Chapter XXI: Section 4: (fig. 217) is a good one to use. Only the curved part is to (1)

be Gilded, and not the small bevelled sides.

_For Raised letters_, the best and most useful section is No. 5; the slightly bevelled sides tell as part of the letter. Experience, and the weathering conditions, will suggest the amount of Relief to be given. For letters 1-1/2 inch high, out of doors, 3/16 inch of relief is ample, and if there be good light 1/8 inch is enough. Excessive relief looks clumsy.

Sections Nos. 6 and 7 are suitable only for large letters; and elaborate sections should as a rule be used only for letters standing alone.

WORKING _IN SITU_

If possible the carver should work _in situ_. When that is impracticable,[129] he should consider most carefully where his Inscription is to go. [p406]

In an Inscription which is much above the eye level, the letters may be narrower in proportion to their height, and the horizontal strokes extra thick to allow for foreshortening. (See also pp. 351, 270.)

The advantages of working _in situ_ are great, for by so doing the carver sees his job as he works under the same conditions of light and environment that it will finally be seen under, and the work is more likely to become a part of the place because it has grown there.

And it is good to carve an Inscription on the actual wall of a fine building, and better still to work in the inspiriting atmosphere of building in progress, or to work in the open air where the artificial notions of workshop or studio are dissipated and the feeling of life and freedom gained.

―――――――――――――――――――― FOOTNOTES TO APPENDIX B:

[119] With which we may include Arabic numerals.

[120] It should be clearly understood that legibility by no means excludes either beauty or ornament. The ugly form of “_Block_” _letter_ so much in use is no more legible than the beautiful Roman lettering on the Trajan Column (see Plates I., II.).

[121] Roman small-letters and Italics, being originally pen letters, are still better understood if the carver knows how to use a pen, or, at least, has studied good examples of manuscripts in which those letters are used.

[122] Some advice from the letter-cutter might be useful to the client as to _the number of words_ and _the space they will occupy_ in cases where it is possible to adapt the one to the other.

[123] Small lettering is less convenient to read out of doors, and is apt to get filled with dirt or moss.

[124] Whenever it is possible the carver should not be bound to follow a drawing strictly, but should do his work in the straightforward manner described above. Unfortunately he is often obliged to set out the whole Inscription exactly before carving it, and in such a case it is usual to carve the bottom line of letters first and to work upwards, cutting the first line last.

[125] Really sharp, _i.e._ sharp enough to cut a piece of paper without tearing it.

[126] The harder the stone to be carved, the more highly tempered will the chisels need to be.

[127] In learning to cut Inscriptions one would naturally begin with Incised letters.

[128] Where the ground between the letters is left plain, an absolute flatness and evenness is not necessary. The common method of jabbing or “pecking” the background is objectionable.

[129] _E.g._ Tombstones and Memorial Slabs are not usually fixed until finished.

[p409]

NOTES ON THE COLLOTYPE PLATES

(‹Note.›—_In order to make the illustrations [whether of facsimiles or enlargements] as large and as full as possible, I have sacrificed “appearance” to use and allowed most of the collotype plates, and many of the diagrams in the book, to encroach on the margins.—E. J._)

_GENERAL NOTE._—All the plates are in _facsimile_ as to size (or _nearly so_, allowing for errors in reproduction) except I., II., XXII., and XXIV., which had to be _reduced_, and therefore only _portions_ of the MSS. can be shown. ‹Note.›—All the MSS. are on “Vellum” (see p. 173). In order to get a better impression of the size and general proportion of a MS., the student might reconstruct it—or at least mark off the margins, text, &c.—on paper, from the measurements given. Or a sheet of paper might be cut to the size of the given page or _opening_, with an aperture (in its proper place) through which the plate might be viewed.

The plates are arranged in chronological order as nearly as possible. They are intended briefly to illustrate the _Development of the Formal Book Hands from the Roman Capital_ and _the General Development of the Illuminated MS._: I hope, moreover, that, fragmentary as they are, they will prove usefully suggestive in regard to _the Arrangement of Text and Lettering and Ornament_. The wonderful effect of the colouring cannot be given here, but, in any case, the illuminator should look at some original MSS. Several of the MSS. from which the plates are taken are exhibited in the British Museum.

_PLATE I.—Portion of Inscription on base of Trajan Column,^* Rome, circa 114 ‹A.D.› Scale approx. 1/9th linear._

THE STONE (within the internal line of the moulding): 3 feet 9 inches high, and 9 feet 3/4 inch long. [p410]

THE BORDERS.—The lettering practically fills the panel (see p. 352): the surrounding moulding is approx. 4 inches wide.

THE LETTERS (_for their forms_ see next note).

Approximate heights
First two lines: 4-1/2 inches high.
Second two lines: 4-3/8 ” ”
Fifth line: 4-1/8 ” ”
Last line: 3-7/8 ” ”

THE SPACES (between Lines) decrease from 3 inches to 2-3/4 inches. A decrease in the height of the letters from the top to the foot line is common in early inscriptions (see figs. 203–205). Several reasons for this suggest themselves: (_a_) (Sometimes the beginning words, being farther from the reader, may require to be larger). (_b_) The architectural beauty of a large heading (comp. _stem heads_, p. 288). (_c_) The importance of _beginnings_ generally (there is very often a marked difference between the upper lines containing important words and the rest of the inscription: comp. figs. 197, 91).

‹Note.›—The WORDS are separated by triangular points (p. 384).

―――――――――――――――――――― * There is a cast (No. 1864–128) in the Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington, where also the photograph of the inscription is obtainable, from portions of which Plates I. and II. are reproduced.

PLATE II.—_Alphabet from Trajan Inscription._ (_Circa_ 114 ‹A.D.›) _Scale approx. 1/6th linear._ (See note above.)

THE “TRAJAN” ALPHABET.— Very fine letters for inscriptions in stone: possibly painted before incision (see p. 292); see also remarks on Roman Capitals, pp. 268–296, and note:—

SERIFS.—Small and carefully curved.

THIN PARTS about half the width of the _thick stems_ (pp. 375, 285).

A (M and N), _pointed_ (p. 280).

B—a very beautiful form, with large lower _bow_ (p. 278).

C, G, and (D)—Upper parts rather straight (p. 281).

E and F—_mid arm_ slightly shorter than upper arm.

E and L—_lower serif_ pointed out (p. 282). [p411]

LO (shown sideways in collotype) and LT show L’s _arm_ projecting under next letter.

M—_pointed_: slightly spread (p. 284), distance apart of points above equal to _inside_ distance of stems below.

N—_pointed_: practically no difference in thickness of vertical and oblique parts (p. 285).

O—very beautiful: _width slightly less than height_ (p. 270); slightly _tilted_ (as are all the other curved letters: see p. 285).

P—_Bow_ not joined to stem below (first P rounder topped).

Q—_tail_ carried under V (U).

R—_large bow_: straight tail, with finishing-curve (p. 291).

S—leans forward slightly (p. 286).

_Proportions of widths to heights_ (comp. with pp. 269–273)
OCDGMNQ width slightly _less_ than height.
ARTV width approx. 1/6th _less_ than height.
BX width rather more than _half_ height.
P width approx. equal _half_ height.
LS width slightly _less_ than half height.
EF width approx. 3/7ths of height.

H, (J), K, (U), W, Y, Z are not present in the inscription. A rough diagram (fig. 219) is given below showing approximately suitable forms for these (_Re junction of_ «U» _in stone;_ see p. 400, & fig. 215). [p412]

PLATE III.—_Written Roman Capitals, Fourth or Fifth Century._ (_Virgil’s “Æneid”_).

(From a facsimile in the Palæographical Society’s Publications, 1st Series, Vol. II., Pl. 208, of a MS. in the library of S. Gall, Switzerland. See also “Greek and Latin Palæography,” p. 185.)

LETTERS.—Simple-written (slanted-pen) Roman “Square Capitals.”

WORDS in early MSS. were not separated (p. 112).

LINES ruled with a hard point (p. 343). The letters appear to have been written between every alternate pair (p. 299), but slightly over the line.

A very handsome writing which might still be used for special MSS. (see pp. 304, 300, 299).

PLATE IV.—_Uncial Writing, probably Italian Sixth or Seventh Century. (Latin Gospels). Brit. Museum, Harl. MS. 1775._

(Shown in Brit. Mus. Department of MSS., Case G, No. 11.)

THE VOLUME contains 468 leaves (7 inches by 4-3/4 inches).

MARGINS, Approx.: _Inner_ 5/8 inch, _Head_ 7/8 inch, _Side_ 9/8 inch, _Foot_ 8/8 inch. (They may have been cut down by the binder.)

WRITING.—A fine _round_ Uncial MS. (pp. 38, 302), arranged in long and short lines.

‹Note.›—On many of the letters there are fine hair-line curved _tails_ and _flourishes_, which are scarcely visible in the photograph. (These tails were also used in the earlier Uncial shown in fig. 5—see also _Addenda_, p. 23.)

SECTIONS.—Marked by built-up letters of an Uncial type, and numbered, m‹R› cxxiiii to m‹R› cxxvi (with references to “Harmonies”). The passage is S. Mark xi. 21–25. [p413]

PLATE V.—_Uncial Writing, probably Continental Seventh Century. (Gospel of S. John). Ex libris Stonyhurst College. (See also enlargement, fig. 169.)_

(From a facsimile in the Palæographical Society’s Publications, 1st Series, Vol. II., Pl. 17.)

THE VOLUME contains 90 leaves, approx. 5-3/8 inches by 3-5/8 inches. The _Inner margin_ is approximately 1/2 inch wide.

WRITING.—A very beautiful pointed (slanted-pen) Uncial. The “pointed” character of the letters, which yet retain their typical roundness, give this writing a peculiar charm. Note the top of the P has a marked angle, and the M and H, and even the O, have this slightly or strongly.

RULING.—Single lines, rather wide (p. 305).

ARRANGEMENT.—Certain of the lines are _indented_ one letter (p. 264).

LARGE LETTERS.—On _verso_ Col marking a “Chapter” is built-up in _red_, on _recto_ the three large letters (marking sections) are simply written with the text pen (p. 299). (The passage is S. John xi. 46–56.)

_PLATE VI.—Half-Uncial (Irish), Seventh Century. “Book of Kells” (Latin Gospels). Ex libris Trinity College, Dublin._

(From a facsimile—part of Pl. XLVII.—in “Celtic Ornaments from the Book of Kells,” by the Rev. Dr. T. K. Abbott.)

THE LEAVES—which are cut down and much damaged—measure 13 inches by 10 inches.

WRITING.—A beautiful and highly finished (approx. straight pen) Half-Uncial (pp. 40, 304), tending to ornamental and fanciful forms whenever opportunity offered. (Note the treatment of inde.)

ARRANGEMENT.—Long and short lines: wide spacing. [p414]

THE LETTERS combine extreme gracefulness with an unusual appearance of strength. This is mainly due to the ends of _all_ the strokes being finished; the thick strokes have large, triangular heads (p. 327) on the left, and bases broadened by an additional stroke below on the right (thus @). And the horizontal thin strokes are either finished with a triangular terminal (p. 246), or run on into the next letter—_joining the letters together_.

The extreme _roundness_ of the letters is contributed to by their being written between DOUBLE LINES (pp. 304, 88), the upper line of which tends to flatten the tops.

The pen not being quite “straight” (see _footnote_, p. 304), together with a tendency to _pull_ the left hand curves, gives a characteristic shape to the letters @. @. @. @. @. @.

THE ILLUMINATION throughout the book is most elaborate and beautiful. Each division has an entire Initial page occupied with the first few letters. The COLOURS were “_paled green_, _red_, _violet_, _and yellow_, _intense black_, _and white_, _but no gold_”: see description of Celtic MSS., p. 40, Bradley’s “Illuminated Letters and Borders,” and also the Palæographical Society’s 1st Series, Vol. II., Pl. 55–58, 88, 89.

This notable book may be taken as an example of the marvellous possibilities of pen-work and complex colour-work (see p. 216).

In considering the value of the writing as a model, it may be noted that its highly finished nature demands practised skill on the part of the copyist, and that though modern _Irish writing_ (for which it would be an excellent model) still employs @. @. @. @. @. @. @. these letters would be apt to look peculiar in English. The Kells MS. @. @. @. @. @. @. @. @. @. @. @. @. however, might be used, and a very beautiful ornamental hand (p. 304) might be founded on this writing. [p415]

_PLATE VII.—Half-Uncial (English), circa 700_ ‹A.D.› _“Durham Book” (Latin Gospels). Brit. Mus., Cotton MSS. Nero D. IV._

THE VOLUME contains 258 leaves (13-1/2 inches by 9-7/8 inches).

THE WRITING is an English—or rather _Anglo-Irish_—Half-Uncial, written at Lindisfarne (_Holy I._) under Irish influence (p. 40). ARRANGEMENT—two columns of 24 lines—long and short—to the page (note how «eis» is got into the fifth line): wide spacing.

The writing bears a strong resemblance to that of the “Book of Kells,” but is generally much plainer; it is also less graceful, being _heavier_ and _wider_ in proportion. The “Book of Kells” O is a _circle_, while the “Durham Book” O is considerably wider than its height, and all the other letters are correspondingly wide. The RULING in both books consists of double lines, ruled with a hard point _on both sides of each leaf_.

THE ILLUMINATION also resembles that of the “Book of Kells” (see _opposite_), but a small amount of _gold_ is employed in it. (See also Palæographical Society’s 1st Series, Vol. II., Pl. 3–6, 22.)

‹Note.›—The “Gloss,” or interlinear translation, is in the Northumbrian dialect, and was put in in the tenth century, more than 200 years after the book was written.

A hand founded to some extent on the “Durham Book” hand is given in Chap. IV. as an easy copy: see figs. 49, 50.

_PLATE VIII.—English Tenth-century Writing. (Psalter). Brit. Mus., Harl. MS. 2904._ (_See enlargement, fig. 172_). (Shown B. M. Grenville Lib. Case 2, No. 9.)

THE VOLUME contains 214 leaves (13-1/4 inches by 10 inches), 18 lines to the page; probably written at Winchester in late tenth century. (_Pl. reduced scale 8/9ths._)

WRITING.—An extremely good, formal, “slanted-pen” writing, having great freedom (note the very slight [p416] slope forward) and simplicity. This type of letter may be regarded as a link between the Half-Uncial and the Roman Small-Letter (see p. 310).

THE RULING: _single_ lines (see _footnote_, p. 305).

THE LETTERS show very strongly the effects of the “slanted pen” (see pp. 43, 305). Note the heavy shoulders and feet in «n», «b», &c., and the thick horizontals in @@. The curved tops or _arches_ are flattish and strong: the thick strokes end in points and are hooked below, thin strokes scarcely appear except as the _finishing strokes_ of «a», «c», «e», «l», @, while «d», («h»), «i», «m», «n», «u» end in small heavy _hooks_. Note generally the tendency to _internal angles_ and _external roundness_ (examples, @ and «o»).

Note particularly the junctions and accidental crossings of the strokes (seen best in the enlargement, fig. 172) as bearing on the mode of construction of the letters (see p. 84).

Note the fine shape of the _amperzand_ («&»: 3rd line).

THE ILLUMINATION (see _Characteristics of Winchester Illumination, or “Opus Anglicum,”_ pp. 82, 83, Bradley: “Illuminated Letters and Borders”). _All_ the CAPITALS beginning the verses are in raised, burnished gold, in the margin. The titles are in _red_ in fancy “Rustic Capitals” (p. 297). The Line-Fillings consist of groups of red dots, in threes (@ @ @).

This extremely legible MS. would form an almost perfect model for a modern formal hand («s» being substituted for long «ſ», and the straight «t» for the curved @ (see fig. 183): the removal of the «e» _flourish_ would also help readableness). And though it is somewhat large and heavy for ordinary use, it is good for practising, and might be developed into a form resembling any of the more difficult later forms (Plates IX., X., XX.).

_PLATE IX.—English Writing, dated 1018. Two portions of a Charter of CNUT. Brit. Museum._ (_See also enlargement, fig._ 173.) [_Pl. reduced scale_ 11/12_ths._]

(Shown in Brit. Mus., Department of MSS., Case V., No. 3.)

THE WRITING resembles that in Plate VIII. [p417] (see above), but is more slender and rounder—the pen being a little less slanted, and the _arches_ more curved, and showing more of the _thin_ stroke. The ascenders and descenders are longer, the heads are more marked, and there is a general elegance and distinction, due perhaps to the MS. being a charter. Charter-hands are generally more showy and less legible than Book-hands, but in this hand there is great legibility, and a very few changes (similar to those suggested above) would make it quite suitable for modern use. Its relation to the Roman Small-Letter is obvious.

‹Notes.›—The (black) @ «V» and «u» were probably built-up with the writing pen.

The forms of «a», «e», «g», («h»), «r», may be noted as differing considerably from the tenth-century hand.

The combined «ra» (in the 4th line) is curious; and the «r» in _Anglorum_—this «r» (which represents the Bow and Tail of R) commonly follows the round letters «b», «o», «p», in “Gothic” writing: there is another curious form in the linked «rt» in _cartula_ (last line).

The word CNUT and several other names are in ornamental “Rustic” Capitals (see p. 297).

The two lines of English from another part of the charter have very long stems and ornamental serifs, giving a very decorative effect (see _footnote_, p. 326).

_PLATE X.—Italian (first half of) Twelfth-century Writing. (Homilies and Lessons). Brit. Mus., Harl. MS. 7183._ (_See also enlargement, fig. 174._)

(Shown in Brit. Mus., Department of MSS., Case C [lower part], No. 101.)

THE VOLUME.—Homilies and Lessons for Sundays and Festivals from Advent to Easter Eve—contains 317 leaves (approximately 21-1/2 inches by 15 inches); two columns, each of 50 lines, to the page. The MARGINS are, approximately, _Inner_ 1-1/4 inch, _Head_ [p418] 1-1/4 inch, _Side_ 3-1/4 inches, _Foot_ 4-1/4 inches (_between columns_ 1-1/8 inch: see Plate). The portion of a page, shown in Plate X., consists of the last eleven lines, second column, of folio 78.

WRITING.—This has all the qualities of good writing (p. 239) in a marked degree, and I consider it, taken all round, the most perfect and satisfactory penmanship which I have seen.

Its simplicity and distinctiveness are very marked, so also are its character and freedom. There is an almost entire absence of artificial finish—the terminals are natural hooks, beaks and “feet” made with a fine sleight of hand (p. 311)—and its very great beauty of form is the natural outcome of good traditions and eminently satisfactory craftsmanship.

‹Notes.›—The letters are very wide, and the _inside shapes_ differ considerably from those of the tenth-century MS. (above)—with which, however, there is a considerable affinity (see p. 416).

The «f» is longer than the «ſ», the «g» has a very fine form with a _closed_ loop, the «r» is sharpened, the «t» _straight_.

Small (Uncial) CAPITALS «um» follow the Versal; the serifs on the S and E are made with dexterous movements of the nib (p. 246), and resemble those on the Versal C. V and U are both used for the consonant (V).

There are very few VERSALS in this book: the C shown is in red (which has been smudged).

The large “ILLUMINATED INITIALS” in the book are in yellow, blue, and red, and appear to me to be comparatively poor, at least, to fall short of the perfection of the MS.

Of this writing, Sir Edward Maunde Thompson (“Greek and Latin Palæography,” pp. 271–2) says:—

“The sense of grace of form which we perceive in the Lombardic writing of Italy is maintained in that country in the later writing of the new minuscule type, which assumes under the pens of the most expert Italian scribes a very beautiful and round even style. This style, though peculiarly Italian, extended [p419] its influence abroad, especially to the south of France, and became the model of Spanish writing at a later time. We select a specimen from a very handsome MS. of Homilies of the first half of the 12th century (_Pal. Soc._ ii. pl. 55), written in bold letters of the best type, to which we shall find the scribes of the fifteenth century reverting in order to obtain a model for their MSS. of the Renaissance. The exactness with which the writing is here executed is truly marvellous, and was only rivalled, not surpassed, by the finished handiwork of its later imitators.

“It will of course be understood that this was not the only style of hand that prevailed in Italy. Others of a much rougher cast were also employed. But as a typical book-hand, which was the parent of the hands in which the greater proportion of carefully written MSS. of succeeding periods were written in Italy, it is to be specially noticed.”

(P. 284)—“we give a specimen of a hand of the Italian Renaissance, a revival of the style of the eleventh or twelfth century, and a very successful imitation of a MS. of that period. It was this practice, followed by the scribes of the Renaissance, of reverting to that fine period of Italian writing (see p. 272) to find models for the exquisitely finished MSS. which they were compelled to produce in order to satisfy the refined taste of their day, that influenced the early printers of Italy in the choice of their form of type.”^*

(P. 285)—“in the comparatively small number of extant literary MSS. of a later date than the close of the [fifteenth] century it is noticeable that a large proportion of them are written in the style of the book-hand of the Italian Renaissance—the style which eventually superseded all others in the printing press. The scribes of these late examples only followed the taste of the day in preferring those clear and simple characters to the rough letters of the native hands.”

―――――――――――――――――――― * The specimen hand given is of date 1466. Plate XVIII. may here be taken as an example of the Renaissance revival; Plate XX. and fig. 175 as examples of later MSS.

_PLATE XI.—English (late) Twelfth-century Writing, with flourished Capitals. (Breviary). Brit. Mus., Royal MS. 2. A. x._

(Shown in Brit. Mus., Department of MSS., Case D, No. 111.)

THE VOLUME—sometimes called the St. Albans or _Albanus_ Psalter—contains 200 leaves (6-7/8 inches by [p420] 4-7/8 inches); twenty-seven lines to the page, some pages have two columns. MARGINS, approximately, _Inner_ 5/8 inch, _Head_ under 1/2 inch (see Plate), _Side_ 1-1/4 inch (part occupied by Versals), _Foot_ 1-1/8 inch.

THE WRITING is fairly legible, but approaches Black Letter (p. 331) too nearly to be of use to us for ordinary purposes. Note the ornamental Semi-Rustic Capitals in text. Note the RULING of the two head lines and of the foot line is carried into the margin.

THE VERSALS.—The main interest lies in the varied forms of the Versals, which are most beautifully made in _red_ and _green_ alternately. There is one elaborate _gold_ initial in the book, and several Versals in blue and white (_hollow_: see p. 208).

The five @’s—and the «D» in the text—on this page (folio 85b) by no means exhaust the varieties of «D» alone, and there are very many varieties of the forms of the other letters. On some pages each line begins with a small Versal, while the more important Initials are much larger, varying in size and ornament.

THE CONSTRUCTION of the Versals is unusually slender, curved, and gradated. A rather fine pen seems to have been used (p. 292), and though the letters are upright, the natural tendency to slant the pen can be detected in the thickening of the thin parts—_above_, on the right, and _below_, on the left—giving the suspicion of a _tilt_ to the O.

The «O»-part of each @ was made first, and the tail @ added. This is very obvious in the «D» in the text, where a stem @ was added to «O» to make «D».

Note the _dots_ inside the Versals, one above and one below. Originally these may have been intended to effect—or hide—the junction of the thin strokes, by a twirl of the pen at the end of the first stroke and the beginning of the second, thus @ @. Their use is very common in Versal forms (see fig. 189), and besides being decorative in the ordinary sense, they may be said to [p421] strengthen the thin parts (much as the weakest part of the loop in an old key was thickened for strength).

* * * * *

Note the right-hand Bows of the @’s are made thinner, as though the Rubricator had been afraid of running into the text in making their last curves—such an expert, however, may well have had a better reason for it.

_PLATE XII.—Illuminated Initial in a Flemish MS. ‹A.D.› 1148. (Latin Bible). Brit. Museum, Addl. MS. 14790._

(Shown in Brit. Museum, Department of MSS., Case C, No. 91.)

THE VOLUME—the _third_, and most interesting, of this MS. Bible (Numbered 14788–89–90)—contains 223 leaves (17 inches by 11-7/8 inches). MARGINS, approximately, _Inner_ 1-1/8 inch, _Head_ (_cut_) 1 inch, _Side_ 2-3/8 inches, _Foot_ 3-1/2 inches. (Between columns 15/16 inch.)

THE WRITING is a not very legible “Gothic.” The _zigzag_ tendency exhibited, especially by the word _niniuen_ (Niniveh), second line, is unsuited for such _formal_ writing (see p. 484). The rapid placing of the Heads of the letters is such that they appear broken and partly detached from the _stems_. The VERSALS are of a good type.

THE INITIAL is a monogrammatic ET. The arms of the round @ terminate in leaves folded back, its form is _hollow_ and _inwoven_ (p. 208), and gives rise to foliage, which fills the interior—passing over the fish and behind Jonah. Note also how the jaws of the fish are interlaced, and how compactly _all_ the parts are put together.

The close application of the background to the _curves_ adds to the general compactness, and together with its spacing from the _straight_ front _balances_ the masses (p. 424): it may be compared to the even spacing of curved and straight strokes (see fig. 53). There is an extension of the background to hold the fish’s tail. [p422]

THE COLOURS—

Initial, Foliage, Fish: red: outlined & lined;
_Parchment left plain_.

Jonah: black: outlined & lined;
_Parchment left plain_.

Bands on Initial, _gold_, outlined _red_.
Hollows in Initial, _gold_, outlined _red_.
Backs of folded leaves: _gold_, outlined _red_.

Outer background: _paled green._

Dots on outer ground: _red._

Inner background: _paled blue._

We may not, I think, attempt to imitate the complex 12th-century decoration of this initial (see p. 196), but the treatment of the _elements_ of form and colour is very suggestive, and the whole piece of lettering is characteristic of the grand style in which a book was at that time begun. The ARRANGEMENT of the letters themselves is very simple, and might be made good use of (fig. 220). [p423]

_PLATE XIII.—English (2nd half) Thirteenth-century Writing and Illumination. (Latin Bible). Ex libris S. C. Cockerell._

THE VOLUME—probably written at York—contains 427 leaves (8 inches by 5-1/2 inches): two columns to the page: MARGINS, approx.: Inner 5/8 inch, _Head_ 5/8 inch, _Side_ 7/8 inch, _Foot_ 1-7/16 inch. (Between the columns 3/8 inch.) The pages have been cut down.

THE WRITING is very small, and there are many contractions.^* In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries the whole Bible, written in this fashion, was often small enough to be carried in the pocket. Note the closed @ and the 7 form of &. The page is RULED with 50 lines; the 49 lines of writing lie between these, so that in each case the _ascenders_ touch the line above, and the _descenders_, the line below. Note the double lines in the Foot margin (see p. 343).

VERSALS.—A very narrow type is used in the narrow margins: the example shown is in red, flourished blue; it begins the second chapter (_‹Et› angelo ephesi, &c._), which is also marked by coloured Roman Numerals at the side (II). The page heading is “APOCA” in small red and blue Versals.

THE ILLUMINATED INITIAL is “historiated”—_i.e._ it contains a picture illustrating the text, viz. a representation of S. John writing to the Seven Churches—purely conventional forms, or rather symbols, for the most part, are used and beautifully fitted into the available space. The greater size and more careful drawing of the human figure (the centre of interest) is characteristic of a fine convention. The slope of the vellum page on which S. John is writing, and even the manner in which the quill is held, are such as would naturally be employed by a scribe (see _frontispiece_, & p. 67). [p424]

The _capitals_ of the pillars mark the position of the cross-bar of A. The top serif is carried up and forms a bud, which gives rise to leaf-like flourishes; the free thin stem runs down forming a grotesque, which gives out a leaf-like tongue. In either case the object—in every sense _recreative_—is a renewal of interest in the designed, elongated, growth of the forms.

Note the curved thickening of A’s left stem ends nearly level with the foot of the right stem. This gives balance to the letter (see R, fig. 81 & A, fig. 189), and preserves the _essential form_, which suffers no distortion by the thinner continuation below.

Note the balancing of the background mass on the _straight_ and _curved_ sides of the Initial (as in Plate XII., see above); also the extension and shape of the background accompanying the drawn out parts of the letter.

COLOURS of Initial—

Right stem: _red_ with _white_ lines and patterns.

Left stem and serif: _blue_ with _white_ lines and patterns.

L. stem, lower half, & dragon: _pale “lake.”_

The background (_counter-
charged_)
outer: _pale “lake.”_
inner: _blue_.
lower extension: _blue_.
final flourish: _pale “lake.”_

Band (dark) down left side, dragon’s wings, 6 “berries,” halo, seat, tops of pillar caps: _burnished gold._

Leaves (dark) & pillar caps: _red._

Small stems & leaves: _green._

Here again no natural work would come of a modern attempt to imitate so complex a “design”—natural and even inevitable _600 years ago_. But the spirit of delicacy and fantasy, the ingenious contrivance, and the balancing and disposal of form and colour shown by the antique art, may well be matter for imitation by the modern draughtsman-illuminator, and even by the mere penman.

―――――――――――――――――――― * The Apocalypse here begins “APocalipſis i@u x^i” (for I@U X@I, derived from the Greek and used as a mediæval Latin contraction for _Jesu Christi_). [p425]

_PLATE XIV.—Thirteenth-century Line-finishings: Pen-work. (Psalter). Brit. Museum, Royal MS. 1. D. x._

THE LINE-FINISHINGS (see p. 205), of which there are very many throughout the book, all in red or blue pen-work, are very varied. Nine kinds are shown in the plate (which represents about a quarter of a page), and three others from the same MS. are given in figs. 87 (_b_) and 126 (_f_, _g_).

The directions of the thick and thin strokes indicate a pen held at right angles to its usual position (almost “upside down,” in fact: see fig. 126, _g_), and the penmanship exhibits great speed and lightness of hand—the rapidity and skill are indeed quite remarkable (_e.g._ in the Lion in the eighth line).

Note that, though the writing occasionally runs into the margin, the line-finishings stop at the marginal-line.

The photograph shows red _dark_ and blue _light_: _e.g._ the Bird is red, the Lion and the Fish are blue. The fifth Line-finishing is a red filigree with blue “berries”—it can hardly be described as a “floral growth,” as the “branching” is reversed: the rubricator gained speed and uniformity by the simple repetition of the whorls all along the line—the upper branches were probably put in afterwards, and the “berries” were added later when he was making the _blue_ Line-finishings.

The more complex decoration (not shown in the plate) in this MS. is inferior to the penmanship: the small _background_ Capitals with which the verses begin—presumably put in by a different hand—are more pretentious, and do not match the Line-finishings.

_General Note._—When a space occurs at the end of a line of writing, it is often best to leave it, and in a plain MS., if it be “well and truly” written, there is no objection to varying lengths of line (see pp. 263, 371). But a book, such as a _Psalter_, divided into many short verses—in which the last line usually falls short of the marginal [p426] line—offers a fair field for such simple and effective decoration. (See also pp. 428, 486, fig. 130, and Plate XXIII.)

_PLATE XV.—English Writing and Illumination, circa 1284 ‹A.D.› (Psalter). Brit. Museum, Addl. MS. 24686._

THE WRITING is a fine, freely formed, “Gothic” (p. 331). Note, the i’s are “dotted.” Note the double MARGINAL LINES (p. 343).

THE SMALL INITIALS are of the “Lombardic” type (p. 210), in which the Serifs are much thickened and ornamented. Note the tails of the Q’s are turned to the left to clear the writing. The LINE-FILLINGS match the small initials (p. 193).

THE LARGE INITIAL, &c.—The plate shows the end of the fourteenth and beginning of the fifteenth Psalm (@omine quis habitabit). Note “_Arabic_” numerals (15) in margin.

The tail of the Initial @ is formed of a dragon, the head of which rests on the O-part: its wings project into the inner margin (and these in the plate, which shows a fragment of a _verso_ page, run into the fold between the pages): the tail (together with the background) descends till a convenient point is reached from which the lower scroll-work springs. The tail, wing, and claws above, belong to a magpie which is perched on the initial.

THE DRAWING: see reference to this at p. 203, and below.

Sir Edward Maunde Thompson (p. 39, “English Illuminated MSS.”) says of this—

“—the Additional MS. 24686 in the British Museum, known as the Tenison Psalter, from its having once formed part of the library of Archbishop Tenison. This psalter is one of the most beautiful illuminated English manuscripts of its time, but unfortunately only in part, for it was not finished in the perfect [p427] style in which it was begun . . . in the first quire of the text the ornamentation is of peculiar beauty. . . .”^*

“—the progress of the art [since the earlier part of the thirteenth century] . . . is . . . manifest. There is more freedom in the drawing, the stiffness of the earlier examples is in great measure overcome; and the pendant has thrown out a branch which has already put forth leaves. A great variety of colours, blue, rose, vermilion, lake, green, brown, as well as burnished gold, is employed in the composition of the large initial and its accompanying pendant and border, and the small initials are of gold laid on a ground of blue or lake, and filled with lake or blue; while the ribbons which fill up the spaces at the ends of the verses are alternately of the same colours and are decorated with patterns in silver on the blue and in gold on the lake.”

“The group of the dismounted knight despatching^† a gryphon, which has proved too much for the horse, upon whose dying body the expectant raven has already perched, is tinted in lighter colours. It is an instance of the use to which marginal space was put, particularly by English artists, for the introduction of little scenes, such as episodes in romances or stories, games, grotesque combats, social scenes, &c., often drawn with a light free hand and most artistic touch. Without these little sketches, much of the manners and customs, dress, and daily life of our ancestors would have remained for ever unknown to us.”

―――――――――――――――――――― * It is supposed that the book was at first intended as a marriage gift for Alphonso, son of Edward I.

† The characteristic _over and under_ arrangement of the gryphon’s upper and lower bill, makes this doubtful.

_PLATE XVI.—Italian Fourteenth-century MS., Brit. Mus., Addl. MS. 28841._

THE VOLUME: one of two (the other numbered 27695), a _Latin_ treatise on the Virtues and Vices (The miniatures, drawings, &c., probably by “the Monk of Hyères,” Genoa). The vellum leaves have been separated, and are now preserved in paper books. The leaf illustrated shows a margin of vellum of less than 3/16 inch all round (the plate).

The decorative borders are much more naturalistic in [p428] form and colouring than any other old illumination that I have seen (see reference to Plate XVI., p. 203).

The foliage is a delicate green, the berries are dark purple, the single fruits plain and pale orange-red; the two beetles in _crimson_ and _brown_ are made darker and too prominent in the photograph. The bands of small “Lombardic” Capitals are in burnished gold.

Note how skilfully and naturally the upper corners of the border are managed, and also the beautiful way in which the branches run into and among the text (see p. 213).

_PLATE XVII.—French Fifteenth-century Writing, with Illuminated Borders. Ex libris E. Johnston._

THE PAGE 9-1/2 inches by 6-1/8 inches: MARGINS, approx.: _Inner_ 1-1/8 inch, _Head_ 1-3/8 inch, _Side_ 2-3/8 inches, _Foot_ 2-7/8 inches (the edges have been slightly cut down). The marginal lines (from head to foot of the page) and the writing lines are RULED in faint red.

THE WRITING is a late formal “Gothic”—the thin strokes have evidently been added (p. 47). The written Capitals are blotted with yellow (see p. 140). The ILLUMINATED INITIAL Q is in blue, white lined, on a gold ground, contains a blue flower and five ornaments in “lake.” The LINE-FILLINGS are in blue and “lake,” separated by a gold circle, triangle, or lozenge.

THE FILIGREE ILLUMINATION springs from the initial in the narrow margin, and from a _centre_ ornament (see “knot,” fig. 127) in the wide side margin. The side margins are treated similarly on either page (see p. 213); the inner margins are generally plain. This repetition gives to the pages a certain sameness—which is a _characteristic_ rather than a fault of the treatment.

The border on the _recto_ of the vellum leaf shows through on the _verso_ or back of the leaf. The main lines of the first border, however, are freely traced and [p429] followed on the _verso_ (and so nearly hidden) by the second border. This is also suggestive of the more rapid methods of book production in the 15th century.

COLOURS—

Stems, tendrils, &c.:
_black_.

Leaves
ivy-shaped lanceolate:
_burnished gold_, outlined black (p. 187).
_plain. furred._

Flowers, buds, centre ornaments, &c.: (See p. 182.)
_blue_, “_lake_,” or _green_ tempered with white, and shaded
with pure colour; white markings; the forms not outlined.

This type of illumination is discussed in pp. 197–202. Its chief points are its simplicity and rapidity. A penman or a novice in illuminating can, by taking a little pains, beautify his MSS. easily and quickly; and he may perhaps pass on from this to “higher” types of illumination.

_PLATE XVIII.—Italian Fifteenth-century Writing and Illumination. (Perotti’s translation of Polybius). Ex libris H. Yates-Thompson._

THE VOLUME consists of 174 leaves (13-1/8 inches by 9 inches); 35 lines to the page. The plate shows a portion of the upper part of the Initial (_recto_) page.

THE WRITING.—The Capitals are simple-written, slanted-pen “Roman”—slightly ornamental—forms. They are freely copied on a large scale in fig. 168: see p. 297. The Small-letters match the Capitals—they are “Roman” forms with a slight “Gothic” tendency. Both these and the Capitals would make very good models for free Roman hands.

THE INITIAL is a “Roman” A in burnished gold. Note the exceedingly graceful shaping of the limbs, the ornamental, V-shaped cross-bar, and the absence of serifs (see fig. 116). [p430]

The “_White Vine Pattern_” (see p. 202), most delicately and beautifully drawn, interlaces with the letter and itself, and covers the BACKGROUND very evenly. The interstices of the background are painted in blue, red, and green, and its edge is adapted to the slightly projecting flowers and leaves. There are groups (@ and …) of white dots on the blue parts of the background.

THE BORDER (of which a small part is shown) is approximately 1/2 inch wide in the narrow margin at the side of the text—it is separate from the Initial. It extends above and below the text, where its depth is greater, matching the greater depth of the margins. Its treatment is similar to, though perhaps a little simpler than, that of the Initial decoration.

_PLATE XIX.—Italian MS., dated 1481. Ex libris S. C. Cockerell._

“Part of a [verso] page from a book containing the Psalter of St. Jerome and various Prayers, written and decorated by Joachinus de Gigantibus of Rotenberg in 1481 for Pope Sixtus IV. Joachinus was employed at Naples by Ferdinand I., and there are other fine examples of his work at the British Museum and the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris. In each of these, as well as in the present book, he states that he was both scribe and illuminator.”—[S. C. C.]

THE VOLUME contains 31 leaves (6-1/2 inches by 4-3/4 inches): MARGINS, approx.: _Inner_ 7/8 inch, _Head_ 7/8 inch, _Side_ 1-1/2 inch, _Foot_ 1-3/4 inch. (The head margin, together with the edge of the book-cover, is shown in the plate.)

THE WRITING.—Very clear, slightly slanted-pen “Roman.” Note the blending of «b» and «p» with «e» and «o» (see fig. 76, & p. 77). The CAPITALS are quite simple and plain, made (in _(A)NIMA CHRISTI_ and in text) in black with the text pen. Note the long, waved serifs (see p. 289). The last two lines of the preceding prayer are made in burnished gold with a larger pen.

[_Continued on p. 481_

[p431]

THE COLLOTYPE PLATES

[p481]

THE INITIAL A, its frame, the frame of the border, and the “furred” _berries_ (@) are all in burnished gold, outlined black. The “white vine pattern” is rather simpler, and has a rather thicker stalk (in proportion) than that in the previous plate (see above). Its treatment is very similar, but it may be noted that the border is in this case attached to the Initial, and the pattern has almost an appearance of springing from the Initial. The pattern—save one escaped leaf—is straitly confined, by gold bars, throughout the length of the text, but at the ends it is branched out and beautifully flourished in the free margins above and below. These terminals of the pattern having a broad blue outline (dotted white) may be said to carry their background with them.

The (recto) page opposite that shown in the plate has an initial D and a border similarly treated, and each one of the Psalms and Prayers throughout the book is begun in like manner.

_PLATE XX.—One page of an Italian (late) Fifteenth-century MS. Ex libris S. C. Cockerell._

“From a book containing the Penitential Psalms in Italian, the Psalter of St. Jerome, and various prayers. Written with great delicacy by Mark of Vicenza for some one named Evangelista [see 11th line] in the last quarter of the fifteenth century. Other works of this accomplished scribe are known.”—[S. C. C.]

THE VOLUME—of which a complete (recto) page is shown—contains 60 leaves (5-1/2 inches by 3-3/4 inches): MARGINS, approx.: _Inner_ 1/2 inch, _Head_ 7/8 inch, _Side_ 1-3/16 inch, _Foot_ 1-13/16 inch.

This very fine WRITING is typical of the practical style and beautiful workmanship which should be the aim of a modern scribe (see pp. 47, 310).

It is written with a very narrow nib, hence the pen-forms [p482] are not so obvious as in some early formal hands; and for this reason alone it would be better to practise such a hand as the tenth-century MS. (Plate VIII.) before seriously attempting to model a hand on the above (see pp. 416, 311, 324).

The use of a fine pen is apt to flatter the unskilled penman, and he finds it hard to distinguish between delicate pen-work which has much character, and that which has little or none. And he will find, after some knowledge of penmanship gained in practice with a broad nib, that the copying of this fine Italian writing—while in reality made much more feasible—may even _appear_ more difficult than before.

CONSTRUCTION.—The pen has a moderate slant—see thin stroke in «e». The letters are very square, the tops flat (especially in «m», «n», and «r»), and the lower parts flat (as in «u»). This shows the same tendency that there is in the tenth century and other hands _to avoid thin or high arches in the letters_.

The feet in some of the letters (in «i», for example) are in the nature of stroke-serifs, but the pen probably made these with an almost continuous movement—from the stem.

_Note_—the fine form of the «a»;

that «b» and «l» have an angle where the stem joins the
lower part;

that «f» was made something like «t», and the upper
part was added: this was a common mode—see fig. 180 (the
«f» shown in plate is unfortunately not a good specimen);

that «g»—a very graceful letter—lacks the coupling serif;

that «i», «p», «u» have _triangular heads_, and
«m», «n», «r» _hooks_;

that the _ascenders_ have triangular heads, and the _descenders_
«p» and «q», stroke-serifs;

that the ascending and descending stems are longer than the
bodies, and the writing is in consequence fairly widely spaced.
[p483]

Like most of the finest writings, this bears evidences of considerable speed (see pp. 84, 311). Besides the great uniformity of the letters, the _coupling strokes_ are occasionally carried over the succeeding stroke, the _arches_ of «b», «h», «m», «n», «p», «r» (and the _heads_ of the ascenders) frequently are separated from the stems, and the «o» and «b» occasionally fail to join below. These broken forms are the _results of speed_, and are not to be imitated except as to that which is both a cause and a result—their _uniformity_ (p. 254).

The RULING is in faint ink: there are _two_ vertical marginal lines on the left and _one_ on the right of every page.

The DECORATION of the MS. is very simple. The Initial (here shown) is in green and powder-gold, on a lake ground, with white pattern: there is a very fine brownish outline, probably drawn first. The two upper lines of writing and ‖o[=r]ō are in red.

_PLATE XXI.—Italian (early) Sixteenth-century “cursive” or “Italic” MS. Ex libris S. C. Cockerell._ (_See enlargement, fig. 178._)

“From the Poems of Cardinal Bembo, a fine example of the cursive writing perfected in Italy in the first half of the sixteenth century. The book measures 8-1/2 by 5-1/4 inches, and contains 79 leaves.”—[S. C. C.]

THE MARGINS of the page from which the plate is taken are approximately: _Inner_ 5/8 inch, _Head_ 3/4 inch, _Side_ 2 inches, _Foot_ 1-1/2 inch. _Note._—The lines of writing begin as usual at the left margin, but do not extend to the (true) margin on the _right_, hence the latter (the _side_ margin on the recto, and the _inner_ margin on the verso) would appear unnaturally wide, but the effect is carried off by the (true) side margins being already exceptionally wide (and by the writing on the backs of the leaves showing through the semi-transparent vellum and so marking the true margins). [p484]

This mode is very suitable for a book of poems, in which the lengths of the lines of writing may vary considerably, because the _writing-line_ being longer than the _ordinary_ line of writing allows room for extraordinarily long lines, and any appearance of irregularity is carried off by the extra wide side margins.

THE WRITING is very beautiful, clear, and rapid—made with a “slanted pen” (see “Italics,” p. 311, and fig. 178). Note the _slightness_ of the slope of the letters (especially of the Capitals), and the length of the stems and the wide spacing.

Note, also, the flatness of the curves in _a c d e g o q_ and the horizontal top stroke in _a d g q_, oblique in _e c_ (giving angular tops). The branching away from the stem of the first part of the arch in _b h m n p r_ (seen also reversed in _a d g q u_), and the pointed, almost angular, quality of the _arch_. This, which is apt to become a fault in a more formal upright hand (see note on Plate XXII.) is helpful in a more rapid running hand, and gives _clearance_ to the junctions of the strokes (@ @)—see fig. 182.

The _heads_, simple or built-up, _hooks_ tending to become triangular.

The letters in this MS. are rarely coupled.

The very graceful _g_ has a large pear-shaped lower loop touching the upper part.

_PLATE XXII.—“Communion Service” written and illuminated by E. Johnston, 1902 ‹A.D.› (“Office Book,” Holy Trinity Church, Hastings). Reduced (nearly 3/4 scale)._

The MS. on 160 leaves (15 inches by 10 inches) of fine parchment (“Roman Vellum,” see p. 173), contains the Communion Service and many collects, epistles, and gospels for special festivals, &c. MARGINS: _Inner_ 1-1/8 inch, _Head_ 1-3/4 inch, _Side_ 2-3/4 inches, _Foot_ 3-3/4 inches. [p485]

THE WRITING—after tenth century model (see Plate VIII.)—has the fault (referred to at p. 421) of showing too much _thin_ line (running up obliquely), the upper and lower parts of the letters are not flat enough. The tail of the «g» is inadequate, and the lines of writing are too near together. The writing is readable, however, and fairly regular. The CAPITALS are Uncials (after Plate V.) and occasional “Romans.”

The RUBRIC (“¶ _Then shall be said or sung_”) is in red, fitted in beside the round initial and marking the top left-hand corner of the page (see _footnote_, p. 211).

The word “GLORY” (and decoration)—and also the F and T, showing in recto page—are in raised burnished gold, which, it will be seen, has cracked considerably in the G (see p. 164).

The STAVES are in red (p. 140), the _notes_ above GLORY in raised _gold_, those in the lower stave, _black_.

The BOOK was of a special nature (see pp. 344–5), being intended for use in a certain church and on certain special festivals: hence a considerable degree of ornament and a generally decorative treatment was permitted (p. 330). The Prayer of Consecration, together with a miniature, occupied a complete _opening_, the eight margins of which were filled with solid, framing borders (p. 213) in red, blue, green, and gold. Coats-of-arms and other special symbols and devices were introduced on the Title page and in other places.

_PLATE XXIII.—The Story of Aucassin and Nicolette, written and illuminated by W. H. Cowlishaw, 1898 ‹A.D.›_

THE VOLUME consists of 50 + leaves of “Roman Vellum” (7-1/2 inches by 5-1/2 inches).

MARGINS, approx.: _Inner_ 3/4 inch, _Head_ 15/16 inch, _Side_ 1-3/8 inch, _Foot_ 2 inches.

THE WRITING, very legible, rather “Gothic-Roman.” [p486]

THE CAPITALS are illuminated throughout the text in _gold_ on blue and red grounds. The backgrounds are square, with edges pointed or indented, outlined _black_, and lined inside _white_. The INITIAL «n» is in gold on blue: the moon and stars are in white and gold and white.

THE LINE-FINISHINGS, mostly in black pen-work, consist of little groups (sometimes of sprays) of flowers, &c. Sprays from the border separate the “Song” from the “Tale.”

THE MUSIC.—_Staves_ black; _Clefs_, gold; _Notes_, red.

THE BORDERS (in the opening from which the plate is taken) frame the text on both pages—nearly filling the margins (see p. 213): the side and foot edges of the (verso) page are shown in the plate. The main pattern is a wild rose, flowers and all, outlined with a rather broad blue line: the stalks and leaves (lined white) are apple-green, the flowers are _painted_ white with raised gold hearts, the thorns are red. Through the wild rose is twined _honeysuckle and woody nightshade_: stalks—(_h_) red, (_wn_) black; and flowers—(_h_) red with yellow spots, (_wn_) purplish red with gold centres.

The whole effect is very brilliant and charming. The freedom and naturalness of the “design” remind one of a country hedgerow (p. 213), and show that vital beauty which is the essence of true illumination.

_PLATE XXIV.—Inscription cut in Stone by A. E. R. Gill, 1903 ‹A.D.› Reduced (3/16 scale). ‹Note.›—To view these incised letters have light on the left of plate (or cover with thin tissue-paper)._

The STONE—a slab of “Hopton Wood” (p. 395), 30 inches by 18 inches by 2 inches, is intended to go over a lintel. It has a simple moulding. Note how the INSCRIPTION occupies the space (pp. 352, 394): the LETTERS have approximately the same _apparent weight_ (p. 328)—the large stems are more than twice the _height_ of the small; they are only 1/3 _wider_. [p487]

Note the strongly marked and elegantly curved serifs; the straight-tailed R; the I drawn out (marking the word IN); the _beaked_ A, M, and N; the Capital form of «U».

The letters DEO would be rather wide for ordinary use (p. 270), but as _special_ letters, occupying a wide space,^* are permissible.

Even in the collotype, I think this inscription shows to what a high level modern inscription cutting might be raised by the use of good models and right and simple methods.

―――――――――――――――――――― * Letters in early inscriptions separated as these are indicated _each_ a word (contracted), as S. P. Q. R. (_Senatus Populus Que Romanus_).

[p490]

INDEX

A, 189, 271, 274, 280, 410–11

A, Ancient & Modern, 195–196