Chapter II: Introduction: Importance of the Subject 1 (1)

THE WORD FAMILIES 1

NOUNS 2

ADJECTIVES 5

ARTICLES 8

VERBS 8

PRONOUNS 15

ADVERBS 16

PREPOSITIONS 17

CONJUNCTIONS 17

INTERJECTIONS 18

GENERAL NOTES 18

RULES FOR CORRECT WRITING 20

THE SENTENCE 21

THE PARAGRAPH 21

RULES FOR THE USE AND ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS 22

COMMON ERRORS IN THE USE OF WORDS 24

TABLES OF IRREGULAR VERBS 40

SUPPLEMENTARY READING 47

REVIEW QUESTIONS 48

GLOSSARY OF TERMS 52

WORD STUDY AND ENGLISH GRAMMAR

_Importance of the Subject_

Word study and English grammar are important to the young printer for several reasons. In the first place, disregard of the correct use and combination of words is a distinct mark of inferiority and a serious bar to business and social advancement. A man's use of words is commonly taken as a measure of his knowledge and even of his intelligence. Carelessness in this regard often causes a man to be held in much less esteem than he really deserves.

In the second place, it is quite as important that the printer should know something about the words and sentences which he puts on paper as it is that he should know something about the paper on which he puts them, or the type, ink, and press by means of which he puts them there.

In the third place, knowledge of words and their uses is indispensable to correct proofreading which is itself a branch of the printer's craft. A working knowledge of words and their relations, that is, of rhetoric and grammar is therefore a tool and a very important tool of the printer.

This little book is not intended to be either a rhetoric or a grammar. It is only intended to review some of the simplest principles of both subjects, to point out a few of the commonest mistakes, and to show the importance to the apprentice of the careful study and constant use of some of the many books on words, their combinations, and their uses.

_The Word Families_

All the words in the English language belong to one or another of nine families, each of which family has a special duty. If you will always remember to which family a word belongs and just what that family does, you will be saved from many very common errors. These nine families are: 1, nouns; 2, adjectives; 3, articles; 4, verbs; 5, pronouns; 6, adverbs; 7, prepositions; 8, conjunctions; 9, interjections. This order of enumeration is not exactly the same as will be found in the grammars. It is used here because it indicates roughly the order of the appearance of the nine families in the logical development of language. Some forms of interjections, however, may very probably have preceded any language properly so called.

_Nouns_

A noun is a word used as the name of anything that can be thought of, _John_, _boy_, _paper_, _cold_, _fear_, _crowd_. There are three things about a noun which indicate its relation to other words, its number, its gender, and its case. There are two numbers, singular meaning one, and plural meaning more than one.

The plural is generally formed by adding _s_ to the singular. There are a small number of nouns which form their plurals differently, _mouse_, _mice_; _child_, _children_; _foot_, _feet_. These must be learned individually from a dictionary or spelling book. There are some nouns which undergo changes in the final syllable when the _s_ is added, _torch_, _torches_; _staff_, _staves_; _fly_, _flies_. These also must be learned individually. There are some nouns which have no singular, such as _cattle_, _clothes_, some which have no plural, such as _physics_, _honesty_, _news_, and some which are the same in both singular and plural, such as _deer_, _trout_, _series_. Care must be taken in the use of these nouns, as in some cases their appearance is misleading, e. g., _mathematics_, _physics_, and the like are singular nouns having no plural, but owing to their form they are often mistaken for plurals.

Compound nouns, that is to say, nouns formed by the combination of two or three words which jointly express a single idea, generally change the principal word in the forming of the plural, _hangers-on_, _ink rollers_, but in a few cases both words change, for example, _men-servants_. These forms must be learned by observation and practice. It is very important, however, that they be thoroughly learned and correctly used. Do not make such mistakes as _brother-in-laws_, _man-servants_.

Perhaps the most important use of number is in the relation between the noun and the verb. The verb as well as the noun has number forms and the number of the noun used as subject should always agree with that of the verb with which it is connected. Such expressions as "pigs is pigs," "how be you?" and the like, are among the most marked evidences of ignorance to be found in common speech. When this paragraph was originally written a group of high school boys were playing football under the writer's window. Scraps of their talk forced themselves upon his attention. Almost invariably such expressions as "you was," "they was," "he don't," "it aint," and the like took the place of the corresponding correct forms of speech.

Collective nouns, that is the nouns which indicate a considerable number of units considered as a whole, such as _herd_, _crowd_, _congress_, present some difficulties because the idea of the individuals in the collection interferes with the idea of the collection itself. The collective nouns call for the singular form of the verb except where the thought applies to the individual parts of the collection rather than to the collection as a whole, for instance, we say,

The crowd looks large.

but we say,

The crowd look happy.

because in one case we are thinking of the crowd and in the other of the persons who compose the crowd. So in speaking of a committee, we may say

The Committee thinks that a certain thing should be done.

or that

The Committee think that a certain thing should be done.

The first phrase would indicate that the committee had considered and acted on the subject and the statement represented a formal decision. The second phrase would indicate the individual opinions of the members of the committee which might be in agreement but had not been expressed in formal action. In doubtful cases it is safer to use the plural.

Entire accuracy in these cases is not altogether easy. As in the case with all the nice points of usage it requires practice and continual self-observation. By these means a sort of language sense is developed which makes the use of the right word instinctive. It is somewhat analogous to that sense which will enable an experienced bank teller to throw out a counterfeit bill instinctively when running over a large pile of currency even though he may be at some pains to prove its badness when challenged to show the reason for its rejection.

The young student should not permit himself to be discouraged by the apparent difficulty of the task of forming the habit of correct speech. It is habit and rapidly becomes easier after the first efforts.

The relation of a noun to a verb, to another noun, or to a preposition is called its case. There are three cases called the nominative, objective, and possessive. When the noun does something it is in the nominative case and is called the subject of the verb.

The man cuts.

When the noun has something done to it it is in the objective case and is called the object of the verb.

The man cuts paper.

When a noun depends on a preposition, it is also in the objective case and is called the object of the preposition.

The paper is cut by machinery.

The preposition on which a noun depends is often omitted when not needed for clearness.

The foreman gave (to) the men a holiday.

He came (on) Sunday.

Near (to) the press.

He was ten minutes late (late by ten minutes).

He is 18 years old (old by or to the extent of 18 years).

The nominative and objective cases of nouns do not differ in form. They are distinguished by their positions in the sentence and their relations to other words.

When one noun owns another the one owning is in the possessive case.

The man's paper is cut.

The possessive case is shown by the form of the noun. It is formed by adding _s_ preceded by an apostrophe to the nominative case, thus,

John's hat.

There is a considerable difference of usage regarding the formation of the possessives of nouns ending in _s_ in the singular. The general rule is to proceed as in other nouns by adding the apostrophe and the other _s_ as _James's hat_. DeVinne advises following the pronunciation. Where the second _s_ is not pronounced, as often happens to avoid the prolonged hissing sound of another _s_, he recommends omitting it in print.

Moses' hat, for Moses's hat.

For conscience' sake.

Plural nouns ending in _s_ add the apostrophe only; ending in other letters they add the apostrophe and _s_ like singular nouns, _the Jones' house_, _the children's toys_.

The possessive pronouns never take the apostrophe. We say _hers_, _theirs_, _its_. _It's_ is an abbreviation for _it is_.

Care should be taken in forming the possessives of phrases containing nouns in apposition, or similar compound phrases. We should say "I called at Brown the printer's" or "since William the Conqueror's time."

_Adjectives_

An adjective is a word used to qualify, limit, or define a noun, or a word or phrase which has the value of a noun. Nouns are ordinarily very general and indefinite in meaning, for example, _man_ conveys only a very general idea. To make that idea definite we need the help of one or more descriptive words such as _black_, _tall_, _stout_, _good_.

I saw a man.

gives no definite idea of the person seen.

I saw a tall, thin, dark, old man.

presents a very definite picture. It will be noted that these descriptive words have a way of forming combinations among themselves. It must be remembered, however, that all the words thus used describe the noun. Adjectives are sometimes used as substitutes for nouns. This is one of the many verbal short cuts in which the English language abounds.

The good die young

means good people die young.

We should seek the good and beautiful

means we should seek good or beautiful things, or persons, or qualities, or perhaps everything good and beautiful.

When adjectives indicate a quality they have three forms called degrees indicating the extent or amount of the quality possessed by the noun especially as compared with other objects of the same sort, _a big man_, _a bigger man_, _the biggest man_. These degrees are called positive, indicating possession of bigness; comparative, indicating possession of more bigness than some other man; superlative, indicating possession of more bigness than any other man. When we wish to tell the amount of the quality without comparing the possessor with any other object or group of objects we use a modifying word later to be described called an adverb.

I saw a very big man,

indicates that the man possessed much bigness, but makes no comparison with any other man or group of men. Comparison is generally indicated in two ways, first, by adding to the adjectives the terminations _er_ and _est_ as _high_, _higher_, _highest_, or, second, by using the words _more_ and _most_, as _splendid_, _more splendid_, _most splendid_. The question which of the two methods should be used is not always easy to decide. It depends somewhat on usage and on euphony or agreeableness of sound.

Adjectives of three or more syllables use the long form, that is, the additional word. We should not say _beautifuler_ or _beautifulest_. Adjectives of two syllables may often be compared either way; for example, it would be equally correct to say _nobler_ and _noblest_ or _more noble_ and _most noble_. An example of the influence of euphony may be found in the adjective _honest_. We might say _honester_ without hesitation but we should be less likely to say _honestest_ on account of the awkward combination of syllables involved. Adjectives of one syllable usually take the short form but not invariably. The exceptions, however, are more common in poetry than in prose. When any question rises it is usually safer to use the long form of comparison in the case of two-syllable adjectives and to use the short form in the case of one-syllable adjectives. The proper use of the long form is one of those niceties of diction which come only with careful observation and with training of the ear and of the literary sense.

The word _most_ should never be used, as it often is, in the place of _almost_. Careless people say "I am most ready" meaning "I am almost, or nearly ready." The phrase "I am most ready," really means "I am in the greatest possible readiness." Such use of _most_ is common in old English but much less so in modern speech.

Two very common adjectives are irregularly compared. They are _good_, _better_, _best_, and _bad_, _worse_, _worst_. In spite of the fact that these adjectives are among the most common in use and their comparison may be supposed to be known by everybody, one often hears the expressions _gooder_, _goodest_, _more better_, _bestest_, _bader_, _badest_, _worser_, and _worsest_. Needless to say, these expressions are without excuse except that _worser_ is sometimes found in old English.

Illiterate people sometimes try to make their speech more forceful by combining the two methods of comparison in such expressions as _more prettier_, _most splendidest_. Such compounds should never be used.

Some adjectives are not compared. They are easily identified by their meaning. They indicate some quality which is of such a nature that it must be possessed fully or not at all, _yearly_, _double_, _all_. Some adjectives have a precise meaning in which they cannot be compared and a loose or popular one in which they can be; for example, a thing either is or is not _round_ or _square_. Nevertheless we use these words in such a loose general way that it is not absolutely incorrect to say _rounder_ and _roundest_ or _squarer_ and _squarest_. Such expressions should be used with great care and avoided as far as possible. None but the very ignorant would say _onliest_, but one often sees the expressions _more_ and _most unique_. This is particularly bad English. Unique does not mean _rare_, _unusual_; it means one of a kind, absolutely unlike anything else. Clearly this is a quality which cannot be possessed in degrees. An object either does or does not have it.

_Articles_

An article is a little adjective which individualizes the noun, _a_ boy, _an_ apple, _the_ crowd.

_A_ which is used before consonantal sounds and _an_ which is used before vowel sounds are called indefinite articles because they individualize without specializing. _The_ is called the definite article because it both individualizes and specializes.

_A_ may be used before _o_ and _u_ if the sound is really consonantal as in _such a one_, _a use_, _a utility_. _An_ may be used before _h_ if the _h_ is not sounded, for example, _an hour_ but _a horror_.

_Verbs_

A verb is a word which asserts or declares. In other words, it makes a noun or pronoun tell something. _John paper_ tells nothing. _John wastes paper_ tells something. Verbs are the most difficult of all the parts of speech to understand and to use properly. As a rule, an English verb has something more than fifty parts which, with their uses, should be thoroughly learned from a grammar. This is not so difficult a matter as it might appear, except to those whose native speech is not English. Nevertheless you should be on the guard against such blunders as _I seen_, _I seed_, for _I saw_, _I runned_ for _I ran_, _I et_ for _I ate_, _I throwed_ for _I threw_, and the like. In most verbs these parts are regular. In some they are irregular. A list of irregular verbs will be found at the end of this volume.

While the plan of this book does not call for a systematic study of verbs any more than of any other words, it is desirable to call attention to some points as being the occasions of frequent mistakes.

A simple sentence consists of a verb, its subject, and its object. The verb indicates the action, the subject is the noun (name of a person or thing) which does the act, the object is the noun to which the thing is done. Verbs have forms denoting person and number, for example:

Singular Plural

1st I love 1st We love
2nd You love (thou lovest) 2nd You love
formal and archaic.
3rd He loves 3rd They love

Singular Plural

1st I was 1st We were
2nd You were (thou wast) 2nd You were
3rd He was 3rd They were

Verbs agree with their subjects in person and number. We all know this but we do not always remember it. Unless you are very careful, you will find yourself using a singular subject with a plural verb or the reverse. Mistakes of this sort are particularly liable to happen in the case of collective nouns, in the use of personal pronouns as subjects, and in cases where the subject and the verb are far separated in the sentence.

Those forms of the verb which tell whether the subject is acting or is acted upon are called voices. When the subject is acting the verb is said to be in the active voice. When the subject is acted upon the verb is said to be in the passive voice. Verbs in the passive voice have no objects because the subject, being acted upon, is itself in the place of an object.

Those forms of the verb which tell whether the time of the action is past, present, or future, are called tenses. They are six, viz.

Present, I _print_ (_am printing_) the book.

Past or imperfect, I _printed_ the book.

Future, I _shall print_ the book.

Perfect, or present perfect, I _have printed_ the book.

Pluperfect or past perfect, I _had printed_ the book before you
wrote.

Future perfect, I will notify you when I _shall have printed_ the
book.

When adverbs denoting time are indicated care should be taken to see that the verb is consistent with the adverb. "I _printed_ it yesterday," not "I _have printed_ it yesterday;" "I _have not_ yet _printed_ it," not "I _did_ not _print_ it yet;" "I _have printed_ it already," not "I _printed_ it already."

Trouble is sometimes found in choosing the right forms of the verb to be used in subordinate clauses. The rule is:

Verbs in subordinate sentences and clauses must be governed by the tense of the principal verb.

This rule rests on the exact meaning of the forms and words used and its application can be checked by careful examination of these meanings. "He _said_ he _did_ it." "He _said_ he _would do_ it." "He _says_ he _will_ do it."

Note that when the statement in the subordinate clause is of universal application the present tense is always used whatever the tense of the principal verb. "The lecturer said that warm weather always softens rollers."

Those forms of the verb which tell whether the action is an actual fact, a possibility, a condition, or a command are called moods.

There are three moods, the indicative, subjunctive, and imperative.

The indicative mood indicates that the action is a fact. It is also used in asking questions.

The subjunctive mood is less used in modern than in old English. It is most commonly found in clauses beginning with _if_, though _if_ is not to be regarded as the sign of the subjunctive in any such sense as _to_ is the sign of the infinitive.

The subjunctive _were_ should be used in purely hypothetical clauses such as "If I were in your place."

The subjunctive _be_ should be used in the hypothesis or supposition of a scientific demonstration,

If the triangle A be placed on the triangle B.

The subjunctive without _if_ is often used in wishes or prayers,

God forgive him.

O, that my brother were here.

The subjunctive is sometimes used to express condition,

Had you not been a coward, you would not have run away.

The imperative mood indicates a command,

Put that on the press.

The subject of the imperative mood is only expressed when it is emphatic,

Go thou and do likewise.

Older grammarians speak of a fourth mood called potential. The present tendency among grammarians is to treat these forms separately. They are verb phrases which express ability, possibility, obligation, or necessity. They are formed by the use of the auxiliary verbs _may_, _can_, _must_, _might_, _could_, _would_, and _should_, with the infinitive without _to_.

_May_ is used (a) to show that the subject is permitted to do something, "You may go out," or (b) to indicate possibility or doubtful intention, "I may not go to work tomorrow."

_Can_ is used to show that the subject is able to do something, "I can feed a press." These two forms are often confused, with results which would be ridiculous if they were not too common to attract attention. The confusion perhaps arises from the fact that the ability to do a thing often appears to depend on permission to do it. "May I see a proof?" means "Have I permission, or will you allow me, to see a proof?" and is the proper way to put the question. The common question, "Can I see a proof?" is absurd. Of course you can, if you have normal eyesight.

_Must_ shows necessity or obligation.

You must obey the rules of the office.

_Ought_ which is sometimes confounded with _must_ in phrases of this sort expresses moral obligation as distinguished from necessity.

You ought to obey the rules of the office,

indicates that it is your duty to obey because it is the right thing to do even though no penalty is attached.

You must obey the rules of the office,

indicates that you will be punished if you do not obey.

Those forms of the verb which express the time of the action are called tenses. No particular difficulty attends the use of the tenses except in the case of _shall_ and _will_ and _should_ and _would_.

_Shall_ and _will_ are used as follows: In simple statements to express mere futurity, use _shall_ in the first person, _will_ in the second and third; to express volition, promise, purpose, determination, or action which the speaker means to control use _will_ in the first person, _shall_ in the second and third.

The following tables should be learned and practiced in a large variety of combinations.

Futurity Volition, etc.

I shall We shall I will We will
You will You will You shall You shall
He will They will He shall They shall

A good example of the misuse of the words is found in the old story of the foreigner who fell into the water and cried out in terror and despair "I _will_ drown, nobody _shall_ help me."

In asking questions, for the first person always use _shall_, for the second and third use the auxiliary expected in the answer.

Futurity

Shall I (I shall) Shall we (We shall)
Shall you (I shall) Shall you (We shall)
Will he (He will) Will they (They will)

Volition, etc.

---- ---- ---- ----
Will you (I will) Will you (We will)
Shall he (He shall) Shall he (He shall)

In all other cases, as in subordinate clauses _shall_ is used in all persons to express mere futurity, _will_ to express volition, etc.

In indirect discourse, when the subject of the principal clause is different from the noun clause, the usage is like that in direct statement, for example,

The teacher says that James will win the medal. (futurity),

but when the subject of the principal clause is the same as that of the noun clause, the usage is like that in subordinate clauses,

The teacher says that he shall soon resign. (futurity).

Exceptions. _Will_ is often used in the second person to express an official command.

You will report to the superintendent at once.

_Shall_ is sometimes used in the second and third persons in a prophetic sense.

Ye shall know the truth and the truth shall make you free.

The use of _should_ and _would_ is in general the same as that of _shall_ and _will_ in indirect statement.

Futurity.

I should We would
You would You should
He would They should

In asking questions use _should_ in the first person to express mere futurity and _would_ to express volition, etc; in the second and third persons use the form that is expected in the answer.

Futurity

Should I (I should) Should we (We should)
Should You (I should) Should You (We should)
Would he (He would) Would they (They would)

Volition, etc.

Would I (I would) Would we (We would)
Would You (You would) Would You (We would)
Should he (He should) Should they (They should)

In subordinate clauses _should_ is used in all persons to express futurity, _would_ to express volition, etc.

In indirect discourse the usage is similar to that in direct statement.

The teacher said that John would win the medal.

Exceptions. _Should_ is often used to express moral obligation.

You should be honest under all conditions.

_Would_ is sometimes used to express frequentive action.

He would walk the floor night after night.

Mistakes are often made in the use of compound tenses on account of failure to grasp the meaning of the words used.

I should have liked to have seen you,

is correct grammar but probably not correct statement of fact, as it states a past desire to have done something at a period still further remote, that is to say, "I should have liked (yesterday) to have seen you (day before yesterday)." What is generally meant is either "I should have liked to see you," that is "I (then) wished to see you," or "I should like to have seen you," that is "I (now) wish I had seen you (then)."

Every word has its own value and nearly all our mistakes arise from lack of regard for the exact value of the words to be used.

Where a participial construction is used as the object of a verb, the noun or pronoun in the object should be in the possessive case and not in the objective. You should not say, "I object to him watching me," but "I object to his watching me."

Care should be taken not to give objects to passive verbs. The very common expression "The man was given a chance" is incorrect. It should be "A chance was given to the man."

Care should also be taken to avoid the omission of the prepositions which are needed with certain verbs, for example, "beware the dog," "What happened him" should be "beware _of_ the dog," "What happened _to_ him."

On the other hand superfluous prepositions are sometimes used in such phrases as _consider of_, _accept of_ and the like.

Such errors are to be avoided by careful study of the meaning of words and careful observation of the best written and spoken speech.

_Pronouns_

Pronouns are substitutes for nouns. They are labor saving devices. We could say everything which we need to say without them, but at the expense of much repetition of longer words. A child often says "John wants Henry's ball" instead of "I want your ball." Constant remembrance of this simple fact, that a pronoun is only a substitute for a noun, is really about all that is needed to secure correct usage after the pronouns themselves have once become familiar. A construction which appears doubtful can often be decided by substituting nouns for pronouns and vice versa.

A very common error is the use of the plural possessive pronouns with the words _any_, _every_, _each_, _somebody_, _everybody_, and _nobody_, all of which are always singular.

We could accomplish this if every one would do their part.

is wrong. It should be

We could accomplish this if every one would do his part.

Another common mistake is the confusion of the nominative and objective cases in objective clauses where two pronouns or a noun and a pronoun occur.

All this was done for you and I.

is a very common but entirely inexcusable mistake. One would hardly think of saying

"All this was done for I."

I saw John and he leaving the shop.

is almost equally common and quite equally bad. Do not allow yourself to be confused by a double object.

In general great care should be taken to avoid ambiguity in the use of pronouns. It is very easy to multiply and combine pronouns in such a way that while grammatical rules may not be broken the reader may be left hopelessly confused. Such ambiguous sentences should be cleared up, either by a rearrangement of the words or by substitution of nouns for some of the pronouns.

_Adverbs_

An adverb is a helper to a verb, "I fear greatly," "that press works badly." Adverbs modify or help verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs just as adjectives modify nouns and pronouns. The use of adverbs presents some difficulties, mainly arising from the adverbial use of many other parts of speech and from the close relation between adverbs and adjectives.

It should never be forgotten that while adverbs never modify nouns or pronouns, adjectives never modify anything but nouns or pronouns. Remembrance of this simple fact will settle most questions as to the use of adverbs or adjectives. Careful observation and care in forming correct habits of expression will do the rest.

Do not multiply negatives. They cancel each other like the factors in an arithmetical problem. "He never did wrong" is correct in statement and clear in meaning. "He never did nothing wrong" does not add force, it reverses the meaning. The negatives have cancelled each other and you are saying "He did wrong." "He never did nothing wrong to nobody" leaves us with an odd negative and brings us back to the first statement, very badly expressed.

_Prepositions_

A preposition is a hook for a noun or pronoun to hang on. It usually precedes the noun or pronoun which hangs, or depends upon it, as indicated by its name which is derived from the Latin _pre_-before and _pono_-I place.

John is behind the press.

I shall work until Sunday.

A preposition shows the relation of a noun or pronoun used as its object to some other word or words in the sentence or, as it has been otherwise stated, makes the noun or pronoun to which it is joined equivalent to an adjective or an adverb. The expression "John is behind the press" is equivalent to an adjective describing John. That is, he is "John behind-the-press." Prepositions are governing words and the words governed by or depending on them are always in the objective case.

_Conjunctions_

A conjunction is the coupling link between the parts of a train of thought. It is of no purpose whatever except to connect.

I am cold and hungry and tired and I am going home.

Care should be taken to avoid confusing _and_ and _but_ and _and_ and _or_.

He sees the right and does the wrong.

should be

He sees the right but does the wrong.

The ideas are contrasted, not associated.

I did not see Thomas and John.

should be

I did not see Thomas or John.

The first phrase means that I did not see them together, it says nothing about seeing them separately.

_Either_--_or_ and _neither_--_nor_ are called correlative conjunctions. They should always be paired in this way. _Neither_ should never be paired with _or_ nor _either_ with _nor_. Each member of the pair should be placed in the same relative position, that is before the same part of speech.

I could neither see him nor his father.

is wrong. It should be

I could see neither him nor his father.

This rule applies to all other correlatives, that is since they are correlatives in form they should be correlatives in position also. It is correct to say

It belongs both to you and to me.

or

It belongs to both you and me.

but not

It belongs both to you and me.

_Interjections_

An interjection is a word or sound expressing emotion only such as a shout, a groan, a hiss, a sob, or the like, such as _Oh_, _alas_, _hush_.

_General Notes_

The position of words in a sentence is often very important. Misplacement will frequently cause ambiguities and absurdities which punctuation will not remove. What does the phrase "I only saw him" mean? A newspaper advertisement describing a certain dog which was offered for sale says "He is thoroughly house-broken, will eat anything, is very fond of children." As a rule modifiers should be kept close to the words, clauses, or phrases which they modify, but due regard should be given to sense and to ease of expression.

A word or phrase which can be easily supplied from the context may often be omitted. Care must be used in making these omissions or the result will be either ambiguous or slovenly.

Washington is nearer New York than Chicago.

What exactly does this mean? One might get into serious trouble over the interpretation of the phrase "He likes me better than you."

_All day_ and _all night_ are recognized as good expressions sanctioned by long usage. _All morning_ and _all afternoon_ are not yet sanctioned by good usage and give a decided impression of slovenliness.

Another objectionable omission is that of _to_ before _place_ and similar words in such expressions as "Let's go some place" and the like. It should be _to some place_ or, generally better, _somewhere_.

A decidedly offensive abbreviation is the phrase _Rev. Smith_. It should be _Rev. John Smith_ or _Rev. Mr. Smith_. _Rev._ is not a title, or a noun in apposition, but an adjective. It would be entirely correct to say _Pastor Smith_ or _Bishop Smith_. The same error sometimes occurs in using the prefix _Hon._

A knowledge of the correct use and combination of words is fully as important as a knowledge of their grammatical forms and their relations. This knowledge should be acquired by the use of books on rhetoric and by careful study of words themselves. The materials for such study may be found in the books named in the "Supplementary Reading" or in other books of a similar character.

The task of the writer or speaker is to say what he has to say correctly, clearly, and simply. He must say just what he means. He must say it definitely and distinctly. He must say it, so far as the subject matter will permit, in words that people of ordinary intelligence and ordinary education cannot misunderstand. "The right word in the right place" should be the motto of every man who speaks or writes, and this rule should apply to his everyday talk as well as to more formal utterances.

Three abuses are to be avoided.

Do not use slang as a means of expression. There are occasions when a slang phrase may light up what you are saying or may carry it home to intellects of a certain type. Use it sparingly if at all, as you would use cayenne pepper or tabasco sauce. Do not use it in writing at all. Slang is the counterfeit coin of speech. It is a substitute, and a very poor substitute, for language. It is the refuge of those who neither understand real language nor know how to express themselves in it.

Do not use long, unusual words. Use short and simple words whenever they will serve your turn. It is a mistake to suppose that a fluent use of long words is a mark either of depth of thought or of extent of information. The following bit of nonsense is taken from the news columns of a newspaper of good standing: "The topography about Puebla avails itself easily to a force which can utilize the heights above the city with cannon." What was meant was probably something like this, "The situation of Puebla is such as to give a great advantage to a force which can plant cannon on the high ground overlooking the city."

Do not use inflated or exaggerated words.

A _heavy shower_ is not a _cloud burst_; a _gale_ is not a _blizzard_; a _fire_ is not a _conflagration_; an _accident_ or a _defeat_ is not a _disaster_; a _fatal accident_ is not a _holocaust_; a _sharp criticism_ is not an _excoriation_ or _flaying_, and so on.

_Rules for Correct Writing_

More than a century ago the great Scotch rhetorician Campbell framed five canons or rules for correct writing. They have never been improved. They should be learned by heart, thoroughly mastered, and constantly practiced by every writer and speaker. They are as follows:

Canon 1.--When, of two words or phrases in equally good use, one is susceptible of two significations and the other of but one, preference should be given to the latter: e. g., _admittance_ is better than _admission_, as the latter word also means _confession_; _relative_ is to be preferred to _relation_, as the latter also means the telling of a story.

Canon 2.--In doubtful cases regard should be given to the analogy of the language; _might better_ should be preferred to _had better_, and _would rather_ is better than _had rather_.

Canon 3.--The simpler and briefer form should be preferred, other things being equal, e. g., omit the bracketed words in expressions such as, _open_ (_up_), _meet_ (_together_), _follow_ (_after_), _examine_ (_into_), _trace_ (_out_), _bridge_ (_over_), _crave_ (_for_), etc.

Canon 4.--Between two forms of expression in equally good use, prefer the one which is more euphonious: e. g., _most beautiful_ is better than _beautifullest_, and _more free_ is to be preferred to _freer_.

Canon 5.--In cases not covered by the four preceding canons, prefer that which conforms to the older usage: e. g., _begin_ is better than _commence_.

_The Sentence_

The proper construction of sentences is very important to good writing. The following simple rules will be of great assistance in sentence formation. They should be carefully learned and the pupil should be drilled in them.

1. Let each sentence have one, and only one, principal subject of thought. Avoid heterogeneous sentences.

2. The connection between different sentences must be kept up by adverbs used as conjunctions, or by means of some other connecting words at the beginning of the sentence.

3. The connection between two long sentences or paragraphs sometimes requires a short intervening sentence showing the transition of thought.

_The Paragraph_

The proper construction of paragraphs is also of great importance. The following rules will serve as guides for paragraphing. They should be learned and the pupil should be drilled in their application.

1. A sentence which continues the topic of the sentence which precedes it rather than introduces a new topic should never begin a paragraph.

2. Each paragraph should possess a single central topic to which all the statements in the paragraph should relate. The introduction of a single statement not so related to the central topic violates the unity.

3. A sentence or short passage may be detached from the paragraph to which it properly belongs if the writer wishes particularly to emphasize it.

4. For ease in reading, a passage which exceeds three hundred words in length may be broken into two paragraphs, even though no new topic has been developed.

5. Any digression from the central topic, or any change in the viewpoint in considering the central topic, demands a new paragraph.

6. Coherence in a paragraph requires a natural and logical order of development.

7. Smoothness of diction in a paragraph calls for the intelligent use of proper connective words between closely related sentences. A common fault, however, is the incorrect use of such words as _and_ or _but_ between sentences which are not closely related.

8. In developing the paragraph, emphasis is secured by a careful consideration of the relative values of the ideas expressed, giving to each idea space proportionate to its importance to the whole. This secures the proper climax.

9. The paragraph, like the composition itself, should possess clearness, unity, coherence, and emphasis. It is a group of related sentences developing a central topic. Its length depends upon the length of the composition and upon the number of topics to be discussed.

_Rules for the Use and Arrangement of Words_

The following rules for the use and arrangement of words will be found helpful in securing clearness and force.

1. Use words in their proper sense.

2. Avoid useless circumlocution and "fine writing."

3. Avoid exaggerations.

4. Be careful in the use of _not_ ... _and_, _any_, _but_, _only_, _not_ ... _or_, _that_.

5. Be careful in the use of ambiguous words, e. g., _certain_.

6. Be careful in the use of _he_, _it_, _they_, _these_, etc.

7. Report a speech in the first person where necessary to avoid ambiguity.

8. Use the third person where the exact words of the speaker are not intended to be given.

9. When you use a participle implying _when_, _while_, _though_, or _that_, show clearly by the context what is implied.

10. When using the relative pronoun, use _who_ or _which_, if the meaning is _and he_ or _and it_, _for he_ or _for it_.

11. Do not use _and which_ for _which_.

12. Repeat the antecedent before the relative where the non-repetition causes any ambiguity.

13. Use particular for general terms. Avoid abstract nouns.

14. Avoid verbal nouns where verbs can be used.

15. Use particular persons instead of a class.

16. Do not confuse metaphor.

17. Do not mix metaphor with literal statement.

18. Do not use poetic metaphor to illustrate a prosaic subject.

19. Emphatic words must stand in emphatic positions; i. e., for the most part, at the beginning or the end of the sentence.

20. Unemphatic words must, as a rule, be kept from the end.

21. The Subject, if unusually emphatic, should often be transferred from the beginning of the sentence.

22. The object is sometimes placed before the verb for emphasis.

23. Where several words are emphatic make it clear which is the most emphatic. Emphasis can sometimes be given by adding an epithet, or an intensifying word.

24. Words should be as near as possible to the words with which they are grammatically connected.

25. Adverbs should be placed next to the words they are intended to qualify.

26. _Only_; the strict rule is that _only_ should be placed before the word it affects.

27. When _not only_ precedes _but also_ see that each is followed by the same part of speech.

28. _At least_, _always_, and other adverbial adjuncts sometimes produce ambiguity.

29. Nouns should be placed near the nouns that they define.

30. Pronouns should follow the nouns to which they refer without the intervention of any other noun.

31. Clauses that are grammatically connected should be kept as close together as possible. Avoid parentheses.

32. In conditional sentences the antecedent or "if-clauses" must be kept distinct from the consequent clauses.

33. Dependent clauses preceded by _that_ should be kept distinct from those that are independent.

34. Where there are several infinitives those that are dependent on the same word must be kept distinct from those that are not.

35. In a sentence with _if_, _when_, _though_, etc. put the "if-clause" first.

36. Repeat the subject where its omission would cause obscurity or ambiguity.

37. Repeat a preposition after an intervening conjunction especially if a verb and an object also intervene.

38. Repeat conjunctions, auxiliary verbs, and pronominal adjectives.

39. Repeat verbs after the conjunctions _than_, _as_, etc.

40. Repeat the subject, or some other emphatic word, or a summary of what has been said, if the sentence is so long that it is difficult to keep the thread of meaning unbroken.

41. Clearness is increased when the beginning of the sentence prepares the way for the middle and the middle for the end, the whole forming a kind of ascent. This ascent is called "climax."

42. When the thought is expected to ascend but descends, feebleness, and sometimes confusion, is the result. The descent is called "bathos."

43. A new construction should not be introduced unexpectedly.

_Common Errors in the Use of Words_

The following pages contain a short list of the more common errors in the use of words. Such a list might be extended almost indefinitely. It is only attempted to call attention to such mistakes as are, for various reasons, most liable to occur.

_A_ should be repeated for every individual. "A red and black book" means one book, "a red and a black book" means two.

_Abbreviate_, and _abridge_; _abbreviation_ is the shortening of a piece of writing no matter how accomplished. An _abridgement_ is a condensation.

_Ability_, power to do something, should be distinguished from _capacity_, power to receive something.

_Above_ should not be used as an adjective, e. g., "The statement made in _above_ paragraph." Substitute _preceding_, _foregoing_, or some similar adjective.

_Accept_, not _accept of_.

_Accredit_, to give one credentials should be distinguished from _credit_, to believe what one says.

_Administer_ is often misused. One _administers_ a dose of medicine, the laws, an oath, or the government; one does not _administer_ a blow.

_Administer to_ is often incorrectly used for _minister to_, e. g., "The red cross nurse _administers to_ the wounded."

_Admire_ should not be used to express delight, as in the phrase "I should _admire_ to do so."

_Admit_ should be distinguished from _confess_.

_Advent_ should be distinguished from _arrival_, _advent_ meaning an epoch-making _arrival_.

_Affable_ means "easy to speak to" and should not be confused with _agreeable_.

_Affect_ should be distinguished from _effect_. To _affect_ is to influence; to _effect_ is to cause or bring about.

_Aggravate_ should not be used for _annoy_ or _vex_ or _provoke_. It means "to make worse."

_Ain't_ is a corruption of _am not_. It is inelegant though grammatical to say I _ain't_ but absolutely incorrect in other persons and numbers.

_Alike_ should not be accompanied by _both_ as in the phrase "They are _both alike_ in this respect."

_All_, _All right_ should never be written _alright_. _All_ and _universally_ should never be used together. _All_ should not be accompanied by _of_, e. g., "He received _all of_ the votes." Be careful about the use of _all_ in negative statements. Do not say "All present are not printers" when you mean "Not all present are printers." The first statement means there are no printers present, the second means there are some printers present.

_Allege_ is a common error for _say_, _state_, and the like. It means "to declare," "to affirm," or "to assert with the idea of positiveness" and is not applicable to ordinary statements not needing emphasis.

_Allow_ means _permit_, never _think_ or _admit_.

_Allude to_ is not the same as _mention_. A person or thing alluded to is not mentioned but indirectly implied.

_Alone_ which means _unaccompanied_ should be distinguished from _only_ which means _no other_.

_Alternative_ should never be used in speaking of more than two things.

_Altogether_ is not the same as _all together_.

_Among_ should not be used with _one another_, e. g., "They divided the spoil _among one another_." It should be "among themselves."

_And_ should not be placed before a relative pronoun in such a position as to interfere with the construction. It should not be substituted for _to_ in such cases as "Try _and_ take more exercise."

_And which_ should not be used for _which_.

_Another_ should be followed by _than_ not _from_, e. g., "Men of another temper _from_ (_than_) the Greeks."

_Answer_ is that which is given to a question; _reply_ to an assertion.

_Anticipate_ should not be used in the sense of _expect_. It means "to forestall."

_Anxious_ should not be confused with _desirous_. It means "feeling anxiety."

_Any_ is liable to ambiguity unless it is used with care. "Any of them" may be either singular or plural. "It is not intended for _any_ machine" may mean "There is no machine for which it is intended," or "It is not intended for every machine, but only for a special type."

_Anybody else's_, idiomatic and correct.

_Anyhow_, bad, do not use it.

_Apparently_ is used of what seems to be real but may not be so. It should not be confused with _evidently_ which is used of what both seems to be and is real.

_Appear_ is physical in its meaning and should be distinguished from _seem_ which expresses a mental experience. "The forest _appears_ to be impenetrable," "This does not _seem_ to me to be right."

_Apt_ means "skilful" and should never be used in place of _likely_ or _liable_. It also means "having a natural tendency."

_As_ should not be used as a causal conjunction, e. g., "Do not expect me _as_ I am too uncertain of my time." The word _as_ stands here as a contraction of inasmuch. Substitute a semicolon, or make two sentences.

_As to_ is redundant in such expressions as "_As to_ how far we can trust him I cannot say."

_At_ is often incorrectly used for _in_, e. g., "He lives _at_ Chicago." It is also improperly used in such expressions as "Where is he _at_?"

_As that_ should not be used for _that_ alone. Do not say "So _as that_ such and such a thing may happen."

_Audience_ is not the same as _spectators_. An _audience_ listens; _spectators_ merely see. A concert has an _audience_; a moving picture show has _spectators_.

_Aught_ means "anything" and should not be confused with _naught_ or the symbol _0_ which means "nothing."

_Avenge_ means to redress wrongs done to others; _revenge_ wrong done to ourselves. _Avenge_ usually implies just retribution. _Revenge_ may be used of malicious retaliation.

_Avocation_ should not be confused with _vocation_. A man's _vocation_ is his principal occupation. His _avocation_ is his secondary occupation.

_Aware_ is not the same as _conscious_. We are _aware_ of things outside of ourselves; we are _conscious_ of sensations or things within ourselves.

_Awful_ and _awfully_ are two very much abused words. They mean "awe inspiring" and should never be used in any other sense.

_Badly_ should not be used for _very much_. It should not be confused with the adjective _bad_. "He looks badly" means he makes a bad use of his eyes, say "He looks bad."

_Bank on_ is slang. Say _rely on_ or _trust in_.

_Beg_ is often incorrectly used in the sense of _beg leave_, not "I _beg_ to say" but "I _beg leave_ to say."

_Beside_, meaning "by the side of" should not be confused with _besides_ meaning "in addition to."

_Between_ applies only to two persons or things.

_Blame on_ as a verb should never be used.

_Both_, when _both--and_ are used be sure they connect the right words, "He can both spell and punctuate" not "He both can spell and punctuate." Do not use such expressions as "They both resemble each other." Be careful to avoid confusion in the use of negative statements. Do not say "Both cannot go" when you mean that one can go.

_Bound_ in the sense of _determined_ is an Americanism and is better avoided. We say "he is _bound_ to do it" meaning "he is _determined_ to do it," but the phrase really means "He is under bonds, or obligation to do it."

_Bring_ should be carefully distinguished from _fetch_, _carry_ and _take_. _Bring_ means to transfer toward the speaker. _Fetch_ means to go and bring back. _Carry_ and _take_ mean to transfer from the speaker, e. g., "_Bring_ a book home from the library." "_Fetch_ me a glass of water." "_Carry_ this proof to the proofreader." "_Take_ this book home."

_But_ is sometimes used as a preposition and when so used takes the objective case. "The boy stood on the burning deck whence all _but_ him had fled." _But_ should not be used in connection with _that_ unless intended to express the opposite of what the meaning would be without it, e. g., "I have no doubt _but that_ he will die" is incorrect because his death is expected. "I have no fear _but that_ he will come" is correct, as the meaning intended is "I am sure he will come."

_But what_ is often incorrectly used for _but that_. "I cannot believe _but what_ he is guilty" probably means "I can but believe that he is guilty." "I _cannot but_ believe" means "I must believe."

_Calculate_ does not mean _think_ or _suppose_.

_Calculated_ does not mean _likely_. It means "intended or planned for the purpose."

_Can_ which indicates ability is to be distinguished from _may_ which indicates permission.

_Cannot but_ should be carefully distinguished from _can but_, e. g., "I _can but_ try" means "All I can do is try." "I _cannot but try_" means "I cannot help trying."

_Can't seem_ should not be used for _seem unable_, e. g., "I _can't seem_ to see it."

_Childlike_ should be carefully distinguished from _childish_. _Childish_ refers particularly to the weakness of the child.

_Come_ should not be confused with _Go_. _Come_ denotes motion toward the speaker; _go_ motion from the speaker, "If you will come to see me, I will go to see you."