Chapter IX: Implements for Outdoor Sports and Athletics

=Stilts.=--There is very little to say about the manufacture of stilts. The construction is obvious (Figs. 195 and 196), the size and arrangement depending on your own size and skill. The handles can either be long, or reach up as high as the hand, or short and strapped to the legs.

=Tilt or See-Saw.=--One of small size is shown in Fig. 197. The exact proportions given are not necessary, provided you make it strong and so that it will not tip over.

Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, _Nailing_, in Part V., and look up any other references.

First make the standard (Fig. 198) of any sound plank 1-1/4" to 2" thick and 12" or more in width. Get out the pieces to the dimensions before beginning to put together, the ends of the braces H being cut at a mitre (see _Mitring_). Square the line EF across the plank B at the middle (Fig. 199). Drive three or four stout wire nails (3" to 4" long, according to the thickness of the plank) nearly through the plank on this line. Stand the piece A on end under these nails and drive them through firmly into it (Fig. 200), keeping the two boards at right angles. Bore holes with a 1/4" bit (see _Boring_) in each end of the pieces H, as shown, taking pains not to get them too near the edge. Screw these braces in place with screws from 2-1/4" to 3-1/4" long (according to the thickness of the plank), keeping the piece A at right angles with the plank B (see _Screws_). Screw this frame on the cross-pieces C and D, as shown. Nails can be used throughout, but screws are better. With plane, draw-knife, or spoke-shave (see _Part V._ for these tools), round the top edge of A.

The tilting-plank should be of spruce, ash, hard pine, or any strong wood, and had best be from 1-1/2" to 2" thick, according to the length, which can be 12' or 14'. It should of course be planed. Next get out a few cleats 7/8" square, or thicker, and screw them on the under side of the tilting-plank at the middle (Fig. 201, which shows the under side of the plank), so that the spaces between them will be a little wider than the thickness of the upright piece A--just enough to allow the plank to tilt freely. Nail strips on the edge, to keep the plank from slipping off sideways, shaving a little from the edges of A at the top if necessary. Finally run over the edges with a plane (see _Plane_), and sandpaper the plank to prevent slivers.

Simply paint or oil and varnish (see _Painting_ or _Finishing_).

A larger and more elaborate affair, adjustable to different heights, is shown in Fig. 202.

* * * * *

First get out the main pieces to the dimensions (Figs. 203, 204, 205). The upright pieces should be mortised into the planks on which they rest (Fig. 206) (see _Mortising_). Gauge a line lengthways along the centre of each side of the uprights (see _Gauge_) and mark points (say 6" apart) on these lines for holes for the iron rod on which the tilting-plank rests, taking pains to place them alike on the two uprights. Then bore 3/4" or 1/2" holes (see _Boring_), according to the size of rod you can get. Next fit the cross bar at the top. This can simply be nailed down or fitted between the uprights (Fig. 207), or made with a shoulder (Fig. 208), which will add to the stiffness of the frame. The rest of the construction of the standard is plain, and similar to that just described.

Iron rods can be used for braces, if you wish (Fig. 209).

The tilting-plank should be 16' or 18' long, and of 2" plank. A thread with nut on one end of the iron rod on which the plank rests will keep the rod from slipping out of place. The plank can be fastened to the rod by iron straps or even staples, or a box-like bearing can be quickly made (Fig. 210). Washers can be placed between the plank and the uprights if necessary. Smooth the edges with a plane (see _Plane_) and sandpaper the plank. Simply paint or oil and varnish (see _Painting_ and _Finishing_).

* * * * *

=Skis.=--To make as perfect skis as possible they should be of rift stock, that is, split out instead of sawed; but this may seldom be practicable for you and is not really necessary. Good straight-grained sawed stock will answer, but be sure that you get clear, strong stock--_air-dried_ if possible. Always avoid kiln-dried stock for anything which is to be put to sudden and violent strain, if you can get that which has been naturally seasoned (see Chapter III.).

Ash is very good (white ash the best); spruce, light and strong; oak, strong but heavy. Any strong and elastic wood will do, if not too heavy. If you can get stock which is naturally sprung in a good curve upward and is satisfactory in other respects, take it, for a convex curve upward underneath the foot gives spring and elasticity and helps prevent the skis from becoming hollowed too much by the weight of the body. This curve is not necessary, but the better ones are purposely so made. Skis are sometimes used in very rude forms--as two strips of wood with the front ends shaved down and bent up at an angle. Small ones can even be made of staves from barrels, but these are very unsatisfactory.

* * * * *

Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Draw-knife_, _Plane_, _Spokeshave_, in Part V., and look up any other references.

First get out the pieces of the required size. The length for a man is usually about 8' and the width about 4", though they are used even as long as 12' or 13'. From 5' to 8' long and from 3-1/2" to 4" wide will probably be right for you, but the dimensions depend on your size, of course. Next taper the forward ends, as shown in Fig. 211. You can mark both edges alike by drawing the curve free-hand or with a spline (see _Spline_) on a piece of stiff paper, from which you can cut out a pattern for drawing the curve on the wood. Next make the pieces thinner towards the ends (Fig. 212), noticing that the forward end is thinner than the after end and is shaved down more quickly so that the stock may be thin where the toe bends up. This requires great care unless the grain is very straight, for a little hasty slashing will make too deep a cut (see _Paring_, etc.). Good forms are shown in Figs. 213 and 214, the former showing sections at the middle and the latter nearer the ends, but as the toe is approached the top should become flat for ease in bending. This shaping can best be done by the draw-knife, spoke-shave, or plane.

Bend the points of the toes upwards about 6" above the horizontal line to ensure their riding clear of obstructions, but there is no gain in curling them up a foot. For the process of bending, see _Bending Wood_. Then turning the skis over, gauge (see _Gauge_) parallel lines for the grooves on the bottom. Work the grooves out with the gouge or with the saw and chisel (see _Gouge_ and _Grooving_) unless you chance to have the plane designed for this purpose.[20] Make these grooves shallower as they approach the toe, leaving no groove where the toe bends up.

Balance the skis lengthways on a stick or your finger and put stout leather straps just forward of the balancing point. These can be riveted or even screwed to the edges of the skis (Fig. 215), but a better way is to put them through slots cut in the wood (Fig. 216). Gauge accurately for the slots, marking on both edges, and bore in from both sides (see _Boring_). The slots must then be cleaned out with chisel and file (see _Mortising_). An easier way and fully as strong is to cut grooves (Fig. 217) with saw and chisel and cover them with thin strips securely screwed on (Fig. 218). Some use a second lighter strap to go above the heel. This can be screwed to the edges if you use it. Strips screwed across under the instep (Figs. 219 and 220), or behind the heel (Fig. 221), to prevent the foot sliding back are sometimes used.[21] For racing the Norwegian skis are turned up at the rear end also.

The pole, like the skis, must be of light, strong stuff, and can be round or eight-sided (see _Rounding Sticks_). To shape the tapering end make the stick uniformly eight-sided for the whole length first and then plane each side down at the end to get the taper. The hole in the disk must not be quite so large as the diameter of the pole, so that it cannot slip up farther than the tapering part (Fig. 222). Many dispense with the disk.

Finally smooth skis and pole with scraper (see _Scraper_) or glass, and sandpaper (see _Sandpaper_), and finish with plenty of raw linseed oil or with oil, shellac, and varnish, in successive coats (see _Finishing_). If open-grained wood is used it can be filled to good advantage with a coat of good wood-filler well rubbed in (see _Finishing_), and the bottoms can also be rubbed with wax or tallow, if you wish.

* * * * *

=Toboggan.=--This is now commonly made of narrow strips, in principle much like several skis placed side by side--an easier form to make than the older pattern, formed of one or two wide pieces, as originally made by the Indians.

White oak and hickory are probably the best woods. Ash, maple, birch, basswood, or any hard wood which can be bent and has elasticity can be used. As in the case of the ski, to make the best possible the pieces should be rift, or split out, rather than sawed, to ensure straight grain; but, as this may be out of the question for you, be sure to select the straightest-grained clear stock you can find, for, besides the bending of the ends, there is great strain put upon it in coasting. For the same reason use air-dried stock and avoid kiln-dried if possible.

Probably the best and most scientific way to fasten the parts of a toboggan together is the old way adopted by the Indians of binding or lashing with thongs. This gives great elasticity and allows the toboggan to adjust itself to the inequalities of the surface to a greater degree than is possible with the tightly fastened joints now in use. You can try this way instead of that given below, if you prefer, but be sure to cut little grooves in the bottom for the thongs or cords to fit in, or they will be quickly worn through.

* * * * *

Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, _Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references.

The size can vary from 3' long by 1' wide to 10' or 12' long by 20" to 22" wide; 4' long by 15" or 16" wide is good for a single toboggan; 8' long by 18" is a good size for three or more persons. You will probably find the stock most readily in the form of 12' boards. One-half inch in the rough will be thick enough, though you may have to take inch (rough) or 7/8" (planed) boards. Let us make an 8' toboggan (Fig. 223). Have the stock planed and sawed in strips about 10' long, 2-1/2" wide, and not less than 1/4" nor more than 3/8" in thickness. If they are tapered a little in thickness for 12" or 15" at the forward end they can be bent more easily, but do not shave them down too much (see _Plane_ and _Drawshave_). Smooth the bottom surfaces of the strips with plane and scraper (see _Scraper_). It is hardly necessary to plane the upper surfaces by hand, as the planer will leave them fairly smooth, though they will look a little nicer smoothed by hand. Plane the edges. Next get out eight cross-bars or cleats 18" long × 3/8" thick and from 1-1/2" to 3" wide. If wide they can be tapered at the edges, and if narrow, the edges should be rounded (Fig. 224). Get out also two or three cleats 18" long, 1/4" thick, and 1-1/4" wide, and one piece 18" long and about 3/4" × 7/8" (half of a hardwood broomstick will do).

The long strips must now be bent at the forward end (see _Bending Wood_). After they are bent take the eight cleats and, laying one across the strips as it is to go, mark points for three holes at each strip (Fig. 224). Bore 3/16" or 1/4" holes in the cross strips and countersink them very carefully (see _Boring_ and _Countersink_), so that the heads of the screws will be very slightly lower than the surface--sunk barely enough to prevent any corners or edges from sticking above the surface. Take great care not to countersink too deeply, for the long strips are so thin that the screws may come through on the under side. Mark and bore the other seven cleats by this first one.

Now take one cleat, to be put on at the rear end 8' from the beginning of the curve. Screw one end of this cleat in place (see _Screws_), test with the square, and screw the other end. Then put in the intermediate screws, driving them all firmly home, and saw off the ends of the long strips just beyond this cleat. Square lines across every foot to the curve at the front, and screw on the other cleats. The length of the screws (which can be quite stout) should be such that they will almost, but not quite, go through to the under side of the toboggan. Be careful about this or the points will have to be filed off. Then screw the smaller cleats on the inside of the curve. Screw the remaining (stouter) cleat on the outside of the curve at the place where the curve is to end, and then saw off the projecting ends of the strips by this cleat. By thongs, belt-lacing, or strong cord at the ends of the cleat last put on fasten the curve (which will naturally tend to straighten somewhat) in the required position to the cleat beneath (Fig. 225).

Side hand-rails can be fastened at each side on top of the cross-cleats (Fig. 223). A common way is to make every other cross-cleat thicker (say 7/8") and fasten the side bars to these with large and stout screw-eyes, or notches can be cut on the under side of these thicker cleats before they are screwed on, and by passing thongs or cord through these notches the side-bars can be lashed in place. The side bars you can plane round or eight-sided (see _Rounding Sticks_) out of strips of any strong wood.

Sandpaper the bottom and finish with plenty of raw linseed oil, or with oil, shellac, and varnish, in successive coats (see _Finishing_). If open-grained wood is used it can be filled to good advantage with a coat of good wood-filler well rubbed in (see _Finishing_), and the bottom can be waxed or rubbed with tallow, if you wish.

If you are willing to put in the labour you can bevel or slope off one side of each of the long strips (except the two outer ones) so as to leave the strip thickest in the middle (Fig. 226). Unless you are willing to take pains enough to do it nicely (which will take some time), it will be best not to attempt it at all, or to have it done at a mill. If you have a good hill you can go well enough with the flat strips and it is not important to round them unless you are scoring fractions of a second against time. Another way is to curve the cross-cleats slightly (Fig. 226), leaving the long strips flat.

Some toboggans are made with low runners about an inch high.

You can, as you may know, patch up a sort of toboggan of barrel-staves, with which, though not a very workmanlike arrangement, you can have a lot of fun at no expense. You can get a high speed with this simple contrivance (Fig. 227) on a _steep_ hill. It is not good, however, unless the pitch is steep. You can even get a good deal of sport from this apparatus in the summer on a _very steep_ grassy knoll.

=Wooden Guns and Pistols.=--A gun on the principle of that shown in Fig. 228, the projectile power being furnished by elastic (rubber) cord, is easily made.

* * * * *

Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square,_, _Saw_, _Spokeshave_, _Knife_, in Part V., and look up any other references.

First saw the outline of the gun from a straight-grained pine or whitewood board. This can be quickly and cheaply done at any wood-working mill. The gun can then be finally shaped with the spoke-shave and knife. The rasp and file can be used (see _Rasp_ and _File_.). Much of the shaping can be done with the draw-knife (see _Draw-knife_), and, in fact, the whole can be whittled out with a knife if other tools are wanting.

The most difficult parts of the work are the groove for the arrow and the arrangement of the trigger. Much care is needed to cut an accurate groove with a gouge (see _Gouge_), and, unless you are skilled, you can get a truer result by having this done by a carpenter or at a mill. A mortise (see _Mortising_) must be cut for the trigger long enough to allow it sufficient play (Fig. 229). The arrangement of the trigger is shown in Fig. 229. The elastic underneath the barrel (at the lower end of the trigger) must be sufficiently powerful (combined with its additional leverage) to balance the elastic which propels the arrow, so that the trigger will remain in position and hold the upper elastic drawn, until the pressure of the finger on the trigger releases it.

The barrel of the gun is sometimes built of three pieces (Fig. 230, showing section) of thinner stock, which obviates the grooving but makes more work otherwise. The groove can be left open on top (Fig. 230) or covered with a thin strip (Figs. 231 and 232). In the latter case a depression must be made in the barrel, so that when the strip is put on there will be a long slot in which the string can play back and forth (Fig. 232). With this arrangement you can make a notch (Fig. 233) to hold the cord when drawn. The trigger can be of wood or wire, pivoted on a screw or nail, so that when pulled the string will be pushed up and released (Fig. 233).

A tube is sometimes fastened to the barrel, as in a real gun, and a plunger is sometimes fitted to the tube to start the arrows, or bullets in case they are used (Fig. 234).

The ends of the elastic cord can be fastened to screw-eyes at the muzzle. A piece of leather thong or cord inserted at the middle of the upper elastic cord will wear better than the rubber at that point.

Another form of trigger is shown in Fig. 235, which can also be made of stiff wire (Fig. 236).

To finish the gun nicely, it should be scraped (see _Scraper_) and sandpapered with fine sandpaper (see _Sandpaper_). It can then be finished with oil and shellac or varnish (see _Shellac_, _Varnish_, _Finishing_).

These same methods of construction can, of course, be applied to a pistol.

A bow-gun or crossbow (Fig. 237) can be made on the same principle, using a bow instead of the elastic, and inserting it in a hole made through an enlargement of the under side of the barrel (Fig. 238).

=Sleds.=--Common sleds can be bought so cheaply that it is hardly worth while, as a rule, to make them. Many are so poorly made, however, and will stand so little rough usage, that a few suggestions may be of value if you should wish to make a really serviceable one yourself.

Take the dimensions from any sled which suits you. Avoid making your sled too high, however, as one ten or twelve inches high will coast no better than a low sled, and requires much more bracing to be strong.

* * * * *

Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, in Part V., and look up any other references.

The runners and cross-pieces should be of straight-grained oak, maple, ash, or other strong wood; 7/8" stock will do. Mark the runners carefully on the wood, according to your working-drawing (Fig. 239), and before sawing them out bore the holes for the rope (see _Boring_). Saw out the runners, or have them sawed by machine, and see that the curves are the same on each.

Get out three cross-pieces (Fig. 240) about 2" wide, and from 7/8" to 1-1/4" thick, with a shoulder at each end as shown. Mark and cut the mortises (see _Mortising_) in the runners (Fig. 239).

Put these parts together, forming the frame of the sled (Fig. 241), driving a pin through each mortise and tenon and adding the L irons shown in Figs. 241 and 242.

The seat may be thinner than the runners, and is to be fitted between them and to be screwed to the cross-pieces (see _Screws_). The thickness of the stock for the seat must be borne in mind when laying out the mortises in the runners.

Machine-planed stock is, of course, as smooth as is necessary for a sled, but smoothing by hand (see _Plane_, _Scraper_, and _Sandpaper_) will give a nicer surface. The runners can be shod at the blacksmith's with half-round irons, or round steel can be used with iron at the ends. In case of steel spring irons the runners can be slightly grooved on the edge, so far as may be necessary to keep the irons in place. The irons can be 1/2" to 5/8" in diameter.

Finish with paint (see _Painting_) or with oil, shellac, and varnish (see _Finishing_).

* * * * *

A "double-runner," "bob," or "traverse" sled can be built to good advantage. The sleds can be made as just described, or ready-made ones can be used. See that they are well put together, of the same width, and securely braced, as the strain upon them is great. The length of the double-runner is a matter of choice, of course. As to the height and width, however, if the coasting is straight, smooth, and comparatively safe there is no objection to a high seat, with a comfortable foot-board on each side for the passengers' feet, if you wish. But if you are going to coast on long, rough hills, with sudden curves and pitches to be taken in uncertainty and at whirlwind speed--the kind of coasting for real fun and exhilaration--avoid the luxurious top-heavy double-runners frequently seen. Make the sleds rather broad (18" is not too wide for the "track" of a 16' sled; which is a very long sled, however), and keep the height of the top-board down to about 10" or less.

* * * * *

Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, in Part V., and look up any other references.

The seat-board can be from 8' to 16' long, and about 12" to 14" wide. Board thickness is sufficient for a short seat, but if long a 1-1/4" plank should be used. If you have in mind to make a very long sled you should consider, before beginning, that you must either use a quite thick plank to get the necessary stiffness, which will add to the weight of the double-runner, or the plank must be stiffened or "trussed" with rods beneath like a bridge, which will add to the expense and labour. It should be of strong, elastic, straight-grained wood, free from bad knots or defects, as the strain upon it is great. It should not be too yielding and springy, however, or it may sag inconveniently. Clear hard Southern pine or ash is good. A plank of stiff spruce of good quality will do. The rear end can be rounded, as shown (Fig. 243).

Machine-planing is sufficient for the sides of the seat-plank, but the edges should be planed carefully (see _Plane_), and the angles slightly rounded off with the plane, spoke-shave, or rasp and file (see _Spokeshave_, _Rasp_, and _File_) to prevent splinters.

To enable the front sled to turn properly, get out two pieces of 2" plank, as shown in Fig. 244, about 3" wide and as long as the width of the sled, one being tapered toward the ends on the under side. The tapering is important, as it diminishes the friction when the front sled is turned. Screw one of these pieces firmly across the top of the front sled and the other across the lower side of the seat-board (see _Screws_), a hole being bored through the centre of each cross-piece (as well as through the seat-board and the top of the front sled) for the king-bolt upon which the front sled turns. Find these centres accurately and bore carefully with a bit 1/16" larger than the king-bolt (see _Boring_). The front sled should turn very freely and easily, and have plenty of play, but the bolt should not fit loosely enough to make the double-runner rickety.

A washer can be inserted between the cross-pieces. Sometimes a thick rubber washer is used to lessen the shock (Fig. 245).

To give the ends of the rear sled freedom to play up and down (without turning sideways) in passing over the inequities of the surface the arrangement shown in Fig. 243 (and enlarged in Fig. 246) is good. Do not make this of 7/8" stock. Pieces of plank should be used, the dimensions being so arranged that the seat-board will be equally raised from the front and rear sleds. The pins at the ends of the cross-piece should be not less than 1" in diameter (1-1/4" is better) and should be carefully cut (see _Paring_ and _Rounding Sticks_). The best way is to have them turned to fit the holes in the rocker-shaped pieces. The latter should be long enough (about 1') to prevent danger of the wood breaking apart near the hole and to allow for screwing firmly to the seat-board.

Another way, sometimes adopted, is to use two cross-cleats with two bolts (queen-bolts) and thick rubber washers (Fig. 247), the bolts being loose enough in the holes to allow the necessary amount of play. Ropes or chain can be fastened from the rear sled to the seat-board, to prevent too much dropping of the former.

Many arrangements for steering have been invented. A cleat at the forward end of the seat-board to brace the feet against, the sled being guided by the ropes held in the hand (Fig. 248), is a simple way, though requiring more strength and steadiness of arm, when the coast is rough or dangerous, than is possessed by many steersmen. The brace for the feet should be bolted to the seat-board or strongly screwed from above and beneath. Another equally simple way is to screw the brace for the feet upon the forward sled (Fig. 243), cutting a shallow gain in the tops of the runners to hold it more securely. In this way of steering the arms can reinforce the legs, or the steering can be done by the legs alone. It is a very effective method, which gives a high degree of control of the forward sled without cumbersome tackle and leaves the seat-board free of obstructions.[22]

In case of a high double-runner, running foot-boards along each side can be added. A simple way to fasten these is by means of pieces of strap-iron bent as shown in Fig. 252 and screwed to the under side of the seat-board, with the foot-boards fastened to the projecting arms (Fig. 253). The dimensions to which the irons should be bent depend upon the height and size of the double-runner, but you should take pains that the space between the edge of the seat-board and the foot-board is such that the feet cannot become caught.

The problem of contriving a perfectly successful brake for a double-runner has not yet been solved. Like all other apparatus for emergencies it should be as simple as possible. Unless it is _sure_ to work it will be worse than not to have one, as you will come to rely on it. The steersman is usually the one who first realises the need of braking, and when practicable he is the one upon whom it naturally devolves. If he steers with the hands he can brake with the foot against a lever as shown below, but if he steers with the feet it is pretty risky business trying to brake also with the foot and, unless you can contrive some way by which he can safely and quickly brake by hand (not an easy thing to do), the brake had best be worked by the rider at the rear. This has some obvious disadvantages. A few ideas are given below, but are not recommended as thoroughly satisfactory.

The simple and primitive way, so often used in the country by drivers of heavily loaded sleds, of dropping a chain under the runner is an effective method of braking, provided you have some sure method of dropping the chain under the runners. Fig. 254 shows a method which can be worked from either the forward or rear end of the double-runner. In the plan, or top view (Fig. 254), the details of the arrangement (being beneath the seat) would ordinarily be represented by dotted lines, but in this case, on account of the small size of the drawing, they are shown by full lines, as they would look if the seat-board were transparent. A way of holding up the middle of the chain is shown in Fig. 255. A small block _a_, perhaps 3" long, is screwed to the under side of the seat and the chain is held against it by the pivoted bar _b_ (which is pivoted to the seat-board by a bolt and is kept in position by the spring), and on the under side of which a piece of metal is screwed at one end, which prevents the chain from dropping. The end of the bar _b_ is connected by a wire with the lever in front. When the lever is pushed by the steersman's foot the bar _b_ is pulled away from the block _a_ and the chain falls by its own weight under the runners of the rear sled, which quickly brings the double-runner to a standstill. Fig. 256 shows the bar held in position by the spring. Fig. 257 shows the position of the bar after the lever has been pressed, with the open space which allows the chain to drop. The same apparatus can be worked from the rear end of the double-runner by simply having the wire to be pulled led back (Fig. 258), where it can be worked directly by the hand or you can contrive a lever to be raised.

A method of braking sometimes used is by means of a crooked lever formed from an iron rod, one end of which is pulled up by the hand while the lower part has one or more prongs which dig into the surface and stop the sled. Fig. 259 shows a form sometimes used, and Fig. 260 a top view showing position of the handle and prongs when not in use. Any blacksmith can arrange this apparatus, which is attached to the rear sled. A similar arrangement can be contrived to work by the steersman's foot if desired. One prong, attached to the under side of the seat-board, can be arranged as suggested (side view) in Fig. 260a.

The double-runner should be thoroughly oiled, and a coat of shellac, followed after a day or two by a coat of varnish, will add much to its durability as well as to its appearance. Lubricate the working parts with soap or tallow.

If you have a gong, it should be worked by someone other than the steersman.

The rear sled is sometimes arranged to swivel like the front sled and to be steered by a second steersman, somewhat after the fashion of a long hook-and-ladder truck. This gives good command of the double-runner on curves.

* * * * *

=Gymnastic Apparatus.=--It will, in most cases, be out of the question for you to attempt to put up any building roomy enough for a "gym," but sometimes a number of you can club together and get the use of some vacant room in which satisfactory apparatus can be fitted at moderate expense. Some of it may be rather primitive compared with the mechanism of a modern college gymnasium, but will answer the purpose so far as getting up muscle is concerned. Most of you can find a place for one or more pieces of apparatus, either indoors or out. Much outdoor apparatus can be supported on posts driven into the ground, or even by fastening to trees. The outdoor apparatus is usually easier and cheaper to make, but has the obvious disadvantages of not being usable in bad weather or winter, to any great extent, and will not last so long on account of exposure to the weather. If, however, you fix things the right way and take the movable parts indoors during the bad weather, such a "gym" will last until it is outgrown, or until the next generation grows up to build a new one. If indoors have the room well ventilated. Often the second story of a barn makes a capital gymnasium. The few simple pieces of apparatus given here will be treated independently, as it is of course impossible to tell how you will be obliged to arrange them. You can vary the designs or proportions to suit the circumstances.

White ash, hickory, oak, hard pine, and for some purposes fir, spruce, and white pine, are suitable for gymnastic apparatus. For everything which is to stand violent strain or wrenching, as the horizontal bars, vaulting poles, and such things, use _air_-dried stock, if possible, avoiding kiln-dried, as the latter is more brittle and inelastic, and often utterly unfit for such uses (see Chapter III.). Of course for such parts only the toughest woods should be used, as white ash, hickory, oak, spruce.

* * * * *

=Parallel Bars.=--A useful form (and not beyond the skill of an amateur) is shown in Fig. 261. The height must, of course, depend upon the gymnast, and can range from 3' 6" to 5' 6", the width inside (between the bars) from 14" to 19", and the length from 6' to 8'.

Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, _Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references.

The base of the apparatus can be simply made of 2" × 6" planks, as shown in Fig. 261, and fastened by screws (see _Screws_), or, as shown in Fig. 262, the pieces can be halved at their intersections (see _Halving_), in which case thicker stock may be used. For a small pair of bars the planks for the base can be somewhat lighter.

The upright posts should be of strong wood not less than 2" × 4" (unless for a very small pair of bars) and should be mortised at top and bottom, as shown in Figs. 263 and 264 (see _Mortising_). These joints should be pinned.

The bars themselves should be of the best white ash (hickory, oak, hard pine can be used), not less than 2" × 3" (unless for a small pair of bars). The arrangement and object of the iron braces is plain.

After the apparatus is all fitted together, take off the bars and carefully round the top edges for the entire length (see _Rounding Sticks_). The ends which project beyond the posts can also be rounded on the under side (_i.e._, made elliptical in section, as shown), if desired.

Machine-planing is sufficient for this apparatus, except for the bars themselves, which should be carefully smoothed by hand (see _Plane_, _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_), although, of course, the whole will appear more nicely finished if smoothed by hand. The square edges should be "broken" (_i.e._, slightly bevelled or rounded) so as not to be too sharp in case of contact with them.

The whole apparatus can be simply oiled thoroughly, or can be given in addition one or more coats of shellac or varnish (see _Finishing_), but a coat of oil is sufficient for the bars themselves, as they will be polished by use.

This arrangement has the advantage of being portable, but of course the base can be omitted, if desired, and the posts fastened directly to the floor. If mortises cannot be cut in the floor, blocks can be screwed to the floor around the base of each post so as to form a socket into which the post will fit.

Parallel bars can be readily made for outdoor use by simply setting four upright posts (not less than 3" × 4") firmly in the ground, at the same distances apart as specified for the movable bars described above, and fastening the bars to the tops of the posts by mortise and tenon, as already shown (Fig. 263). The posts should reach 3' or more below ground, both on account of the frost and to give increased steadiness, and the earth should be thoroughly tamped down around them with a sharp-pointed bar or stick. This apparatus should be thoroughly oiled and can be varnished (see _Finishing_). The posts should be of good thickness at the ground, but can be tapered toward the top, on the outside, to the thickness of the bars.

* * * * *

=Horizontal Bar.=--A design suitable for the =amateur= wood-worker is shown in Fig. 265.

* * * * *

Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, _Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references.

First make the upright posts or guides. These are somewhat like a trough in shape, side boards about 6" wide being screwed (see _Screws_) on the sides of a 2" × 3" joist. Fig. 266 shows sections in the middle and at each end, blocks being inserted at the ends for strength. The joist can be of any strong wood. The side boards, which serve as guides for the bar, had best be of hard wood. Hard pine, oak, maple, ash, or any strong wood can be used. You will require two of the joists and four side boards, all sawed squarely off the exact height of the room.[23]

The usual way would be to get out the pieces a little too long and, after they are fastened together, to saw off the ends so as to give the required length. Gauge lines on each side of the upright pieces (see _Gauge_) and intersect these lines at regular distances by others squared across and around three sides of the uprights, thus determining the places for the holes for the pins which hold the bar in position. These can be bored from each side with a 3/8" bit (see _Boring_).

Another way sometimes adopted when you have one or two stout timbers on hand or already in position for the posts is to screw two upright cleats of plank to the inner side of each timber, thus forming the groove for the bar, as shown in section in Fig. 267.

The uprights can now be fastened in place, taking care to have them exactly vertical and in line with each other. The distance apart will depend on the length of the bar. The uprights can of course be mortised into the floor, or the wood-work above, if the conditions admit, but it will usually answer every purpose to hold each end in place by four cleats firmly screwed to the floor or ceiling. It is usually simpler to have these uprights extend to the ceiling, but this is not necessary, and in some cases it may be advisable to brace them to the floor only, by wooden or iron braces, in some of the ways already shown, or they can be guyed with wire rope and turnbuckles.

The bar you had best have made or buy already made, in which case you can arrange the dimensions and position of the uprights to fit the bar. It can be from 5' in length to perhaps 6' 9" (6' is a good length), and should be not less than 1-3/4" in diameter, +nor over+ 2". It should be of the best clear, straight-grained white ash or hickory (air-dried, not kiln-dried). One having a steel rod for a core is the best. The ends can be left square and bound with a square ferrule or band of iron of the right size to slip easily up and down in the grooves of the upright guides (Fig. 268). Any blacksmith can arrange this, as well as the pins to hold the bar. This apparatus can be finished in the same way as the parallel bars just described.

A suggestion for a post for outdoor apparatus is given in Fig. 269. The post should be set in the ground at least 3' and the earth well tamped down around it with a pointed bar or stick. The lower ends of the braces can themselves be set in the ground or abut against heavier posts set in the ground. This apparatus should be protected from the weather as in the cases described above.

=Vaulting Apparatus.=--You can buy iron standards or bases, and of course the whole apparatus, for high jumping and pole vaulting, but it is a simple matter to make a pair of uprights that will answer the purpose satisfactorily (Fig. 270).

* * * * *

Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, _Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references.

Take two straight sticks 10' or 12' long and about 2-1/2" square. Taper each piece with the plane until about 1-1/2" square at one end. Make each base of two pieces of board about 4" wide and perhaps 3' long, as shown in Fig. 270, or halve two pieces of plank (see _Halving_). Mortise the larger ends of the posts into these bases as shown in Fig. 271 (see _Mortising_).

Before fastening the posts to the standards, mark a line along the middle of one side of each post. On this line lay off feet and inches from the bottom and carefully bore a quarter-inch hole through the posts at each of these points (except, of course, those near the ground) for the pins which are to support the cross-bar or cord (see _Boring_). Then fit the posts in the mortises and brace them by three braces each. The ends of the braces can be cut at a mitre and screwed in place, or the blacksmith will make iron braces for a small sum (Fig. 271). Finish like the other apparatus already described.

Vaulting poles should be round, very straight-grained, from air-dried (not kiln-dried) stock of light, strong wood, as spruce, free from knots or any cross-grained, weak spots. The thickness should of course depend on the length, but should not be less than 1-1/4" for an 8' pole (which is quite short), and the pole should taper toward each end (see _Rounding Sticks_).

* * * * *

=Spring-Board.=--A form not difficult to make is shown in Fig. 272. The framework can be made of any strong wood, but the spring-board itself should be of the best quality of clear, straight-grained white ash.

* * * * *

Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, _Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references.

First make the base or framework. Get out two pieces of 2" × 3" plank for the outside pieces (to stand on edge) and +screw blocks+ of the same plank at each end to raise the pieces from the ground as shown. Place these pieces so that they spread apart slightly at the forward end (Fig. 272), being about 22" apart at the rear end. Fit a cross-tie to connect these stringers at about 2' from the forward end.

Another cross-bar, resting on the stringers, is placed nearer the rear end, and about 1' from the rear end a piece of 3" × 4" joist is fitted between the stringers and held in place by a bolt passed through it and the stringers. This should be loose enough to allow the block to turn.

The spring-board can be made of five strips of 7/8" stock, 4" wide and 6' long, screwed to a cleat at the forward end, and securely bolted to the block at the rear end.

This apparatus can be finished as in the cases described above.

* * * * *

=Vaulting-Horse.=--A simple affair (Fig. 273) can be easily arranged by making a box, perhaps 5' long and 8" or 10" square, which can be supported by flaring legs of joist as shown in the illustrations.

First make the box (see _Box-making_, in Part II.). The corners and edges should be rounded (Fig. 274), and the whole padded and covered with such materials as you may have at hand or can afford for the purpose. Laying out and sawing the bevels for the tops of the legs is the hardest part of the job. Transfer the bevels carefully from your working drawing to the wood, and saw as exactly to the lines as you can. See also _Scribing_. Unless you have had much experience some paring will probably be required to make all the legs fit. To make the horse stand evenly see _Scribing_, _Winding-sticks_, etc. The other general directions given for the apparatus described above will suffice for this horse.

A horse for outdoors (Fig. 275) can be simply made of a log, perhaps 1' in diameter, smoothed and with the ends rounded, and mounted (by mortising) upon posts set in the ground (see _Mortising_). The top can be covered with rubber, as indicated in the illustration.

The posts should be set at least 3' in the ground, and the earth well tamped around them with a pointed bar or stick.

The apparatus can be finished as in the cases given above.

* * * * *

=Giant Swing.=--This piece of apparatus is excellent for outdoors, and affords considerable sport (Fig. 276).

You must have a pole or mast from 15' to 25' long and from 6" to 10" in diameter at the lower end. At the smaller end there should be an iron ring or ferrule. This can be heated and driven on, when it will shrink so as to fit tightly and save the end from splitting. The upper end of the pole should first be squarely sawed off (see _Saw_). The swing ropes, of which you can have two or four (as you wish), can be fastened by hooks to a pivot set into the top of the post (see _Boring_), the latter being firmly set up in the ground. The blacksmith can quickly fix a pivot with hooks or pins and with a washer, to which you can fasten the ropes (Fig. 277). The lower ends of the ropes can be fastened at the proper height to sticks for handles. Loops can also be made in which to rest one leg if you wish. Of course you must have plenty of room for swinging around. In setting up the pole dig a hole 3' or 4' deep and after placing the pole tamp the earth compactly down around it with a pointed bar or stick.

A cheaper way, but hardly as good, is to drive a 1" or 3/4" rod in the top of the pole, and get out a stout piece of hard wood, 3" or 4" square and 1-1/2' or 2' long, with a hole in the middle to fit the rod, and smaller holes near each end for fastening the ropes by a knot (Fig. 278). A washer can be put under the wooden bar, or the top of the pole may be slightly rounded.

* * * * *

=Other Apparatus.=--There are, of course, other useful forms of apparatus involving more or less wood-work, such as hanging poles, fixed upright and slanting poles or bars, and various contrivances which you can readily arrange without more special instruction than has been given.

* * * * *

Ladders are of course good, but it is usually as well for the amateur to buy these. A suggestion for a framework for hanging rings, trapeze, poles, rope ladders, and the like, with fixed ladders and horizontal bar, is given in Fig. 279.

Do not make such framework too light. Fasten the joints with bolts rather than screws or nails, and suspend the hanging apparatus from eye-bolts passing through the timber and with washers under the nuts. The dimensions for such framework must depend upon the circumstances. The suggestions about the construction of the other pieces of apparatus given above will assist you in designing and constructing something to suit the circumstances.

FOOTNOTES:

[20] All of this work can be done cheaply at any mill, leaving the rounding or bevelling of the edges and the bending of the ends for you to do yourself, and for that matter the rounding or bevelling can be done by machine.

[21] Mrs. Alec Tweedie says of the way skis are worn in Norway:

"The toes are fastened by a leather strap. Another strap goes round the heel in a sort of loop fashion, securing the foot, but at the same time giving the heel full play. A special ski boot is worn over enormously thick horsehair stockings. This boot has no hard sole at all, and, instead of being sewn at the sides, the large piece of thick leather which goes under the foot is brought well over the top and secured to what might ordinarily be called a leather tongue. At the back of the boot is a small strap, which is used to fasten the ski securely to the boot. Once fixed on the ski, the boot is so secure no fall can loosen it, and the only way to extricate the foot is to undo the three straps."

[22] Various contrivances for steering with a wheel or cross-bar are sometimes used. These work well if properly attached, and for reasonably safe coasting can be recommended, but where a "spill" is likely to occur, it may be well to consider the chance of being injured by these obstructions in front of the steersman.

Fig. 249 shows the king-post squared at the lower end (and tapering) to be fitted to a tapering mortise in the cross-cleat of the forward sled and held down by the screw and nut at the extreme end. A wheel is attached to the upper end. Any blacksmith can make an arrangement like this, or the bottom of the king-post can be split (Fig. 250) and screwed to the front sled, and the top can be made with a bar instead of a wheel (Fig. 251).

[23] You can get this height by taking two sticks whose combined length is somewhat greater than the height of the room. By letting the ends lap over one another in the middle, the sticks can be slipped along on each other until they just reach from floor to ceiling. Hold them tightly together (or fasten them with a clamp) when in this position and you will have the exact length required.