Cochin, M. I. G. van Angelbec, who was then governor of the Dutch possessions in the island of Ceylon, sent to meet us his three state carriages, one of which was destined for the commander of our frigate, and the other two for the rest of the officers. With this equipage we were conducted to a garden without the city, in which the governor-general, M. De Graaf, at that time resided, and where an elegant breakfast had been prepared for us. For a few days after I had sufficient time and leisure to wander about through the island, in order to make observations on the nature of the country and its productions; but I had nearly experienced the same fate as a hundred other travellers who visit both the coasts of India, and who, for want of the necessary knowledge of the languages, are obliged to put up with the erroneous information they receive from poor fishermen and other ignorant persons, which they afterwards, without reflection or proper examination, insert in their journals. Such, indeed, would have been the case with me, had I not met with people in Ceylon who understood both the Malabar and the Tamulic languages, and who were able to gratify my curiosity. My residence there was, indeed, too short to enable me to give a complete description of the island; but I can certainly communicate some useful information on the subject: and if I enlarge it by what I have learned from Knox, Sonnerat, Spilberg, Cossigny, and other travellers, I hope the reader will not think his labour lost to peruse it.

The island of Ceylon is called in the Samscred language _Lanca_, or _Langa_; also _Ilam_, or _Salàbbam_. The last word is compounded of _Sal_, true; and _Labham_, gain; consequently signifies the land which brings real gain. The island of Ceylon is undoubtedly worthy of this name, because a great many precious stones are found in it, and because pearls are fished up on its western coasts. The Samscred appellation _Salàbham_ seems to have given rise to the corrupted name _Salica_, as it is called by Ptolemy, from which has been formed Ceylon. According to M. De la Tour, it lies in the latitude of 9° 15′, and the longitude of 77° and 78°. Towards the west it borders closely on the coast of Pescaria; so that it is separated from it only by the narrow strait of _Manàr_, where there is the celebrated bridge of _Ràma_, called by the Europeans Adam’s bridge. This bridge extends so far into the sea, that people can pass, in a very small vessel, to the so-called _Rama’s Point_, on the coast of Pescaria. Not far from the above-mentioned bridge of Rama stands the celebrated temple of _Ramanacoil_, in which the younger Bacchus, and also the _Lingam_ or _Phallus_ of _Shiva_, or the elder Bacchus, are preserved. This bridge is still more remarkable, because it appears from the _Purana_, or ancient history of India, that Ceylon by its means was first peopled, as an Indian colony went to the island along that bridge, and introduced into it the Samscred language, together with the Indian manners and customs. The names of different places, such as _Moselpati_, _Jasnapatnam_, _Terlipati_, _Villapati_, _Moltupati_, _Malpati_, _Palliacur_, and those of various other cities and towns, evidently shew their Samscred origin; for _Pati_ signifies a town; _Patnam_, _Patana_, or _Patan_, a city; and _Ur_, an inhabited place.

As the wind, from whatever quarter it comes, has free room to play around this island, the air is always pure and salubrious. This advantage, and the great richness of the country gave rise formerly to the fable that it was the place of Paradise, and that the inhabitants lived to the age of 200 or 300 years. The Indians have a tradition, that this island, in consequence of a dispute between the serpent _Vasughi_ and the god of the wind, was broken loose from the mountain _Meru_, the habitation of the gods, and hurled into the eastern sea, where it now lies. The Pagans believe, therefore, that this island is a part of Paradise; and this fable indeed, in ancient times, was conveyed from India to other parts of Asia. Another fable, which forms the subject of the poem called _Ràmayàna_, and which relates to this island also, has been mentioned before.

Not far from the city of Candia, where the king of Ceylon generally resides, is a river which flows down from one of the mountains. In the middle of this river the king has built a small palace, where he sometimes enjoys the cool air, and where are preserved the valuable gems which the rain and streams wash down from the mountains. Pearls are found in the district of _Mannàr_, at the western extremity of the island. This country produces the most beautiful elephants in all Asia, together with a great many deer, wild swine, and different kinds of red and yellow birds not known in Europe. It yields two crops every year, the produce of which is sufficient to feed all its inhabitants; but when the Dutch are at war with the king of Candia, they are obliged to procure their rice from Cochin on the coast of Malabar. They might raise coffee and pepper in Ceylon; but they cultivate neither of these articles, lest the price of the Malabar pepper and the Batavian coffee should be lowered, and attend merely to the culture of cinnamon, the sale of which is more profitable. They possess all the places on the sea-coast, and _Colombo_ is their capital. _Jasnapatnam_, _Negombo_, _Punta di Galle_, _Trinquemala_, and other settlements are dependencies on its government.[246]

The Portuguese made themselves masters of this island in the year 1506; but in 1658 were expelled from it by the Dutch, A hundred years after, that is in 1759, the latter were involved in a war with the king of Candia, which threatened the most dangerous consequences. By the greatest good fortune Captain Du Flo, with a number of French adventurers, among whom were several able officers, hastened to their assistance from Pondicherry, and placed himself at the head of the Dutch troops. The war after that period assumed a different turn; the Dutch took the city of Candia, and in the year 1766 reduced the king to the necessity of signing a treaty of peace, in virtue of which he resigned the whole sea-coast, and agreed to deliver to them yearly a certain quantity of cinnamon at a very low rate. The king of Candia[247] was then suffered to remain in peaceable possession of the island. Not long before I arrived at Ceylon, Father Francis à Sancto Elisæo wrote to me from Malabar, that this prince had again quarrelled with the Hollanders, and refused to deliver the cinnamon at the price agreed on, which gave rise afterwards to another bloody war.

When the Portuguese took possession of Ceylon in the year 1506, it was governed by _Abonnega Bopandar_, king of _Cotta_, a province entirely different from Candia. This prince was married to a daughter of _Tribul Pandar_, who bore him a son named _Parca Pandar_. The latter was involved in a war with another raja or king of the island, who defeated him in the year 1579. As he could no longer defend his possessions, he fled to a place of safety, and transferred his right to the Portuguese, who then gave themselves out as his successors. He died the same year at Colombo, after he had been baptised by the name of _Don Joan Parca Pandar_. It is asserted by others, and in particular Arthus, that the Portuguese first visited Ceylon under the reign of _Mara Ràga_ (properly _Maha Ragia_, that is, the great king), and this was undoubtedly the prince by whom _Parca Pandar_ was defeated. _Mahà Rágia_ had four sons, one of whom, named _Darma_, or rather _Dherma_, was illegitimate. This prince found means to put to death his legitimate brothers, and to get possession of the crown alone; but he died by poison, and was succeeded by _Vimala Dherma Suryada_, who was afterwards baptised at Goa under the name of _Don Joan di Austria_.

As this prince had adopted the Christian religion, the Portuguese imagined that he would readily permit them to carry as much cinnamon and as many precious stones from the island as they might think proper; but they were disappointed in their expectation, for _Vimala Dherma Sùryada_ expelled them all from his states, and was absolutely determined that they should not gain the superiority at _Cotta_ or _Candia_. A daughter of _Parca Pandar_, who had also embraced Christianity, and had at baptism been named Catharina, was still in life, but detained a prisoner in the fortress of _Mannar_. A certain Portuguese gentleman, named Don Pietro Lopez de Sousa, married this princess; caused himself afterward to be proclaimed king of Candia, and declared war against the lawful sovereign, _Vimala Dherma Suryada_, or _Don Joan di Austria_. The latter, however, being a brave and enterprising man, pursued such prudent measures that his antagonist Don Lopez was so completely defeated in a decisive battle that he was obliged to give up the contest. After his death he married Catharina the widow, by whom he had two sons.

This sovereign extended his dominion over the whole of Ceylon, and caused a great many churches, which still remain, to be built in the interior parts of the country. His object in erecting them, no doubt, was to conciliate the affection of the Christians; to give employment to his subjects, and to have a decent pretence for laying them under contribution. That his attachment to religion was not very sincere, appears, in particular, from this circumstance, that he never completely finished or endowed any of these churches, so that they have remained poor to this day.

After the death of this prince, his spouse Catharina resigned the government, and in the year 1604 married _Henar Pandar_, who reigned under the Pagan name of _Camapadi Mahadakshin_, and had by her a great many children.

He was succeeded in 1632 by his son _Ragiasinba_, called also _Mahasorùba_, or _Sinhamaharagia_, who, in the year 1644, received the Dutch with great friendship; but did not give up to them the Portuguese settlements, of which they never obtained complete possession till the year 1658.

The successor of this king was _Sishamaharagia_, who assumed the government in 1680, and had under his dominion _Coletur_ as well as _Candia_.

The names of the above-mentioned kings of Ceylon are entirely Samscredamic, and have been corrupted by Spilberg, as well as Anquetil du Perron, the Dutch and the Portuguese, the first conquerors of the island. _Vimala_, for example, signifies great; _Dherma_ is the Samscred name of the deity _Budha_; and _Surya_ signifies the sun. _Vimala Dherma Surya_ signifies, therefore, the great king _Dherma_, refulgent like the sun; _Sinhamaharagia_ signifies the lion-great king; for this appellation is compounded of three Samscred words, _Sinha_ a lion, _Maha_ great, and _Ragia_ a king. _Mahàsorùba_ implies as much as the great prince; and _Campadi Mahàdakshin_ signifies Cupid the great king of the eastern districts. It may be readily perceived, that these are assumed and not family names. We are told by Pliny, in his Natural History[248], that, in his time, a _Rachia_ or king of this island sent an embassy to Rome. We are informed also by St. Ambrose, that, in his time, four kings reigned in that island, one of whom was called _Mahàràgia_, or the great king. It appears from these and other circumstances, that this island, as is the case in Malabar, was divided among several petty princes, who acknowledged the sovereignty of one general head.

Among the deities of the inhabitants of Ceylon, we find also _Gannèsha_; but he is represented here with goat’s feet; whereas the other Indians represent him under the human form, except the addition of an elephant’s trunk. The principal deity, however, worshipped in this island, is _Budha_, or _Godama_, a son of Maia and Mercury, or Hermes, to whom they have dedicated not only a great number of trees, but also Adam’s Peak, called in the Samscred language _Salmala_, which is the highest mountain in the island, and from which _Budha_ is said to have ascended to heaven after he had transformed himself into 999 different shapes. The worship of this deity was introduced into Ceylon about forty years after the birth of Christ; and about the same time a violent dispute took place between the Brahmans and the Budhists, the result of which was, that the latter, because they would not acknowledge _Vishnu_ and _Shiva_ as gods, were expelled from India by their opponents. The Budhists were originally Pagan monks of the feet of _Sanyasi_, who led a life of contemplation; renounced all property; took an oath of chastity and poverty, and lived together in common. They are descended from the ancient _Samanæi_, who are exceedingly well characterised in the writings of Strabo, Porphyrius, Arrian, and Clemens of Alexandria. They never marry, and support themselves by begging. By these Budhists the religion of the Indians was transplanted to Pegu, Siam, and China, as the Peguans and the Chinese themselves acknowledge. In Pegu, _Budha_ is worshipped in the same manner as in Ceylon; and the Talapoins, his priests, are real descendants from the Budhists of Ceylon. The inhabitants of Pegu call _Budha_ sometimes _Gaudama_, and sometimes _Samonacodam_. _Soma_ signifies the moon, and _Codam_ a god. By this appellation, therefore, they give to understand, that they consider _Budha_ as a deity created by the moon; for the nymph _Rohini_ was the favourite of the lunar god, and from these two _Budha_ derived his existence.

The priests of this deity are called _Tiruvamsha_, which implies as much as the sacred race. They are under a chief, who is a kind of bishop, and has the power of determining all religious disputes that may arise. This chief has generally in his hand a golden band, from which is suspended a kind of sceptre shaped like a fan, and almost similar to the _Tolapava_ employed by the Talapoins of Pegu. These _Budhists_ hold a chapter, and choose their own magistrates, who are always men of knowledge and rank. Their choice is confirmed by the king. They are distinguished by a piece of yellow cloth (_Pidambara_) which they wear, and by going with their heads shaved and entirely bare. They dare neither apply to any labour, nor marry, and in general must touch no female. They must eat a full meal only once a-day; must drink no wine; and must neither anoint their bodies, nor be present at dances or any other kind of amusement. They are obliged also to have no concern with gold or silver; are kept under the strictest obedience, and must do every thing required of them by their superiors.

When they quit their order they lay aside the piece of yellow cloth, and may then marry. A very accurate account of their institution has been given in a Peguan book entitled _Kammuva_, which treats of the ordination of the Talapoins; and also in the compendium of the laws of the _Barmans_, written by the Peguan philosopher _Dhermaràgiaguru_. Both these works are to be found in the library of the Congregation _de propaganda fide_. Those desirous of more information on this subject may consult also another manuscript, preserved in the Borgian Museum, and entitled _Mangalatara_; that is, the way and method to attain to real felicity. This excellent work, which contains the noblest precepts of morality, was transmitted to Cardinal Borgia by the learned Father Angelo Maria Cortinovis of Udina, who obtained it from his brother Father Marcellus a missionary in Pegu. All these laws, which occur under Nᵒ xxxviii. form the moral theology of the Talapoins of the sect of the Budhists, and are highly worthy of being explained and made publicly known.

Father Constantinus of Afkali, a missionary of the Capuchin order, in his short account of Nepal, has given a description of the customs of those Budhists who reside in Nepal and Thibet, where they are far more numerous than any where else[249]. The Grand Lama of Thibet is the real head of this sect. When the Budhists of Ceylon appear in public, on solemn occasions, they always walk two and two; and their bishop, or chief, with a sceptre in his hand, rides on an elephant. They believe not only in the transmigration of the soul, but in the immortality of the spiritual part of man; and entertain an opinion, that after it has passed in succession through a sufficient number of bodies, it is received into the _Nimban_, that is, eternity. The other priests of Ceylon, destined for the service of _Gannèsha_, are called _Gones_. The common people worship also _Ciadhàrva_, or _Shastava_, the avenger of sin, an idol of a most horrid appearance, which holds in its hand a sword.

A custom prevails in Ceylon, that several brothers may have one wife in common. The children she brings forth belong to them all; nor can the elder brother claim any preference of right. Many of the inhabitants of Ceylon have only one wife; others maintain several. In this respect there is no fixed law or precise regulation; but adultery in all cases is punished. The Brahmans, like us, make a distinction between the different degrees of consanguinity, but they admit of a man marrying two sisters. Aunts and nephews are not allowed to intermarry; but a man may take to wife the daughter of his father’s sister, or the daughter of his own sister. In all other cases they consider marriage between relations as incest; and those guilty of this crime are punished either by the loss of the limb which has committed the offence, or at any rate expelled from their cast. The inhabitants of Ceylon, however, are not patterns of chastity; and it may be clearly perceived that corruption of morals is daily increasing among them.

The principal festival of _Budha_ is celebrated at the commencement of the new year, in the month of March, which generally falls on the 27th, 28th, or 29th. The division of the year in Ceylon is the same as that usual in Malabar and among the Tamulians.

In Ceylon, as well as in Pegu and Thibet, the Budhists may be said to have very limited power. They are the preceptors and tutors of the sovereign princes of the country, who consequently give themselves up to their direction; consult them upon every occasion, and afford them every kind of support and protection. The policy of this practice produces the utmost benefit to the state. When princes pay honour to the priesthood, and unite with it to promote the same ends, the tranquillity of their dominions is never interrupted. In every part of the globe, the people, who look up to the example of their sovereigns, will not fail to imitate them; and the consequence will be, respect for religion, and fidelity towards their princes; and on the union of these two the welfare of a state depends.