Chapter M: S.--Master of Science (3)

=Notes.=--A note should be signed in ink, but a pencil signature is good in law. A note is not payable on demand unless it so states. A note may be payable to order or to bearer. If payable to order, and transferred, it must be endorsed. The endorser of a note is liable for its payment, if the maker of it does not pay it. Each signer of a joint note is liable for the full amount. Notes do not bear interest unless so stated. "Value received" should be written in every note, but it is not essential.

=Ocean Ownership.=--The ocean is common property, and no one has any legal title to it, except that each country has jurisdiction over the sea within three miles of the shore, but these three miles are usually reckoned from promontories, and not necessarily from the coast-line, so that a nation may have control of a vast area of water and several hundred miles from shore.

=Old Time Ships.=--The glory of the American merchant service, so far as sailing vessels are concerned, has passed into history. Comparatively few sailing vessels, save coasting schooners, ply the seas, as steam has taken the place of sail. The majority of old ship captains are either dead or commanding ocean liners or coastwise steamers. In the old days, sailing clipper ships made the trip from New York to San Francisco in one hundred days, while the voyage of ordinary ships was two or three times as long. The old ship "Lightning" sailed from Boston to Liverpool at a greater speed than that obtained by any steamship of its day, the vessel often logging over 500 miles in 24 hours, and it made the trip in a little less than 14 days. The "James Baines" sailed from Boston to Liverpool in 12 days and 6 hours, and broke the sailing record between these two ports. The same vessel made the trip from Liverpool to Melbourne, Australia, in 63 days and returned in 69 days. The "Red Jacket" sailed from New York to Liverpool in 13 days, 1 hour, and 25 minutes. The "Flying Cloud" and "Andrew Jackson" sailed from New York to San Francisco in 89 days, and the "Sea Witch" made the trip from Canton, China, to New York in 74 days, 14 hours. These early clipper ships were quite small, many of them not being over 200 tons. The first large clipper ship was the "Ann McKim," which was 43 ft. long, and 493 tons burden. Subsequent sailing vessels of enormous size were built, the "John Bertram" having a tonnage of 1080, the "Gamecock" 1,320, the "Staghound" 1,535, the "Flying Cloud" 1,783, the "Staffordshire" 1,817, the "Sovereign of the Seas" 2,421 tons, and the "Great Republic" 4,555 tons.

=Palmistry.=--The study of the lines of the palm, which the ancients believed indicated character and future. Palmistry is to-day practiced by three classes of people: (1) professional palmists, most of whom are charlatans; (2) as a diversion; (3) by superstitious people who believe in it. A scientific study of the subject does not furnish any evidence that the lines of the hand have any special significance, and no scientific person gives them any credence.

=Partnership.=--A partnership is an agreement, usually written, between two or more persons, for the doing of business or for the carrying out of any contract or for the accomplishment of any work. The partners may have equal ownership, or it may be unevenly divided. In the equal partnerships, each partner has the same financial interest and share in the profits, and also the same right of control. In other partnerships, the financial investment or interests are unevenly divided; and the one who holds more than half interest controls the business, unless otherwise provided for in the partnership agreement. Partners may be in name only, and not own any of the property. Active partners are those who give practically all of their time to the conducting of the business. Silent partners are not likely to take any active part in the management of the business, but they may control it, if their financial interest is sufficient. Under common law, no partner has a right to engage in any other business which would injure the partnership, unless permitted to do so by the other partners. The acts of one partner bind all of the rest. If one partner commits fraud in the name of the firm, the others are financially responsible, although they may have had no knowledge of his action. The partnership or business may or may not be liable for the private debts of any one partner. Usually a partner cannot be held for more than his interest in the firm. Partnerships may be dissolved by mutual agreement or by judicial act, and it is usual to publish the dissolution of partnership in one or more of the local newspapers, and to send notices of it to the trade. A limited partnership does not hold any partner or the concern itself liable for more than the amount of the property in the business, but a partnership will not be considered limited unless it is publicly announced.

Patent Medicines

It has been said, and with some degree of truth, that Americans are self-dosers, and that they are prone to attempt to cure themselves, even of serious diseases, without consulting a physician.

The sale of patent medicines is enormous, although I think it is diminishing in volume, due to the exposures which have appeared in many periodicals, and to the better education of the people.

A patent medicine, technically speaking, is a concoction or drug, or combination of drugs, claimed to be a remedy or cure for a specific ill or for all of the ills that the human flesh is heir to. It is manufactured in large quantities, and bottled or put up with attractive labels, with more or less directions given for its use. Many of the patent medicines are either absolutely ineffective or are positively dangerous. Many of them contain a large percentage of alcohol, which acts as a transient tonic, and produces an exhilaration which the sufferer is likely to consider beneficial. The effect of the alcohol soon wears off, and the taker is much worse for having swallowed it.

Other patent medicines contain cocaine and other dangerous drugs, which never should be taken without the advice of a physician. The effect of some patent medicines is likely to be immediate and to appear to be efficacious. Some patent medicines, however, are made of pure drugs, and are really valuable. I am, however, opposed to the use of patent medicines, even of those which are carefully and scientifically compounded.

It is obvious that the layman cannot diagnose his trouble, and the label on the bottle, or the pamphlet accompanying it, is likely to confuse him, and in many cases makes him feel that he is suffering from an ailment or disease which does not exist.

Headache powders, cough medicines, tonics of all kinds, soothing syrup for babies, should be conscientiously avoided, unless prescribed by a physician. They are likely to contain dangerous drugs, and may have no medicinal properties at all.

Because a certain medicine has worked well with one person should not be taken as evidence that another can take it to his advantage. Similar symptoms may exist, and yet the root of the trouble be entirely different.

Even if every patent medicine were pure and scientifically compounded, I would advise against their use, unless recommended by a physician, who is likely to diagnose correctly the trouble and to apply the right remedy.

Physicians are not infallible, but every reputable physician is a graduate of a medical school, a reader of current medical magazines, and is constantly in touch, by experience, with other physicians and with human ailments. Even if he is not an expert, his close proximity to disease makes him far more reliable than the label on the medicine bottle.

I would advise no one to place himself in the hands of any physician who is not a member of one of the great medical associations, maintained by both the allopathic and homeopathic schools.

These associations will not admit into membership any one who has not been properly instructed, and who is not reliable. Any physician of standing, and with a sufficient knowledge of the human body, can obtain membership in these associations, and those who are not members may be looked upon with suspicion, although it is quite likely that some of them are reliable; but as they are outside of the associations, they cannot have the facilities of consultation and experience, which are given to those in regular standing in an association.

It is obvious that one of even ordinary ability, who is educated in the profession, is more reliable than one who doctors by his wits, even though he may appear to be successful. Although there are some charlatans in the profession, who practice in their own interest more than in that of their patients, the average physician represents the highest order of civilization. He knows at the start that his profession is not likely to bring him heavy financial return. He goes into it with his eyes open. He is under the strictest rules and regulations, and cannot maintain his standing in the associations, or with the public, if he does not practice legitimately. He has every facility at his command, and although he is not always successful, he is far better able to produce results than is one who has not been properly educated, and who lacks experience and association with other doctors, and who has not had hospital practice. Every reputable physician has not only graduated from a medical school, but was given opportunity to practice in hospitals and elsewhere before he became a family physician. The so-called specialist began as a family physician, and gives his time somewhat exclusively to one disease or to surgery. The surgeon, while a regular physician, specializes in surgery, and comparatively few family practitioners will handle a serious surgical case, except in emergencies. They refer the patient to the skilled surgeon.

The physician is both a curer and preventor of disease. I would advise every one, no matter how healthy he may be, to consult a reputable physician once a year, and to be overhauled, so to speak. Most troubles can be obviated if taken in time. A symptom seemingly serious to the one having it may be of little consequence, and yet it may be the forerunner of an incurable disease. If a good physician is consulted in time, he may either obviate the trouble or prevent its rapid increase. No one should attempt to diagnose his own condition. Even the physician will not do so for himself, because no one can tell by his feelings exactly what is the matter with him or what would better be done. The physician when sick, consults other physicians, if his trouble is of any seriousness. The expense of an annual examination need not exceed two or three dollars, and some physicians will make it for a dollar. They are likely to locate any trouble, although it may have just appeared and the symptom be slight. They will prescribe a treatment, which cannot fail to be of benefit to those who consult them. Therefore, I say, visit a good physician at least once a year, irrespective of your health.

In every city, and in many of the towns, are practicing alleged physicians or doctors, who claim to be unusually expert and able to cure where others fail, or even to cure what cannot be cured. Some of them are graduates of medical schools, and are really good physicians, but most of them are irresponsible and without real ability. Their method frequently makes the patient feel that he is being cured, and cured rapidly. They use appliances and drugs which have an immediate effect, usually to the patients' injury; or they practice the same as regular physicians do and give the patient false encouragement. It seems to me obvious that no so-called outside practitioner, who is not a member of the associations, can possibly possess any information or know of any method of treatment with which the regular physicians are unfamiliar. These charlatans play upon the feelings of the patient, and it is said that some of them keep him sick for financial reasons. Therefore, I warn the reader against any physician who is not a member of one of the two great associations, and who is not recognized by the profession at large. Even though some of them are skillful, it is safer to employ a physician of standing than to take one who makes a business of practicing, and who is not answerable to the rules and regulations enforced by the associations, and who cannot, because of his removal from them, obtain and enjoy the privilege of consultation with other members of his craft. Do not take chances with your body. Better risk the few mistakes made by physicians than by your own doctor.

=Perpetual Motion.=--Scientists, particularly early ones, made frantic and continuous endeavors to invent what was supposed to be perpetual motion; that is, a machine which will keep perpetually in motion without being replenished or supplied with outside energy. About 60 years ago scientific bodies refused to consider it, as it was proved to be impossible. The "Scientific American," many years ago, likened perpetual motion to an energy which will permit a man to lift himself by his boot-straps.

=Petroleum Industry.=--The annual production is considerably more than 9,000,000,000 gallons a year.

=Philippine Islands.=--The Philippine Islands consist of over 3,000 islands, having an area of about 115,000 square miles. The population exceeds 7,500,000; and the density of population is about 67 to the square mile, as against 26 to the square mile in the United States. The climate is tropical.

=Pianoforte.=--The piano or pianoforte is said to have been invented in Italy and to have appeared in 1714. Germany, however, claims the honor of its invention. It was introduced into England in 1766.

=Plate Glass.=--The sand, out of which glass is made, is melted until it is of about the consistency of molasses. It is then poured into a casting trough or a table mounted on wheels so it can be run close to the mouth of the furnace. The molten glass is poured into the trough through a sluice-way, and before it hardens, heavy rollers pass over it, reducing it to the required thickness. It is rolled to about 9-16 of an inch, and then by further rolling and polishing it is reduced to the required thickness. It further passes through a smelting oven which thoroughly hardens it. Then, it is again polished.

=Playing Cards.=--The origin is unknown, although they appeared in Europe in 1350. It is claimed that the Arabs used playing cards at a much earlier date. It is estimated that over sixteen million packs of playing cards are made annually in the United States.

=Pole Star.=--This is a star of the second magnitude, found at the extremity of the handle of the Little Dipper.

Population and Land Area of the United States

Land area
Geographic Division Population, (square
and State 1910 miles),
1910

CONTINENTAL UNITED STATES 91,972,266 2,973,890

GEOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS:
New England 6,552,681 61,976
Middle Atlantic 19,315,892 100,000
East North Central 18,250,621 245,564
West North Central 11,637,921 510,804
South Atlantic 12,194,895 269,071
East South Central 8,409,901 179,509
West South Central 8,784,534 429,746
Mountain 2,633,517 859,125
Pacific 4,192,304 318,095
---------- --------

NEW ENGLAND:
Maine 742,371 29,895
New Hampshire 430,572 9,031
Vermont 355,956 9,124
Massachusetts 3,366,416 8,039
Rhode Island 542,610 1,067
Connecticut 1,114,756 4,820
MIDDLE ATLANTIC:
New York 9,113,614 47,654
New Jersey 2,537,167 7,514
Pennsylvania 7,665,111 44,832
EAST NORTH CENTRAL:
Ohio 4,767,121 40,740
Indiana 2,700,876 36,045
Illinois 5,638,591 56,043
Michigan 2,810,173 57,480
Wisconsin 2,333,860 55,256
WEST NORTH CENTRAL:
Minnesota 2,075,708 80,858
Iowa 2,224,771 55,586
Missouri 3,293,335 68,727
North Dakota 577,056 70,183
South Dakota 583,888 76,868
Nebraska 1,192,214 76,808
Kansas 1,690,949 81,774
SOUTH ATLANTIC:
Delaware 202,322 1,965
Maryland 1,295,346 9,941
District of Columbia 331,069 60
Virginia 2,061,612 40,262
West Virginia 1,221,119 24,022
North Carolina 2,206,287 48,740
South Carolina 1,515,400 30,495
Georgia 2,609,121 58,725
Florida 752,619 54,861
EAST SOUTH CENTRAL:
Kentucky 2,289,905 40,181
Tennessee 2,184,789 41,687
Alabama 2,138,093 51,279
Mississippi 1,797,114 46,362
WEST SOUTH CENTRAL:
Arkansas 1,574,449 52,525
Louisiana 1,656,388 45,409
Oklahoma 1,657,155 69,414
Texas 3,896,542 262,398
MOUNTAIN:
Montana 376,053 146,201
Idaho 325,594 83,354
Wyoming 145,965 97,594
Colorado 799,024 103,658
New Mexico 327,301 122,503
Arizona 204,354 113,810
Utah 373,351 82,184
Nevada 81,875 109,821
PACIFIC:
Washington 1,141,990 66,836
Oregon 672,765 95,607
California 2,377,549 155,652

Population Per Square Mile

=Continental United States.=--The following summary shows, for continental United States, the total population, land area in square miles, and population per square mile of land area at each census from 1790 to 1910, inclusive:

Land area Population
Census Year Population (square per
miles) sq. mile

1910 91,972,266 2,973,890 30.9
1900 75,994,575 2,974,159 25.6
1890 62,947,714 2,973,965 21.2
1880 50,155,783 2,973,965 16.9
1870 38,558,371 2,973,965 13.0
1860 31,443,321 2,973,965 10.6
1850 23,191,876 2,944,337 7.9
1840 17,069,453 1,753,588 9.7
1830 12,866,020 1,753,588 7.3
1820 9,638,453 1,753,588 5.5
1810 7,239,881 1,685,865 4.3
1800 5,308,483 867,980 6.1
1790 3,929,214 867,980 4.5

According to the census of 1910, there are in continental United States, on the average, 30.9 inhabitants to each square mile of land area, or nearly seven times the number per square mile shown for the much smaller area of 1790, and nearly three times the number shown for 1860. The decrease in the average number of inhabitants per square mile at the census of 1810 and 1850 was due in each case to large accessions of thinly populated territory during the decade preceding the census.

In the order of their density of population the nine geographic divisions of the country rank as follows: Middle Atlantic, 193.2 inhabitants per square mile; New England, 105.7; East North Central, 74.3; East South Central, 46.8; South Atlantic, 45.3; West North Central, 22.8; West South Central, 20.4; Pacific, 13.2; and Mountain, 3.1. The changes in density from census to census correspond precisely with the changes in area and the total number of inhabitants. It may be noted, however, that on account of the rapid increase in their population the Pacific states in 1910 for the first time are approaching, in density of population, conditions found in the states between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains.

=Porto Rico.=--Porto Rico contains about 3,600 square miles, and has a population of considerable more than a million. The climate is tropical and the land is extremely fertile.

=Postage Stamps.=--They were invented in 1834, and were introduced into America in 1847.

=Poultry and Egg Industry.=--Nearly 500,000,000 of poultry, including chickens, turkeys, geese, and pigeons, are raised in the United States annually. The total value is about $203,000,000. Each year the production of eggs is about 1,600,000,000 dozen. The people of the United States eat about 5-1/2 fowls per year per capita, and a little over 17 dozen eggs.

Presidents of the United States

(1) George Washington.
(2) John Adams.
(3) Thomas Jefferson.
(4) James Madison.
(5) James Monroe.
(6) John Quincy Adams.
(7) Andrew Jackson.
(8) Martin Van Buren.
(9) William Henry Harrison.
(10) John Tyler.
(11) James K. Polk.
(12) Zachary Taylor.
(13) Millard Fillmore.
(14) Franklin Pierce.
(15) James Buchanan.
(16) Abraham Lincoln.
(17) Andrew Johnson.
(18) Ulysses S. Grant.
(19) Rutherford B. Hayes.
(20) James A. Garfield.
(21) Chester A. Arthur.
(22) Grover Cleveland.
(23) Benjamin Harrison.
(24) William McKinley.
(25) Theodore Roosevelt.
(26) William H. Taft.
(27) Woodrow Wilson.

Principal Countries of the World

COUNTRY CAPITAL SQ. MILES POPULATION

Abyssinia Addis Abeba 200,000 11,000,000
Afghanistan Kabul 250,000 4,750,000
Argentina Buenos Aires 1,135,840 6,210,428
Australia 2,974,581 4,197,037
Austria-Hungary Vienna, Budapest 241,333 45,176,230
Belgium Brussels 11,373 6,693,548
Bolivia Sucre 605,400 1,953,916
Brazil Rio de Janeiro 3,292,991 17,388,556
British Empire London 11,343,706 394,246,882
Bulgaria Sofia 38,080 4,035,623
Canada Ottawa 3,745,574 6,153,789
Chile Santiago 307,620 3,399,928
Chinese Empire Peking 4,277,170 426,047,325
Colombia Bogota 505,000 4,303,000
Costa Rica San Jose 18,400 351,176
Cuba Havana 44,000 2,048,980
Denmark Copenhagen 15,592 2,605,268
Ecuador Quito 116,000 1,400,000
Egypt[A] Cairo 400,000 11,189,978
France Paris 207,054 39,252,245
Germany Berlin 208,780 60,641,278
Great Britain & Ireland London 121,390 44,538,718
Greece Athens 25,014 2,631,952
Guatemala New Guatemala 48,290 1,882,992
Haiti Port au Prince 10,204 1,500,000
Honduras Tegucigalpa 46,250 650,000
India Calcutta 1,776,517 294,317,082
Italy Rome 110,550 33,909,776
Japanese Empire Tokyo 175,000 50,000,000
Luxemburg Luxemburg 998 236,543
Mexico Mexico 767,005 13,605,919
Montenegro Cettinie 3,630 250,000
Morocco Fez, Morocco 219,000 5,000,000
Netherlands The Hague 12,648 5,747,269
Nicaragua Managua 49,200 500,000
Norway Christiania 124,129 2,240,032
Panama Panama 31,571 300,000
Paraguay Asuncion 157,000 631,347
Persia Teheran 628,000 9,500,000
Peru Lima 695,733 4,609,999
Portugal Lisbon 35,490 5,423,132
Roumania Bukharest 50,720 5,956,690
Russia St. Petersburg 8,647,657 152,009,300
Salvador San Salvador 7,225 1,700,000
San Marino San Marino 38 11,439
Santo Domingo Santo Domingo 18,045 610,000
Servia Belgrade 18,650 2,493,882
Siam Bangkok 195,000 6,686,846
Spain Madrid 190,050 18,618,086
Sweden Stockholm 172,876 5,377,713
Switzerland Bern 15,976 3,463,609
Turkey and trib. states[B] Constantinople 1,165,020 25,414,300
United South Africa Pretoria. C. T. 473,184 5,450,217
United States Washington 3,567,563 88,566,034
Uruguay Montevideo 72,210 1,140,799
Venezuela Caracas 364,000 2,646,835

[A] Under suzerainty of Turkey, but actual administration controlled by
Great Britain.

[B] Exclusive of Egypt.

=Printing Presses.=--There are three distinct classes of printing presses: (1) The ordinary job press which is used for the printing of cards, letter-heads, billheads, and other small matter. It is run by power or by a foot treadle. Each card or piece of paper is fed into the press by hand and removed by hand. The average speed is from 1,000 to 1,200 an hour, but the most expert feeders can handle about 1,500 cards an hour, and the record is not far from 2,000. (2) The cylinder press. This press is used for the printing of weekly newspapers, books, catalogues, and other large work. The type is placed upon a flat bed having a lateral movement, and the paper is fed by hand onto a cylinder which revolves over the moving bed. These presses have a speed of from 1,000 to 2,000 an hour, but comparatively few hand-feeders can handle more than 1,500, or 1,600 sheets in an hour. (3) The perfecting press. This press is used exclusively for the printing of large city newspapers, and some books, and catalogues are printed upon it. The type matter is cast into to a cylinder. The paper to be printed upon stereotypes of circular form which are attached is in a continuous roll and passes between the stereotype cylinder and another roller. The paper is fed into the press automatically, and is automatically folded and counted. The largest perfecting press in the world will print, fold, and count both sides of an eight-page paper at the rate of 300,000 copies an hour, but the average perfecting press does not deliver more than 75,000 copies an hour. The perfecting presses used for books, magazines, and catalogues run at a much slower speed.

=Production of Books.=--In 1911, 8,183 books were produced by American authors of which 1,024 were fiction; 917 were on theology and religion; 919 of essays and literature; 527 on hygiene; 734 juvenile; 685 of poetry and drama; 300 educational; 196 were devoted to the fine arts; and 86 to music.

=Public Debt of the United States.=--The interest-bearing debt of the United States is $964,631,630, and the non-interest-bearing debt is $375,974,389. The United States has issued $946,242,270 in gold certificates, $482,367,666 in silver certificates, and treasury notes to the amount of $2,846,260. At the last accounting the United States treasury had on hand in cash $1,564,416,169.

=Public Schools.=--The public school system originated in Massachusetts and Connecticut shortly after the settlement of those States. Schools were not entirely free when originally established. They have now become common all over the United States, and their maintenance is required by law.

=Pure Food.=--Pure food laws enacted by the United States Government, and by State and City Governments, are supposed to protect the consumer against adulterated foods. The United States law, however, has no jurisdiction over food manufactured or put out in any of the States, unless it is carried from one State to another. The local food laws have to do only with the communities covered. The present law does not appear to be sufficient to protect the public fully. The statement written on many food packages, reading "Guaranteed Under The Food and Drugs Act, June 30, 1906. No. ----," must not be considered as proof positive of purity. It simply means that the contents of the package or bottle is according to the prescription or formula registered with the Government, and does not stand for quality or purity. Benzoate of soda and other preservatives may be legally used, provided a statement to that effect is made upon the package. Chemists differ as to the injurious effect of benzoate of soda, but it is not advocated by any eminent authority. Most of the pure food experts are opposed to its use, irrespective of any injurious effect it may have upon the consumer, because this preservative will effectively kill the odor of putrefaction and disguise the taste and smell of rotten or spoiled fruit and other products. The consumer will do well to refuse to purchase any article or food containing benzoate of soda or other preservative, for first-class and healthy meat, fruit, and vegetables do not require a chemical preservative. Artificial coloring may not be injurious, as so little of it is required, but food artificially preserved may be dangerous, and very likely is impure, and may not have been fresh when canned.

=Pyramids.=--the pyramids were supposed to have been constructed between the fifth and twelfth dynasties in Middle Egypt, and not to have been used for tombs. They are built upon a square base, with sides facing the points of the compass, and the earlier pyramids were constructed of horizontal layers of rough blocks fastened together with mortar. In the center of the pyramid, near the base, was built a chamber reached by a passage from the north side. It is said that some of them contain emblems or symbols, which are now used in masonry. Whether or not there were masons at the time they were built, has not yet been discovered. Many of the stones weigh as much as thirty tons each, and no one has yet been able to ascertain the power used for their transmission.

=Railroads.=--The railroads of the United States employ nearly 1,700,000 men, or about 680 per hundred miles of track. The railroads occupy over 244,000 miles of track. The most powerful locomotive in the world runs in Virginia, and weighs 540,000 pounds. The heaviest electric locomotive is maintained by the Boston & Maine Railroad and weighs about 192,000 pounds. The most expensive locomotives cost about $37,000, and an ordinary locomotive costs from $15,000 to $20,000. An ordinary box car weighs 36,000 pounds, and a day coach about 112,000 pounds. Sleeping cars weigh from 115,000 to 152,000 pounds. The fastest short-distance run on record was made by the Empire State Express, at the rate of 112-1/2 miles per hour. A New York train ran a distance of 44 miles in 33 minutes, or at the rate of 80 miles an hour, and a New York Central train made the distance between New York and Chicago, 965 miles, in 15 hours and 43 minutes, or at the rate of 62-1/2 miles per hour. A New York Central train ran a short distance at the rate of about 112-1/2 miles an hour, and a Florida train ran 5 miles at the rate of 120 miles an hour. During the last year there were 5,483 accidents by collision and 8,215 by derailments, and a total of 15,743 accidents; 318 passengers were killed, and 16,386 were injured; 3,635 employees were killed, and 142,442 injured; 6,632 persons not connected with the railroads and not riding on trains were killed, and 10,710 injured. The number of passengers carried during the year was nearly a billion. The railroads of the United States, not including the switching and terminal companies, employ nearly 670,000 men, or about 678 men to every 100 miles of track.

=Referendum.=--A law by which all legislation may be referred to the people, either for its ratification or rejection. The Initiative is a process by which any law may be enacted, if requested by a specified number of citizens. The Initiative and Referendum are becoming common, and their advocates believe that they are the solution to many of our political problems.

=Religious Denominations.=--In the United States there are 95,800 Adventists, about 5,635,000 Baptists, about 739,000 Congregationalists, about 1,534,000 Disciples of Christ, about 2,290,000 Lutherans, about 6,280,000 Methodists, about 1,944,000 Presbyterians, about 957,000 Protestant Episcopalians, about 312,000 United Brethren, about 71,000 Unitarians, about 53,000 Universalists, and about 13,000,000 Roman Catholics.

=Roads.=--The mileage of all public roads in the United States is about 2,200,000 miles, there being a little over 59,000 miles of stone road and about 103,000 of gravel road. A sand-clay road costs about $725.00 per mile, gravel a little over $2,000.00, macadam about $5,000.00, and bituminous macadam about $10,350.

=Round Table.=--Tradition says that it was modeled after a table made by Joseph of Arimathea, and was an imitation of the one used at the Last Supper. It is said to have had a seating capacity variously estimated at from thirteen to one hundred and fifty. According to the legend dealing with King Arthur and his knights, it was a round marble table made by the Enchanter Merlin for Uther Pendragon. Later it came into the possession of the King of Camelard, and was given by him to Arthur on his marriage to the king's daughter Guinevere. The term Round Table is much used in the United States, and refers to a table, usually round, occupied habitually by the same diners.

=Royal Academy.=--Founded in London in 1768. It is an association of artists, and maintains a free school of art. It holds an annual exhibition of paintings and sculptures.

=Royal Society.=--One of the most celebrated associations in the world. Organized in London in 1660 for the promotion of scientific investigation.

=School Statistics.=--There are, in the United States, 36,260 men and 5,025 women acting as professors and instructors in universities, colleges, and technical schools. The common schools contain nearly 18,000,000 enrolled pupils, with an average daily attendance of nearly 13,000,000. These schools employ nearly 525,000 teachers, who receive an average monthly salary of about $62.00. The estimated value of public school property is considerably more than $1,000,000,000, and the annual cost of maintaining these schools exceeds $426,000,000.

=Seasickness.=--Although there are several advertised remedies which claim to prevent or to cure seasickness, it is probable that none of them are efficacious for all persons. Seasickness is not perfectly understood. Some people suffer from it and some do not. Of course, the condition of the stomach and liver has much to do with it. If one is bilious he is pretty sure to become seasick. Before taking a voyage, it is well to diet or to live on plain food for a while. Do not remain in your stateroom or in the cabin. Get all of the fresh air you can. Lie down and don't refuse to eat sparingly. Many persons ward off seasickness by retiring before the vessel leaves the port. Some people, even sailors, suffer from seasickness with every voyage. A good remedy is an emetic, either warm salt water, or warm mustard water.

=Seven Chief Virtues.=--These, as defined by the Roman Catholic Church, are as follows: (1) Faith, (2) Hope, (3) Charity, (4) Prudence, (5) Temperance, (6) Justice, (7) Fortitude.

=Seven Corporal Works of Mercy.=--According to the Roman Catholic Church, these are as follows: (1) To bury the dead, (2) to clothe the naked, (3) to feed the hungry, (4) to give drink to the thirsty, (5) to shelter the homeless, (6) to visit those in prison, (7) to administer unto the sick.

=Seven Deadly Sins.=--According to the teaching of the Roman Catholic Church, these are as follows: (1) Pride, (2) Anger, (3) Envy, (4) Sloth, (5) Lust, (6) Covetousness, (7) Gluttony.

=Seven Liberal Arts.=--A term applied during the Middle Ages to the following branches of learning: (1) Arithmetic, (2) Geometry, (3) Astronomy, (4) Music, (5) Logic, (6) Rhetoric, (7) Grammar.

=Seven Spiritual Works of Mercy.=--According to the teaching of the Roman Catholic Church, these are as follows: (1) To admonish the sinful, (2) to bear wrongs patiently, (3) to comfort the afflicted, (4) to counsel the doubting, (5) to forgive offenses, (6) to instruct the ignorant, (7) to pray for the living and the dead.

=Seven Wise Men of Greece.=--Applied to seven Greek sages, whose wisdom was embodied in the following maxims: (1) Solon of Athens, "Know thyself"; (2) Chilo of Sparta, "Consider the end"; (3) Thales of Miletus, "Suretyship brings ruin"; (4) Bias of Priene, "Most men are bad"; (5) Cleobulus of Lindus, "Avoid extremes"; (6) Pittacus of Mitylene, "Know thine opportunity"; (7) Periander of Corinth, "Nothing is impossible to industry."

=Seven Wonders of the Middle Ages.=--(1) The Coliseum at Rome, (2) the Catacombs of Alexandria, (3) the Great Wall of China, (4) the Leaning Tower of Pisa, (5) the Porcelain Tower of Nanking, (6) the Mosque of St. Sophia at Constantinople, (7) the Ruins of Stonehenge.

=Seven Wonders of the New World.=--(1) Niagara Falls, (2) Yellowstone Park, (3) Garden of the Gods, (4) Mammoth Cave, (5) Yosemite Valley, (6) Giant Trees, (7) Natural Bridge.

=Seven Wonders of the World.=--In ancient times generally regarded as follows: (1) The Pyramids of Egypt, (2) the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, (3) the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, (4) the Temple of Diana at Ephesus, (5) the Colossus of Rhodes, (6) the Pharos at Alexandria, (7) the Statue of the Olympian Jove in Elis.

=Shaving Lotions.=--Hot water applied to the face after shaving removes much of the sting or soreness, and the use of bay rum, hamamelis or witch hazel, or almond cream, is to be recommended. A very good shaving preparation is made of equal parts of bay rum and hamamelis.

Ship Bells

Time, A. M.

1 Bell 12.30
2 Bells 1.00
3 " 1.30
4 " 2.00
5 " 2.30
6 " 3.00
7 " 3.30
8 " 4.00

1 Bell 4.30
2 Bells 5.00
3 " 5.30
4 " 6.00
5 " 6.30
6 " 7.00
7 " 7.30
8 " 8.00

1 Bell 8.30
2 Bells 9.00
3 " 9.30
4 " 10.00
5 " 10.30
6 " 11.00
7 " 11.30
8 " Noon

Time, P. M.

1 Bell 12.30
2 Bells 1.00
3 " 1.30
4 " 2.00
5 " 2.30
6 " 3.00
7 " 3.30
8 " 4.00

1 Bell 4.30
2 Bells 5.00
3 " 5.30
4 " 6.00
1 Bell 6.30
2 Bells 7.00
3 " 7.30
4 " 8.00

1 Bell 8.30
2 Bells 9.00
3 " 9.30
4 " 10.00
5 " 10.30
6 " 11.00
7 " 11.30
8 " Midn't

The work on shipboard is done by watches, the crew being mustered into two divisions, known as the Starboard Watch and Port Watch. The day begins at noon, and is divided into: Afternoon Watch, noon to 4 P. M.; First Dog Watch, 4 P. M. to 6 P. M.; Second Dog Watch, 6 P. M. to 8 P. M.; First Watch, 8 P. M. to Midnight; Middle Watch, 12 A. M. to 4 A. M.; Morning Watch, 4 A. M. to 8 A. M.; Forenoon Watch, 8 A. M. to noon.

=Slavery.=--Slavery is of a prehistoric origin, but was commercialized by the Romans, some of whom had as many as 10,000 slaves. In 1834, the British Colonies emancipated nearly 800,000 slaves, and the Civil War wiped slavery out of the United States. It does not now exist in any civilized nation.

=Soap.=--Many of the soaps upon the market are impure and even dangerous, and never should be used. Most of the standard white soaps, however, are pure and may be used freely. Cheap laundry soaps are not only impure, but injure the hands; and many of the highly perfumed soaps are hardly better than laundry soaps. Thoroughly good soap can be purchased at retail for not exceeding ten cents a cake, and for this price one can obtain really all there is in soap. Medicated soaps, except the antiseptic soaps recommended by physicians, have little or no value. The reader should purchase only the standard grade of soaps, and should never pay more than 25 cents a cake for any soap, because any price in excess of 25 cents is for perfume or represents exorbitant profit. Every physician is familiar with soap quality, and will gladly give you a list of reliable soaps without charge. There is no such thing as a complexion soap, except that all good soaps aid the complexion. There is no soap safe to use that removes pimples, or keeps pimples or other skin troubles from coming. Soap has only one value, and that is, its ability to assist water in cleansing the skin, except the antiseptic soaps, which may prevent contagion and which should be used by all who enter the sick-room. Ninety-nine per cent. of the expensive soaps are no better, save for their perfume, than soap sold at five or ten cents a cake.

Solar System

The Solar System, of which the earth is a part, consists of eight planets and the sun, so far as has been discovered. Astronomers have located 465 asteroids, which are small bodies floating in space and with apparently established orbits. From time to time, astronomers claim to have discovered a new planet, but its existence is not as yet accepted. The following table gives interesting information:

Mean
Distance Sidereal Orbit, Mean
of Earth Period, Velocity, Diameter,
from Sun, Days Miles per Miles
Millions of Second
Miles

Sun ... .... ..... 866,400
Mercury 36.0 87.969 23 to 35 3,030
Venus 67.2 224.701 21.9 7,700
Earth 92.8 365.256 18.5 7,918
Mars 141.5 686.95 15.0 4,230
Jupiter 483.3 4332.58 8.1 86,500
Saturn 886.0 10759.22 6.0 71,000
Uranus 1781.9 30686.82 4.2 31,900
Neptune 2791.6 60181.11 3.4 34,800

Some Things Worth Knowing

The people of the earth speak 2,754 languages or dialects.

There are 640 acres in a square mile.

The ordinary flour barrel contains 196 pounds of flour.

What is known as a hand measure is 4 inches.

The sun is over 92,500,000 miles from the earth, and the nearest fixed star is 16,000,000,000 miles from the earth.

The stock yards in Chicago, which are the largest in the world, have 20 miles of streets, and the same number of miles of water troughs, with 50 miles of feeding troughs, and 75 miles of drainage. The yards will accommodate over 20,000 cattle, 20,000 sheep, and 120,000 hogs at one time. They cost over $10,000,000.

The average person inhales 2,600 gallons of air per day.

Songs of the Civil War

(1) Battle Cry of Freedom.--George F. Root. "Yes, we'll rally round the flag, boys."

(2) Battle Flag of the Republic.--O. W. Holmes. "Flag of the heroes who left us their glory."

(3) Battle Hymn of the Republic.--Julia Ward Howe. "Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord."

(4) The Blue and the Gray.--Francis M. Finch. "By the flow of the inland river."

(5) Brave Boys Are They.--Henry C. Work. "Brave boys are they, gone at their country's call."

(6) Dixie (Southern).--Albert Pike. "Southrons, hear your country call you."

(7) Dixie (Northern).--T. M. Cooley. "Away down South where grows the cotton."

(8) John Brown's Body. "John Brown's body lies a-mould'ring in the grave."

(9) Just Before the Battle, Mother.--George F. Root. "Just before the battle, mother, I am thinking most of you."

(10) Marching Through Georgia.--Henry C. Work. "Bring the good old bugle, boys; we'll sing another song."

(11) Maryland, My Maryland (Southern).--Joseph R. Randall. "The despot's heel is on thy shore, Maryland, my Maryland."

(12) Oh, Wrap the Flag Around Me, Boys.--R. Stewart Taylor.

(13) Tramp, Tramp, Tramp.--George F. Root. "In the prison cell I sit."

(14) When Johnny Comes Marching Home.--Louis Lambert.

(15) When This Cruel War Is Over.--Charles C. Sawyer. "Dearest love, do you remember?"

--Harper's "Book of Facts."

=Spectacles and Glasses.=--If you find it difficult to read, or your eyes become weak and tired, the chances are you need proper glasses. Don't attempt to fit them to yourself. Employ a first-class optician or oculist, the latter if the trouble appears to be serious.

Sporting, Speed, and Other Records

The following records are compiled from the latest and best authorities:

=Airship Records=: Highest altitude reached, 17,881 feet; longest non-stop flight, 635-5/8 miles in 13 hours, 22 minutes; longest time in the air, 16-1/2 hours.

=Automobile Records=: 1 mile, 25.40 s.; 2 miles, 51.28 s.; 5 miles, 2 m., 34 s.; 50 miles, 35m., 52-1/2 s.; 100 miles, 1h., 12 m., 41 1-5 s.; 300 miles, 3 h., 53 m., 33-1/2 s.; 500 miles, 6 h., 21 m., 6 3-10 s.

=Baseball=: Baseball became the National Game in 1885, although it was played to some extent as early as 1840. The first baseball club was known as the New York Knickerbockers, which was organized in 1845, and the first match game was played at Hoboken, N. J., in 1846. The first rules governing baseball were made in New York City, in 1857, and the National Baseball League was formed in New York City during the same year. The first champion team was that of New York, in 1858, but it was not until 1868 that a salaried team was in existence. The National League was formed in 1876, and the American League in 1881. The largest attendance at a baseball match was in New York, Oct. 17, 1911, at which time 38,281 people were present.

=Billiards=: Straight rail, 5 × 10 table, best run, 1,535 points, made by Maurice Vignaux in Paris; straight rail, 4-1/2 × 9 table, best run, 3,000 points, Jake Schaefer in San Francisco; 14-inch balk line, anchor in, best run, 566, Jake Schaefer in New York; 14-inch balk line, anchor barred, best run, 359, Frank Ives in Chicago; 18-inch balk line, best run, 200, Frank Ives in New York; 18-inch balk line, best average, 50, Frank Ives in New York; 18-inch balk line (no shot in), best run, 111, Jake Schaefer in Chicago; 18-inch balk line (no shot in), best average, 19 3-13, Frank Ives in Chicago; high run, 18.2 balk line, 1,009 single inning, W. W. Spink in Los Angeles.

=Bowling=: Individual three-game score, Thomas Hally, Detroit, 705.

=Endurance Records=: Relay Race, Young Men's Christian Association boys carried message from New York to Chicago; time, 118 h., 35 m.; distance, 1,200 miles. (Run suspended during Sunday, July 19.)

5,100 miles, go as you please, 51 miles per day for 100 days, track 44 laps to mile, George D. Noremac, New York.

4,000 quarter-miles in 4,000 periods of 10 minutes (walking a quarter-mile at the commencement of and within each consecutive 10 minutes), performed twice by William Gales, at Cardiff, and at London, England.

1,000 miles in 1,000 consecutive hours, walking 1 mile each hour, by Charles F. Morse, at Jackson, Mich., starting at 1 P. M., Jan. 11, 1897, and ending at 4 A. M., Feb. 22, 1897, track 39 laps to mile.

Greatest distance walked without a rest, 121 miles, 385 yds., by C. A. Harriman, California.

Walk from Atlantic to Pacific Ocean: John Ennis started with a plunge in the surf at Coney Island, N. Y., Monday, May 23, 1910, and arrived at the Cliff Hotel, San Francisco, August 24, 1910, and took a plunge in the Weston's time by 25 days. Ennis, like Weston, did not walk on Sundays.

=Hammer Throwing=: 8 lb. hammer, 210 ft., 3 in., W. L. Condon, Maryland; 10 lb. hammer, 140 ft., 2 in., W. L. Condon, Maryland.

=Hurdle Racing,--Amateur=: 40 yds., 2 ft., 6 in., = 5 sec., Forest Smithson, Indiana; F. Fletcher, Indiana; T. N. Richards, Indiana; 50 yds., 3 high hurdles (indoors), = 6 1-5 s., Forest Smithson, Portland, Ore.; 75 yds., low hurdles, 2 ft., 6 in. = 9 1-5 s., John J. Eller, New York.

=Jumping,--Amateur=: Standing, without weights, 11 ft., 4-7/8 in., Ray C. Ewry, St. Louis; running high jump, without weights, 6 ft., 7 in., George Horine, California.

=Jumping,--Professional=: Standing high jump, with weights, 6 ft., 5-1/2 in., J. Darby, England; running high jump, without weights, 6 ft., 1 in., M. F. Sweeney.

=Marathon Team Race=: 26 miles, 385 yds., 2 h., 2 m., 16 1-5 s., Hans Holmer and William Queal, New York.

=Motor Cycle Records=: 1 mile, 36 4-5 s.; 10 miles, 6 m., 21 4-5 s.; 100 miles, 1 h., 15 m., 24 2-5 s.

=Ocean Records.=: From Queenstown to New York, S. S. "Mauretania," 4 days, 10 hours, 41 minutes. The fastest day run was made by the same ship, 676 knots, or a little over 27 knots per hour.

=Pole Vaulting,--Amateur=: Pole vault for height, 13 ft., 2-1/4 in., Mark S. Wright, New York; 13 ft., 1 in., Robert A. Gardner, Philadelphia. For boys, 12 ft., 1/2 in., Roy Mercer, Philadelphia.

=Pole Vaulting,--Professional=: 11 ft., 7 in., M. H. Dickinson, England.

=Running Records,--Professional=: 20 yds., 2 1-5 s., R. P. Williams, New London, Conn.; 50 yds., 5 1-5 s., R. P. Williams, New London, Conn.; 100 yds., 9 1-5 s., R. P. Williams, New London, Conn.; 1,000 yds., 2 m. 17 s., W. Cummings, England; 1 mile, 4 m. 12-3/4 s., W. G. George, England; 100 miles, 13 h. 26 m. 30 s., Charles Rowell, New York.

=Running Records,--Amateur=: 20 yds., 2 4-5 s., E. B. Bloss, Roxbury, Mass.; 25 yds., 3 s., Jack Connolly, Boston; 35 yds., 4 s., Arthur Duffy, Baltimore; 40 yds., 4 2-5 s., (indoors), W. D. Eaton, Boston; Doc Thorney, Madison, Wis., 4 1-5 s.; 50 yds., 5 1-5 s., (indoors), Forline, St. Louis; 50 yds., 5 1-5 s., J. H. Maybury, Wisconsin University; 50 yds., on grass, 5 2-5 s., A. D. Duffey, N. Z.; 60 yds., on grass, 6 2-5 s., A. F. Duffey, Australia; 60 yds. indoors, 6 1-5 s., Charles E. Seitz, Washington; 100 yds, 9 3-5 s., A. F. Duffey, New; York.

=Running Distance,--Amateur=: 1 mile, 4 m., 15 2-5 s., John P. Jones, Cambridge, Mass.; 2 miles, 9 m., 9 3-5 s., Alfred Shrubb, Scotland; 3 miles, 14 m., 17 3-5 s., Alfred Shrubb, England; 4 miles, 19 m., 23 2-5 s., Alfred Shrubb, Scotland.

=Shot Putting,--Amateur=: Putting 8 lb. shot, 67 ft. 7 in., Ralph Rose, New York; putting 12 lb. shot, 57 ft. 3 in., Ralph Rose, New York; putting 20 lb. shot, 38 ft. 7-1/2 in., G. R. Gray, New York.

=Shot Putting,--Professional=: Putting 12 lb. shot, 50 ft. 1/2 in., J. D. McPherson; putting 20 lb. shot, 40 ft. 11-1/4 in., J. D. McPherson.

=Skating,--Amateur=: 50 yds., 5 2-5 s., Morris Wood, Pittsburgh; 100 yds., standing start, 8 3-5 s., J. S. Johnson, Minneapolis; 300 yds., 31 2-5 s., G. D. Phillips, New York; 1 mile, 2 m. 36 s., Johnny Neilson; 5 miles, 14 m. 24 s., O. Rudd, Minneapolis; 10 miles, 31 m. 11 1-5 s., J. S. Johnson, Montreal; 25 miles, 1 h. 31 m. 29 s.; 50 miles, 3 h. 15 m. 59 3-5 s.; 75 miles, 5 h. 19 m. 16 4-5 s.; 100 miles, 7 h. 11 m. 38 1-5 s.--all made by J. F. Donoghue, Stamford, Conn.

=Skating,--Professional=: 1/4 mile, against time; flying start, straightaway, 28-1/2 s., John S. Johnson, Minnesota; 1/2 mile, indoor track, 1 m., 16 4-5 s., W. Rankin, Cleveland; 1 mile, indoors, 2 m., 48-3/4 s., John Nilsson, Pittsburgh; 5 miles, 14 m., 47 1-5 s., John Nilsson, Montreal.

=Swimming=: 40 yards, 18 s. (exhibition), Dick Cavill, Portland, Ore.; 100 yds., 1 m., 1-1/2 s., J. Nuttall, Stalybridge, England; 150 yds., 1 m., 39 s., D. Billington, Swinton, England; 200 yds., 2 m., 18-1/2 s., D. Billington, in England; 300 yds., 3 m., 32 1-5 s., D. Billington, in England; 500 yds., 6 m., 6 s., D. Billington, in England; 1,000 yds., 12 m., 45 s., D. Billington, in England; 3/4 mile, 17 m., 36 2-5 s., David Billington, Sydney, N. S. W.; 1 mile, 26 m., 8 s., J. Nuttall, in England; 20-3/8 miles, 5 h., 51 m., Fred Cavill, River Thames, London; 34 miles, 9 h., 39 m., J. Wolfe, Herne Bay, England; 35 miles, 21 h., 45 m., Capt. Matthew Webb, Dover, England to Calais; 40 miles, 9 h., 57 m., Capt. Matthew Webb, with tide, River Thames, England; 74 miles, 84 h., Capt. Webb (restricted to 14 hours a day), Lambeth Baths, England. T. W. Burgess swam English channel, Dover to Cape Grisnez, in 22 h., 35 m.

=Swimming (Women)=: Longest time under water, 4 m., 45-1/2 s., Miss E. Wallenda, England; at Barnley Baths, Scotland, Miss Ethel Mackay swam 200 yds. in 2 m., 57 1-5 s.; 50 yds., 31 s., by Miss Fanny Durack, New Zealand; 80 yds., 56-1/2 s., by Miss Elba Whittaker, Milwaukee, Wis.; 100 yds., 1 m., 6 s., by Miss Fanny Durack, New Zealand; 100 yds., back stroke, 1 m., 26 s., Miss Elba Whittaker, Milwaukee; 200 yds., 2 m., 51 s., Miss Vera Neave, London; 300 yds., 4 m., 31 1-5 s., Miss Vera Neave, London; Miss Daisy Curwen, in England; 1 mile, 32 m., 8 1-5 s., Miss Mabel Fletcher, in England; open water, 31 m., 41 4-5 s., Miss Vera Neave, Jersey, England.

=Trotting Records=: 1/4 mile, 28-3/4 seconds,--Lou Dillon, Brighton Beach, N. Y., Aug. 17, 1903; 1/2 mile, 58-3/4 s.,--Lou Dillon, Cleveland, O., Sept. 17, 1904; 1 mile, 1 m., 58 s.,--Uhlan (with wind shield) Lexington, Ky., Oct. 8, 1912; 2 miles, 4 m., 15-1/4 s.,--The Harvester, Lexington, Ky.; Oct. 13, 1910; 3 miles, 6 m., 55-1/2 s.,--Nightingale, 8 yrs. old, Nashville, Tenn., Oct. 20, 1893; 4 miles, 9 m., 42 s.,--Baron Rogers, Moscow, Russia, 1899; 5 miles, 12 m., 24 s.,--Zambra, 1902; 10 miles, 26 m., 15 s.,--Pascal, New York, Nov. 2, 1893; 20 miles, 58 m., 25 s.,--Captain McGowan, Boston, Oct. 31, 1865; 50 miles, 3 h., 55 m., 40-1/2 s.,--Ariel, brown mare, May 5, 1846, Albany, N. Y. The fastest mare made 1 mile in 1 m., 58-1/2 s.,; the fastest gelding, a mile in 1 m., 58 s.; the fastest stallion, 1 mile in 2 m., 1 s.

=Walking Records,--Amateur=: 75 yds., 11 4-5 seconds, Harry Fitzpatrick, New Orleans; 1/4 mile, 1 m., 22 1-5 s.; 1/2 mile, 3 m., F. H. Creamer, New Zealand; 1 mile, 6 m., 22 4-5 s., W. Murray, Australia.

=Walking Records,--Professional=: 1/4 mile, 1 m., 26 s., 1/2 mile, 3 m., 1/2 s.; 1 mile, 6 m., 22-1/2 s., M. H. Donovan, Westport, N. Y.; 2 miles, 13 m., 14 s., H. W. Raby, in England; 5 miles, 35 m., 10 s., J. W. Raby, in England; 10 miles, 1 h., 14 m., 45 s., J. W. Raby, in England; 25 miles, 3 h., 35 m., 14 s., W. Franks, in England; 100 miles, 18 h., 4 m., W. A. Hoagland, in New York.

Standard Time

Until 1883, each city or district maintained its own time, usually accepting what is known as True Time. This condition caused complications. For example: Many railroad-station clocks either gave two times, or else there were separate clocks for each time, some of the trains leaving the station on what was know as New York time, while others left on local time. Banks and business houses closed on either of the times. There was no standard and no agreement.

In 1883, Standard Time was established.

The First Section was known as the Eastern, and covered all territory between the Atlantic Coast and a line drawn from Detroit, Michigan, to Charleston, South Carolina.

The Central Section included everything between the Detroit-Charleston line, and a line drawn from Bismarck, North Dakota, to the mouth of the Rio Grande River.

The Third Section, known as "Mountain Time," included the territory between the Bismarck-Rio Grande line and the western borders of Idaho, Utah, and Arizona.

The Pacific Time Section embraced everything west of the Mountain Time line, up to and including the Pacific coast.

There is a difference of just one hour between the sections. When it is 12 o'clock at Boston, Mass., or at New York City, it is 11 o'clock at Chicago, and at San Francisco 9 o'clock.

The changing from so-called Local or True Time to Standard Time required clocks at Boston to be set back 16 minutes; New York clocks to be set back 4 minutes; Detroit clocks to be set back 28 minutes; St. Louis clocks to be moved ahead one minute; and San Francisco clocks to be set ahead ten minutes.

Standard Time has been accepted by every State and by practically every city, although a very few cities and towns unprogressively hold to the former or True Time. The Canadian Pacific Railroad, which has the longest mileage of any railroad in the world, is run on what is known as the 24-Hour Time; that is, the faces of its clocks, instead of bearing the figures 1 to 12, run from 1 to 24 inclusive. The time-tables are rather confusing, as trains are billed to arrive and depart at 13:10, 16:14, 23:30, etc. This system appears to have only one advantage,--that it eliminates the use of A. M. and P. M. It is possible that it will be accepted elsewhere, and even generally, but not for the present.