Chapter C: H. Besly & Co.’s Helmet Solid Oil is for use in compression cups, (2)

To start the fire, push a small forkful of dry straw into funnel in fire door, leaving the small end of funnel pressed full; then touch the match to it. Begin at once to push in the straw regularly, a small quantity at a time, being very careful not to clog the main flue, and allowing ample time for straw to burn.

The fire should be raked down frequently, as the burned straw leaves a charred mass over the grates. This should be done when the funnel is full of straw, thus allowing no cold air to pass through the funnel into the main flue. Clean out the ash pan frequently, so that the natural draught may not be checked. Do not open blower until gauge shows ten or fifteen pounds steam pressure.

After steam is raised to the necessary pressure, the feeding should be regular, using small forkfuls of straw, keeping the funnel full all the time, and raking down at short intervals. Use as dry straw as it is possible to obtain.

The above will apply to any style or make of straw-burning engines.

FIRING WITH COAL.

After fire is well started with wood, throw coal into the center of grate, and do not disturb it until it is well ignited and burning briskly; then break the fire down and put in a shovel or two of coal, and so continue keeping the grates covered with a thin layer.

Always aim to put in fresh coal on a rising head of steam pressure. Never pile coal against the flue sheet or keep the fire box too full. Nothing is gained by the latter, but much is lost.

Q. Which is the more economical to burn, wet or dry coal?

A. Dry. If your coal is wet, you simply have to evaporate that much more water, which goes out of the stack instead of to the engine.

Q. How much water will one pound of coal evaporate?

A. One pound of coal will, under very favorable circumstances, evaporate twelve pounds of water, but the average evaporative power of anthracite coal is 9½ pounds of water, and semi-bituminous coal is 9⁹/₁₀ pounds.

Q. If cold air is allowed to strike the flue sheet and flues, what is the result?

A. It will eventually cause them to leak.

Q. How should a fire be regulated in case of temporary stoppage by accident or otherwise under full head of steam?

A. Close the damper and keep the fire door closed; then open small door in smoke box or the damper in chimney.

Q. Why not leave the fire door open?

A. Because it would allow the cold air to come in contact with flue sheet and flues, and consequent damage to boiler.

BANKING FIRES.

To bank a fire in a furnace, push the fire in a heap at the back of the furnace against the flue sheet; leaving a large portion of the grate open, to allow the air caused by the natural draught to pass up over the fire to the flues; then cover it over with fine coal or a layer of dry ashes, and see that the draught door is closed to prevent draught as much as possible.

This being done, the fire will last over night, and when ready to start again in the morning, all that is necessary to do is to rake the fire over the grates, open the damper and apply more fuel.

Q. What benefit is derived from banking the fire?

A. By banking the fire, the water in the boiler is kept warm over night and steam is raised quickly in the morning, saving time and fuel.

Q. When leaving a banked fire, is it practicable to shut the water out of the glass or water column?

A. Yes. In freezing weather, this may be done by closing the valve at the top and bottom of the glass; and open pet cock beneath. Care should be taken, however, to open them before the fire is started in the morning.

LAYING UP A TRACTION ENGINE.

Q. How should you prepare your engine and boiler for laying up through the winter, to protect them from frost and injury?

A. While steam is on, clean your boiler and engine thoroughly outside, scrape off all oil, grease and scale; after which apply a good coat of asphaltum paint to the boiler and smoke stack. If no paint can be had, lamp black and linseed oil will answer. If this cannot be had, take rags, saturate them with grease or oil, and go over them with that.

Now open the blow-off valve, and blow the water off with a low pressure of steam, after which take out all the hand-hole plates and wash the boiler out thoroughly, removing all the mud and scale; then replace the hand-hole plates, close the blow-off valve and fill the boiler nearly full of water, after which pour in a gallon of black oil upon the water.

After this is done, open the blow-off valve again and allow the water to run out. The oil will follow the water down and cover the whole inside of boiler with a coating of oil, making as good a protection against rust as can be found.

Next, remove all the brass fittings, such as lubricator, steam gauge, safety valve, injector, check valves, pump valves, gauge cocks, water gauge, etc., etc.

Disconnect all pipes where water may lodge, in order to prevent freezing. Every pipe and valve allowed to freeze will surely burst. Unscrew all stuffing boxes and remove the packing; for unless this is done, another season you will find parts badly rusted where the packing was allowed to remain.

Take off all cylinder cocks, pet cocks, etc., from the heater and pump. All fittings should be carefully packed and laid away. Clean the flues and fire box, also the ash pan, and do not neglect to paint the ash pan both inside and outside.

Remove the back cylinder head, roll the engine forward and smear the inside of cylinder with tallow, or oil if no tallow can be had. Place the head back again and smear all the bright work, such as piston rod, connecting rod, etc., with grease. Do not forget to cover top of smoke stack, to keep out water and snow.

If the foregoing directions are followed carefully you will find another season that your engine will be clean, free from rust and ready to serve you faithfully without any trouble or delay in starting, either in time or expense.

BELTING.

Do not tax belts by overloading. Keep them free from accumulation of dust, grease and all animal oils, as these are injurious to both rubber and leather belts.

Special care should be taken to protect the edges of rubber belts from all animal oils, as they are liable to rot the belt.

Always run the grain (or hair) side of leather belts on the pulley, as it gives greater driving power, hugs the pulley closer, is less liable to slip, and will drive 30 per cent. more than the flesh side.

Rubber belts will be greatly improved and their life prolonged, by putting on with a brush, and letting it dry, the following mixture:

Equal parts of black lead and litharge mixed with boiled oil; add enough Japan to dry it quickly. In case the rubber peels off, the same mixture can be used.

In comparison to leather belts, 4-ply rubber is equivalent to a single leather belt and 6-ply rubber to double leather belt.

=To find the length of a belt=, add the diameter of the two pulleys together, divide the result by 2 and multiply the quotient by 3¹/₇; then add to this product twice the distance between the centers of shafts.

=When piecing a belt when pulleys are changed=, multiply the difference of the diameters of the pulleys by 1½, the product will be the length of the piece required.

The seam side of rubber belt should always be placed outside and not next to pulley. In case the belt slips, coat the side next to pulley with boiled linseed oil or soap.

=In lacing a belt=, begin in the center and be careful to keep both ends exactly in line. Lace both ends equally tight and do not cross the lace on the pulley side of belt. Great care should be taken that the ends butting together be cut perfectly square; if not, the belt will stretch more on one side than the other, which greatly impairs its worth.

Q. What is the practical limit of belt speed?

A. Belts should not be run much over 5000 feet per minute.

Q. How then is the capacity of a belt affected by its speed?

A. It varies directly as the speed. A given belt will transmit twice the horse-power if its speed is doubled within limits.

Q. Is the capacity of a belt affected by its width?

A. Yes, the capacity varies directly as the width. If a two inch belt will transmit one horse-power, two such belts will transmit two horse power; and this is true whether they are run separately or joined into a four inch belt.

To preserve cotton or Gandy belting, apply with a brush a little common paint to pulley side of belt while running, to be followed shortly afterwards by a little soft oil or grease to preserve its flexibility.

If the edges of the belt become frayed from the use of belt guides or forks, the loose threads may be cut off without injury to the belt.

If the belt slips at first, consequent to the surface being ruffled by unrolling, apply a little grease, oil or soap to the pulley side to make it grip.

ARMINGTON & SIMS HIGH SPEED ENGINE.

The cylinder and steam chest of this engine are cast in one piece and bolted securely to the engine frame, which forms the front cylinder head. The cylinder is lagged with mineral wool and jacketed to prevent radiation, and it is overhanging and self-lining.

The valve is a hollow piston valve, the body of which is steel tubing with cast iron ends. It receives its motion from the shaft governor, attached to one of the band wheels, which regulates the cut-off automatically according to the variation of load. The steam is exhausted at each end of the valve by very direct passages which quickly free the cylinder, preventing back pressure.

The engine frame is cast heavy and rigid, and contains the locomotive guides for cross-head and the pillow block bearings for the crank shaft.

The double disc center crank shafts allow of two small heavy band wheels being used.

The base of this engine is cast in one piece, to which the engine frame is securely bolted, and with this arrangement, the engine needs no expensive foundation.

The engine is simple and self-contained, ranging in sizes from 11 to 450 horse-power, and is intended to run at the very high speed of from two hundred to three hundred and fifty revolutions per minute according to size, and is used extensively in driving electric lighting machinery, and where high speed and continuous work is desired.

GENERAL INFORMATION.

_Never condemn an engine_ that is entirely new to you because it does not start off at your first effort. Study all the directions furnished by the maker. Perhaps you have overlooked some points that are of more importance than you imagine.

The above will apply to other machinery as well as engines.

_When starting a new engine_ be sure that everything is in readiness. Turn it over by hand to see that all the revolving and reciprocating parts run freely. Start it very slowly under steam pressure and apply plenty of good oil. After it has run a short time and everything is working properly turn on more steam and continue to do so until the engine is running at its rated speed. To start it at full speed under steam pressure may result in great damage or totally destroy the engine.

_An accurate machine_ which is thoroughly reliable is necessarily costly, but is of more value than another which merely serves a purpose.

_Engineers or firemen_ in charge of a steam boiler should blow out the water gauge and gauge cocks every morning in order to remove the soft mud which settles in them at night when the boiler is at rest. If this is neglected, the soft mud may become baked in them which might lead to disastrous results.

_Every steam boiler_ for whatever purpose employed, should be opened, cleaned, thoroughly examined and tested at least every six months, and with muddy feed water once a week would not be too often.

_By blowing out_ the gauge cocks regularly you not only ascertain the height of the water in the boiler, but it prevents them from becoming choked with sediment or mud.

_Do not allow_ the gauge cocks, glass water gauge or steam gauge to become filthy, as it shows lack of care, and furnishes evidence that the engineer who is not particular in this part of his duty is not reliable in others of equal or more importance.

_Upon entering_ the boiler room in the morning an engineer or fireman should always ascertain whether the valves or cocks which connect the water gauge with the boiler are open or shut, otherwise he may be deceived by the appearance of the water in the tube. This precaution should never be neglected.

_If an engineer or fireman discovers_ that there is too much water in the boiler he should blow it down to the proper level, but in doing so he must exercise judgment, vigilance and care, especially if there is a fire in the furnace.

_Never allow the gauge cocks_ to leak at all when it is practicable to repair them, for the longer they leak the more difficult they are to repair, as under the escape of water or steam the metal wastes rapidly.

_An engineer or fireman_ should often remove the ashes from under the boiler, or from ash pan; if allowed to accumulate, they retard the draft and interfere with combustion, thereby causing waste of fuel and interfere with the evaporating efficiency of the boiler. Also keep grates clear of clinkers; for if allowed to accumulate, they produce the same result.

_Should it become necessary_ to blow down the water at intervals, the engineer or fireman should stand by the blow-off cock and not allow his attention to be diverted to anything else, as in a very short space of time the water may become so low as to induce stoppage or endanger the safety of the boiler.

_Engineers should_ always be cautious when they stop or start an engine with a heavy pressure of steam in the boiler, as the vent given to the steam when starting, and the check it receives when stopping, may exert such a pressure as to strain, crack, or rupture the boiler.

_The drip cocks_ in the cylinder should be left open when the engine is standing still, and they should not be closed until after the engine has been started and made several strokes or revolutions.

_Do not open the throttle valve_ to its full extent in starting after the engine has been standing over night, as the quantity of steam condensed by being brought in contact with the cold pipe (particularly if it is a long one) may result in breaking the follower plate, springing the piston rod, or knocking out the cylinder head.

_After opening the gauge cocks_ to ascertain the height of water in the boiler, they should be closed tightly to prevent leakage.

_It may have been discovered_ that when gauge cocks are closed after being blown out, they leak badly; this is often due to the fact that mud or sand has become attached to the seat of the valve. The easiest way to remedy this difficulty is to open the cocks and let them blow out for some time, as the friction of the water in its escape will in all probability remove the obstacle.

_Glass water gauges_ may be cleansed by removing the glass; then tying a piece of cotton waste or lamp wicking to a splint of wood, applying soap or acetic acid, and passing it through the inside of the tube; then replace the glass, and when steam is raised close the lower valve, open the drip cock, and the steam blowing through will wash the glass perfectly.

_To cut a glass gauge tube._—If a glass gauge is too long, take a three-cornered file and wet it, hold the tube in the left hand with the thumb and fore-finger at the place where you wish to cut, saw it quickly and lightly two or three times with the edge of the file, and it will mark the glass. Now, take the tube in both hands, both thumbs being on opposite sides of the mark and about an inch apart, then try to bend the glass, using your thumbs as fulcrums and it will break at the mark which has weakened the tube.

_Never touch_ the inside of the water gauge glass with iron or wire, as while the glass may be cut on the outside with a file, the slightest touch of steel or iron on the inside will cause an abrasion, the result of which is that the glass will crack and become useless.

_Water gauge glasses_ frequently break because the steam and water connections are not in line, because the stuffing boxes are screwed down too tight, and sometimes in cold weather when struck by a cold draught of air admitted through an open door or window.

_An engineer or fireman should_ never fill a boiler with cold water while the boiler is hot, as the injurious effect produced by contraction is similar to that produced by blowing out at a high pressure, and if persisted in will result in permanent injury to the boiler.

_Exhaust steam will heat_ water to 212° Fahr. under atmospheric pressure.

_Ten degrees extra heat_ in feed water means one per cent. saving in fuel.

_Before blowing out the boiler_ the engineer or fireman should remove all the fire from the furnace, as a small quantity left in the corners, or attached to the bridge wall, might spring a seam or cause a plate to bulge.

_Every engineer should know_ that unequal expansion and contraction is one of the evils which limit the longevity and endanger the safety of all classes of steam boilers; consequently the blowing out, the refilling, the starting of fires and the regulation of the draught should be done with judgment.

_It is not necessary_ to fill a boiler with cold water above the second gauge cock, as the water expands under the process of the formation of steam and it will be found that there is a sufficiency of water in the boiler when steam is raised.

_Single riveted seams_ are equal to 56% of the original strength of the sheet; double riveted seams are equal to 70%, and triple riveted seams are equal to 85%. Triple riveted seams, however, are very seldom used unless for some special purpose, as they are too heavy and thick, and would burn out rapidly if exposed to fire.

_In making calculations_ on the strength of boilers, the factor 56 should be employed instead of 100, as 44% of the strength of the plate is lost by punching the holes for the rivets.

_It should be understood_ that machine riveted seams in steam boilers are superior to hand made seams, as the machine thoroughly upsets the rivet and brings the two sheets in such close contact as to produce friction between the sheets at the lap, which of itself is an element of strength.

_Boilers do not improve_ by standing idle; they will rust very rapidly.

_Never use sharp chisels_ to cut the scale from boiler plate, as the cutting of the plate does more harm than good. Use only a light hammer.

_In patching a boiler_ be careful not to make a pocket in which sediment may collect to cause another injury to the sheet and never put a steel patch upon an iron boiler as the two metals expanding unequally will induce trouble.

_Never forget_ to allow for expansion when running long lines of steam pipe, whether for heating or power, as the neglect of this precaution leads to the formation of immense crooks or bends in the line of pipe wonderful to behold. There must be a slip joint somewhere in long lines of steam piping, unless expansion is allowed for.

_Valves stick_ on their seats because they are frequently shut when cold, and when heated by the steam the valve stem becomes lengthened, and presses the valve hard into the seat.

GEISER TRACTION ENGINE.

The cut opposite represents the right side of the Peerless, Side Crank, Rear Gear Traction Engine.

The main engine frame is of the girder pattern, and contains the guides and pillow block bearing. It also forms the front cylinder head, to which the cylinder is bolted. The cylinder is overhanging, and connected to the long feed water heater by the exhaust pipe.

The valve is of the piston type. The reverse gear is the Landis Patent Reverse and Variable Cut-off. It has the Cross-head Pump connected with a long Feed Water Heater, Governor, Injector, and the locomotive style of boiler swings in an iron frame, to which it is attached, and rests upon springs at both back and front ends.

The smoke stack is water lined, and traction wheels have wrought iron rims with high grouters and wood spokes. The platform has two steel tanks for water and tools, and the steering wheel and band wheel are on opposite sides of the engine.

_Slide valves should be fitted_ to their seats by filing and scraping, and never by the use of emery and oil. The piston rod and valve rod may be packed with braids of hemp or cotton wicking, with rings cut from patent packing of various kinds or metallic packing.

_To clean brass articles_ with acid is a great mistake, as with such treatment they very soon become dull. Sweet oil and putty powder followed by soap and water, is one of the best mediums for brightening brass and copper.

_To frost brass work_ and give it an ornamental finish, boil the article in caustic potash, rinse in clean water and dip in nitric acid until all oxide is removed; then wash quickly, dry in box-wood sawdust, and lacquer while warm.

_The best material_ for grinding in valves and stop cocks is pulverized glass. It is superior to emery for this purpose. Fine sand may be used.

_To remedy a leaky_ angle, check or globe valve, it should be taken apart, and the valves ground to fit their seats properly with either fine sand, pulverized glass or emery.

_A lever stuck_ between the spokes of the fly-wheel of an engine for the purpose of starting it, is a very dangerous instrument, it is liable to get caught and do a great amount of damage. If a lever is to be used, be sure that the steam is first turned off.

_A cubic inch of water_ evaporated under ordinary atmospheric pressure is converted into one cubic foot of steam (approximately).

_Steam at atmospheric pressure_ flows into a vacuum at the rate of about 1550 feet per second, and into the atmosphere at the rate of 650 feet per second.

_Condensing engines require_ from 20 to 30 gallons of water to condense the steam represented by every gallon of water evaporated—approximately; for most engines we say from 1 to 1½ gallons per minute per indicated horse-power. Jet condensers do not require quite as much water for condensing as surface condensers. Surface condensers require about 2 square feet of tube (cooling) surface per horse-power of steam engine.

_The best designed boilers_ well set, with good draught and skillful firing, will evaporate from 7 to 10 lbs. of water per pound of first-class coal. The average result is from 25 to 60 per cent. below this.

_When you have_ your boiler furnace to repair, and cannot get fire clay, take common earth mixed with water, in which you have dissolved a little salt; use same as fire clay, and your furnace will last fully as long.

_To make iron take bright polish_ like steel, pulverize and dissolve the following articles in one quart of hot water: Blue vitriol 1 oz., borax 1 oz., prussiate of potash 1 oz., charcoal 1 oz., salt 7½ pt.; then add one gallon of linseed oil, mix well, bring your iron or steel to the proper heat, and cool in the solution.

_To write inscriptions on metal_, take 4 oz. of nitric acid and 1 oz. of muriatic acid, mix and shake well together, then cover your metal surface to be engraved, with bees-wax or soap, write your inscription plainly in the wax clear to the metal, then apply the mixed acids, carefully filling each letter. Let it remain from three to five minutes according to appearance desired, then throw on water, which stops the etching process, scrape off the bees-wax or soap, and the inscription is complete.

_To remove rust from steel._—Brush the rusted steel with a paste composed of ½ oz. cyanide potassium, ½ oz. castile soap, 1 oz. whiting, and enough water to make a paste; then wash the steel in a solution of ½ oz. cyanide potassium and 2 oz. of water.

_A solvent for rust._—It is often very difficult, and sometimes impossible, to remove rust from articles made of iron. Those which are most thickly coated are most easily cleaned by being immersed in, or saturated with, a solution of chloride of tin. The length of time they should remain in this bath is determined by the thickness of the rust, generally twelve to twenty-four hours is long enough. The solution ought not to contain a great excess of acid if the iron itself be not attacked. On taking them from the bath, the articles are rinsed first in water, then in ammonia, and quickly dried. The iron when thus treated has the appearance of dull silver; a simple polishing gives it its normal appearance.

_One of the best varnishes_ for smoke stacks or steam pipes is good asphaltum dissolved in oil of turpentine.

_Iron or steel immersed_ warm in a solution of carbonate of soda (washing soda) for a few minutes will not rust.

_Cement to fasten iron to stone._—Take 10 parts of fine iron filings, 30 parts of plaster of Paris, and ½ part of sal ammoniac; mix with weak vinegar to a fluid paste and apply at once.

_Cement for joints._—Paris white, ground, 4 lbs.; litharge, ground, 10 lbs.; yellow ochre, fine, ½ lb.; ½ oz. of hemp, cut short; mix well together with linseed oil to a stiff putty. This cement is good for joints on steam or water pipes; it will set under water.

_The average consumption of coal_ for steam boilers is 12 pounds per hour for each square foot of grate surface.

_One ton of coal_ is equivalent to two cords of wood for steam purposes.

_Doubling the diameter_ of a pipe increases its capacity four times.

_A cubic foot_ of water contains 7½ gallons.

_A gallon weighs_ 8⅓ pounds.

_Water expands_ ¹/₉ of its bulk in freezing.

_Ice weighs_ 56½ pounds per cubic foot.

_Engineers can judge_ of the condition of their machinery by the tone it gives out while running. Every make of engine has a peculiar tone of its own. The engineer becomes accustomed to that, and any departure from it at once excites a suspicion that all is not right. The engineer may not know what is the matter, he may have no ear for music, but the change in tone of his machine will be instantly perceptible and will start him upon an immediate investigation.

_An Indicator_ is an instrument used to determine the indicated horse-power of an engine; it shows the action of the steam in the cylinder and serves as a guide in setting valves to get the greatest amount of energy from the steam used.

_Atmospheric pressure_ is the weight of the air.

_To take lime from injector tubes_, mix one part muriatic acid and ten parts soft water. Immerse tube in this mixture over night.

_Compound for Cooling Heavy Bearings._—For cooling heavy pillow block bearings, or the steps of upright shafts, the following will be found very valuable: Four pounds of tallow, one-half pound of sugar of lead, three-fourths pound plumbago. When the tallow is melted (not boiling) add sugar of lead and let it dissolve; then put in the plumbago, and stir the whole mass until cold.

_A mixture_ of soft soap and black lead makes an excellent lubricant for gears, as it lessens the abrasion and noise and has the advantage over tallow of not becoming hard. It is also easily removed should it become necessary to clean the parts on which it has been used.

_The axles and axle arms_ of a traction engine should be well greased or oiled before moving, to prevent them from being cut and wearing both hub and axle rapidly.

WORKSHOP RECIPES.

LOAM.—Mixture of brick, clay and old foundry sand.

PARTING SAND.—Burnt sand scraped from the surface of castings.

BLACK WASH.—Charcoal, plumbago and size.

BLACKENING FOR MOLDS.—Charcoal powder, or in some instances fine coal dust.

MIXTURE FOR WELDING STEEL.—One part sal ammoniac, ten parts borax, pounded together and fused until clear. Then it is poured out and after cooling, reduce to powder.

RUST-JOINT CEMENT.—(Quickly setting.) One part sal ammoniac in powder (by weight), two parts flour of sulphur, eighty parts iron borings, made into a paste with water.

RUST JOINT.—(Slowly setting.) Two parts sal ammoniac, one part flour of sulphur, 200 parts iron borings. The latter cement is the best if the joint is not required for immediate use.

RED LEAD CEMENT FOR FACE JOINTS.—One part white lead, one part red lead, mixed with linseed oil to the proper consistency.

CASE HARDENING.—Place horn, hoof, bone dust, or shreds of leather, together with the article to be case hardened, in an iron box; subject to blood red heat, then immerse the article in cold water.

CASE HARDENING WITH PRUSSIATE OF POTASH.—Heat the article, after polishing, to a bright red; rub the surface over with prussiate of potash; allow it to cool to dull red, and immerse it in water.

CASE HARDENING MIXTURES.—Three parts of prussiate of potash, one part sal ammoniac; or, one part of prussiate of potash, two parts sal ammoniac and two parts bone dust.

GLUE TO RESIST MOISTURE.—One pound of glue, melted in two quarts of skim-milk.

MARINE GLUE.—One part of India rubber, twelve parts mineral naphtha or coal tar. Heat gently, mix, and add twenty parts of powdered shellac. Pour out on a slab to cool. Heat to about 250 degrees and it is ready for use.

GLUE CEMENT TO RESIST MOISTURE.—One part glue, one part black rosin, ¼ part red ochre, mixed with the least possible quantity of water; or, four parts of glue; or, one part oxide of iron, one part of boiled oil (by weight).

BABBITTING BOXES.

When the babbitt in a box is badly worn, and needs re-babbitting, remove the cap, take out the shaft and chip all the old babbitt out of both box and cap; then replace the shaft in the box, and line it up perfectly level and square by putting liners in between the shaft and the edges of the box; then put stiff putty around the shaft and against the box at both ends, to prevent the babbitt from running out; then heat the babbitt metal until it runs freely, and pour it into the box until it is full; then put on the cap, and place about the same amount of liners between its ends and the top of the shaft as was put under the shaft, with long liners of sheet iron or tin extending from one end to the other of the box, parallel with and on both sides of the shaft; then put putty around the shaft and against the cap at both ends; heat the metal again, and pour it in through the oil hole. After it is cool, remove the cap and liners, drill out the oil hole and replace the cap, being careful to put just enough liners under it so that the box will be tight and still have the shaft run cool.

COMPOUND ENGINES.

The Compound Engine dates from the year 1781, when Hornblower, a contemporary of Watt, conceived the idea of utilizing the force in the exhaust steam of the simple engine in a second cylinder.

From his crude design, the constant progress of experiment has developed the marvelous engines now used in ocean steamers, and in both large and small power plants, also on locomotives. Some of the compound engines built in the early part of the century show results, according to the records, not far behind the best attainable in modern times.

The era of the Compound locomotive engine began in Europe in 1876, but in this country half a dozen years would almost cover its history.

However, in this short time, its advantages in putting to profitable use the entire force of the steam supplied, has been so clearly shown, that it has evidently come to stay. Its availability as an efficient, economical, powerful high speed locomotive, demonstrates the value of the Compound as a farm traction engine, and makes it plain that it will be extremely serviceable on this class of engines.

The Compound Traction Engines belonging to the class known as the “Woolf,” or continuous expansion type, are so constructed that the steam passes directly from the high pressure to the low pressure cylinder without the intervention of any receiving chamber or steam chest. This arrangement is considered much better adapted to traction engine work, and to produce superior results under the varying conditions of this class of work than the “cross” compound, or what is generally styled the “receiver” type of compound engines, in which the high pressure cylinder exhausts into a receiver connected with the steam chest of the low pressure cylinder.

In the Woolf Compound as constructed, the cylinders are either cast in one piece, end to end, or cast separately and bolted together in substantially the same way, in order that perfect alignment can be secured by boring both cylinders at the same operation. This makes it not only easy to get them in line at the start, but it prevents any possibility of their getting out of line, which is a very important feature.

The pistons of both cylinders are upon the one rod, thus requiring only one cross-head, connecting rod and crank. There is but one steam chest, in which a valve is placed, with such relation to the valve seat which contain the ports leading to both cylinders, that it performs the double function of first admitting the steam to the high pressure cylinder, cutting off the admission at the proper time to allow expansion to take place there, and after high pressure piston has reached the end of its stroke, passing on the steam to the low pressure cylinder, where it is further expanded and exhausted in the usual manner after its work is done.

The valve is specially designed with cavities so arranged as to co-operate in increasing the area of opening to double the amount obtainable with an ordinary valve having the same travel.

Without some special provision, the full power of the compound engine cannot be exerted in starting, as the steam operates primarily on the high pressure piston only, which has led to the condemnation of the compound as a traction engine. This objection has been thoroughly overcome in the Woolf by means of a “converting valve,” rendering it possible to admit steam directly to the large or low pressure cylinder, thus largely increasing the power obtainable from the engine, even when exerting its maximum power as a compound. This arrangement can be used not only in starting, but also in cases of emergency, such as climbing steep hills, getting out of bad places on the road, or disposing of an especially tough cut in sawing, etc.

Without increasing the boiler pressure beyond that ordinarily used, the compound engine gets fully one-third more force out of the steam used than is at present obtainable with the simple engine as commonly worked.

In other words, the compound will show results compared favorably with a good condensing simple stationary engine doing the same work.

BALL TANDEM COMPOUND ENGINE.

The heavy case iron base is cast in two sections, the rear part being securely bolted to the front section. To the front section is also bolted the main engine frame. This frame contains the bar guides for the cross-head, and pillow block bearing for the double disc crank shaft, and also forms the front head for the low pressure cylinder, which is securely bolted to it.

The high pressure cylinder is attached to the low pressure cylinder by two brackets securely bolted, and is supported by a pedestal, bolted to the rear part of base. By this arrangement, both the high and low pressure pistons are upon the same piston rod, which necessitates of but one cross-head, connecting rod and crank.

The valve of the high pressure cylinder is operated and completely under the control of the automatic shaft governor attached to one of the band wheels, while the valve of the low pressure cylinder receives its motion from a single eccentric on crank shaft at opposite side of engine.

When engine is running, the steam enters the high pressure cylinder first, and after performing its work there, exhausts through the receiver pipe into the low pressure cylinder, and there exerts its minimum force by expansion, and passes out to the condenser, if used, or exhausts into the open air.

EXAMINATION OF ENGINEERS APPLYING FOR A LICENSE.

QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS.

Q. How long have you run an engine?

Q. Have you done your own firing?

Q. What kinds of engines have you run?

Q. What would be your first duty if called upon to take charge of an engine?

A. To ascertain the exact condition of the boiler and all its attachments, such as safety valve, steam gauge, water gauge and cocks, pump, injector, blow-off valve, etc.; also the engine.

Q. How often would you blow off your boiler?

A. Once a week or month, according to the condition of feed water used.

Q. How many feet of heating surface is allowed per horse-power by builders of boilers?

A. From 12 to 15 square feet for flue and tubular boilers.

Q. How much steam pressure will be allowed on a boiler 40 inch diameter, ⅜ thick, 60,000 pounds T. S., ⅛ T. S. factor of safety?

A. One-sixth of tensile strength of plate multiplied by thickness of plate, divided by one-half of the diameter of boiler gives safe working pressure.

Q. How do you estimate the strength of a boiler?

A. By its diameter and thickness of material, single or double riveted.

Q. Which is the stronger, single or double riveted?

A. Double riveted is from 14 to 18 per cent. stronger than single.

Q. What is the use of a mud drum on a boiler?

A. To collect all the sediment from the water used in the boiler.

Q. What causes sediment to accumulate in boilers?

A. The use of impure or muddy water.

Q. How often should it be blown out?

A. Three or four times a day.

A. How much grate surface do boiler makers allow per horse-power?

A. About two-thirds of a square foot.

Q. What is the steam dome of a boiler used for?

A. For dry steam to collect in.

Q. Of what use is a safety valve on a boiler?

A. To prevent overpressure.

Q. What is your duty with reference to it?

A. Open it once or twice a day to see that it is in good order.

Q. Of what use is a check valve?

A. To prevent the water in boiler from returning into the pump or injector.

Q. What effect has cold water on hot boiler plates?

A. It will fracture them.

Q. How should the gauge cocks be located on a boiler?

A. So that the lowest gauge cock is about 1½ inches above the top row of flues.

Q. Where should the blow-off valve be located?

A. At the bottom of the fire box in locomotive style of boiler, or in the mud drum when used.

Q. How would you have check valve arranged?

A. With a stop cock between the boiler and check valve.

Q. Does a man-hole in the top shell of boiler weaken it?

A. Yes, to a certain extent.

Q. How many valves in a common plunger pump?

A. Two, a receiving and a discharge valve.

Q. How are they situated?

A. One at suction, the other at discharge end.

Q. How do you find the proper size of safety valve for boiler?

A. Two square feet of grate surface is allowed for one inch area of common lever valve, or three square feet of surface to one inch area of spring valve.

Q. Why do pumps fail to work at times?

A. Leak in the suction, leak around the plunger, leaky check valve, or valve out of order.

Q. Why do injectors fail to work at times?

A. Leak in suction, grit or dirt under seat of valve, or valve not seated properly.

Q. How often should a boiler be examined and tested?

A. Twice a year at least.

Q. How would you test a boiler?

A. By tapping it with a light hammer, and hydrostatic test, using warm water.

Q. Where does the feed water enter the boiler?

A. Below the water level, where the feed water will not strike the heated plates.

Q. What causes priming of boilers?

A. Too high water, not steam space enough, dirty feed water, misconstruction of boiler, or engine being too large for its capacity.

Q. How can you keep boilers clean or remove scale from them?

A. By regularly cleaning them thoroughly, and by the use of compounds.

Q. If you found a thin plate in your boiler what would you do?

A. Patch it on the inside, first cutting out the damaged part.

Q. Why cut out the damaged part of sheet, when putting on a patch?

A. To allow the water to rest against the patch to protect it from the intense heat.

Q. What would be the result if the damaged part of sheet was not cut out?

A. The water not coming in contact with the patch, it would soon bulge from the heat and crack.

Q. Why patch it on the inside?

A. Because the action that has weakened the plate before will act upon the patch, when this is worn it can be replaced.

Q. If you found you had to put on several patches what would you do?

A. Reduce the steam pressure.

Q. If you found a blister what would you do?

A. Cut it out and put a patch on the fire side.

Q. If you found a plate buckled or sagged what would you do?

A. Put a stay bolt through the center of the sag.

Q. What would you do with a cracked plate?

A. Cut out the damaged part and put a patch over it.

Q. How would you change the water in a boiler when steam is up?

A. By supplying more feed water and opening the surface blow-off at short intervals.

Q. When blowing off a boiler, would you leave the blow-off cock to attend to other work?

A. Never.

Q. What would you do to relieve the pressure on the boiler if the safety valve was stuck and steam constantly rising?

A. Cover the fire with coal or ashes, close draught door and open damper in smoke box; work off the steam with the engine and when boiler has cooled down put the safety valve in working order.

Q. What may be the result if you allow the water in the boiler to get low?

A. Burning of the crown sheet and flues and perhaps cause an explosion.

Q. Would you turn feed water into a boiler in which the water was very low?

A. Never, without first pulling the fire or covering it with dry ashes and allowing the steam to go down.

Q. If you allow water in the boiler to get too high what would be the result?

A. It would cause priming or foaming.

Q. Is priming or foaming dangerous to an engine?

A. Yes. It may cause breaking of cylinder head and wrecking of the engine.

Q. What are other causes for foaming or priming of a boiler?

A. Dirty and impure water.

A. W. STEVENS TRACTION ENGINE.

The position of the side crank engine upon the boiler allows of having the Rear Gear traction attachment.

The Engine frame, guides for cross-head, cylinder, steam chest, saddles, brackets and both pillow block bearings for crank shaft are cast in one piece and bolted to the boiler.

The frame is cast oval, and cross-head guides are of the locomotive style.

The Engine is furnished with a Friction Clutch, a specially designed Reversing Gear, Governor, Marsh steam pump, Injector; and is mounted upon an open bottom fire box locomotive boiler, with ash pan under fire box and dome at rear end.

The boiler is mounted upon the traction wheels by brackets bolted to the rear end, which contain the boxes for the main axle and cross shaft.

The traction wheels are of the cast iron rim type, with spokes cast in both rim and hub.

The steering wheel and band wheel are on opposite sides of boiler, and both engine and boiler are supplied with all necessary fittings.

Q. How would you stop foaming?

A. Close the throttle long enough to show the true level of water. If the level of the water is sufficiently high, feeding and blowing off will usually correct the difficulty.

Q. What would you do if you discovered the water gone from sight in the water glass?

A. Pull the fire or cover it over with dry ashes, and allow the boiler to cool off as quickly as possible; and would not open or close any of the steam outlets.

Q, What is a traction engine?

A. A traction engine is an engine the power of which is transmitted to the driving or ground wheels by a combination of gearing.

Q. What is an exhaust pipe?

A. The pipe through which the exhaust steam escapes from cylinder to smoke stack.

Q. What is the feed pipe?

A. The pipe through which the feed water passes from pump or injector to the boiler.

Q. What is the steam pipe?

A. The pipe through which steam is taken from the dome to the steam chest.

Q. What is a pet cock?

A. A small cock used in check valves, pipes and places where draining off water is necessary to prevent freezing.

Q. What is clearance in a steam cylinder?

A. It is the space between the cylinder head and piston head when the latter is at end of the stroke.

Q. What is “cushion” in a steam cylinder?

A. Cushion is the compression of steam let in through the lead of the valve in the clearance of the cylinder, and is for the purpose of catching the weight of the piston and rod, cross-head and connecting rod when the engine reaches the end of each stroke. It also keeps the engine from pounding.

Q. How much water would you blow off at any one time while running?

A. Never blow off more than one gauge.

Q. What are your general views regarding boiler explosions?

A. The greatest causes are from ignorance, carelessness and neglect.

Q. What precaution should you take if necessary to stop with a heavy fire in the furnace?

A. Close the draught door, and put the injector or pump at work.

Q. What is the proper height to carry water in the boiler?

A. About 2½ inches above top row of flues.

Q. At what pressure should you blow off a boiler?

A. At a pressure not to exceed ten pounds.

Q. If you wished to increase the power of an engine what would you do?

A. Increase its speed or get higher steam pressure.

Q. How do you find the horse-power of an engine?

A. Multiply the speed of piston travel in feet per minute by the total effective pressure upon the piston in pounds, and divide the product by 33,000.

Q. What is meant by “brass bound”?

A. Brass bound means that the half brasses touch each other and cannot be driven up any closer by the key.

Q. How would you remedy a brass bound box on crank-pin or wrist-pin?

A. Take off the boxes and file off the top and bottom edges, being careful not to take off too much.

Q. Does a perfect fitting or an imperfect fitting valve have the most friction?

A. An imperfect fitting one.

Q. How would you refit an imperfect fitting or leaky valve?

A. It should be re-faced on a planer or filed and scraped until it fits seat perfectly tight.

Q. How is a steam engine rated?

A. By amount of horse-power developed.

Q. What is a foot-pound?

A. One pound of force exerted through one foot of space.

Q. How many foot-pounds are required to lift 100 pounds one foot?

A. One hundred.

Q. How many foot-pounds required to lift one pound 100 feet?

A. One hundred.

Q. To lift 110 pounds through 300 feet how many foot-pounds required?

A. 300 × 110 = 33,000 foot-pounds.

Q. Would that equal one horse-power?

A. Yes, if done in one minute.

Q. Suppose it took two minutes?

A. Then there would be only half a horse-power, or 33,000 ÷ 2 = 16,500 foot-pounds per minute.

Q. Is it correct to say “horse-power per minute” or “horse-power per hour”?

A. No. When an engine is working at the rate of 10 horse-power, it is doing 10 horse-power all the time. It is an error to assume that such an engine is doing 10 horse-power per minute, and 10 × 60 equals 600 horse-power per hour. When it is said that an engine uses 20 pounds of steam per horse-power per hour, it is meant that this amount of steam is used per hour for each horse-power developed.

Q. How is the foot-pounds of work done by a steam engine, found?

A. Multiply the average pressure per square inch during the stroke by the number of square inches in the piston, and by the number of feet through which the piston has moved.

Q. What do you understand by the “mean effective pressure”?

A. The mean pressure is the average pressure pushing the piston through the stroke, which is about one-third the pressure in the boiler. There is generally some back pressure working against it, therefore the “effective” pressure is only the difference between the two. It can only be determined accurately by measurements from an indicator diagram.

Q. What is a single acting engine?

A. An engine in which the steam acts on one side of the piston only.

Q. How do you find the “piston’s speed”?

A. On double acting engines, multiply the stroke in inches by two and by the number of revolutions per minute and divide by 12.

Q. Why multiply the stroke in inches by 2?

A. Because in double acting engines there are two working strokes to each revolution.

Q. Why do you divide by 12?

A. To reduce the inches to feet.

Q. How is the “piston’s speed” of a single acting engine found?

A. Multiply the stroke in inches by the revolutions per minute and divide by 12.

Q. What is the horse-power developed by an engine, say 12 × 24 inch, running 125 revolutions per minute, with 40 pounds mean effective pressure?

A. Area = 12 × 12 × .7854 = 113.0976 sq. ins.

Piston speed = 24 × 2 × 125 ÷ 12 = 500 feet per minute.