Chapter M: S.--Master of Science (4)

=Star Chamber.=--A tribunal, made up of a committee of the King's Privy Council, instituted or revived in 1486. It was supposed to have almost unlimited powers and to be exempt from any rules or law. It had the right to inflict any form of punishment except death. The term is now applied to assemblies or committees or others who conduct their investigations and decide upon questions in secret.

Stars, Their Number

The number of visible stars is as follows:

19 stars of the first magnitude
59 " " " second "
182 " " " third "
530 " " " fourth "
1,600 " " " fifth "
4,800 " " " sixth "
13,000 " " " seventh "
40,000 " " " eighth "
100,000 " " " ninth "
400,000 " " " tenth "
1,000,000 " " " eleventh "
3,000,000 " " " twelfth "
10,000,000 " " " thirteenth "
30,000,000 " " " fourteenth "
56,000,000 " " " fifteenth "
------------
100,560,190

=Star-Spangled Banner.=--The national song of the United States. Composed by Francis Scott Key on the night of September 13, 1814. "The cartel-ship _Minden_ was anchored in sight of Fort McHenry, and from her deck Key saw, during the night of 13 Sept., 1814, the bombardment of that fortress. It was during the excitement of this attack, and while pacing the deck of the _Minden_ with intense anxiety between midnight and dawn, that Key composed the song. It was first written on the back of a letter, and after his return to Baltimore copied out in full."--Harper's "Book of Facts."

Statistics of Population--United States, by States

POPULATION OF CONTINENTAL UNITED STATES, BY DIVISIONS AND STATES, 1900 AND 1910, AND RANK IN POPULATION

Rank in
Geographic Division and State Population Population

1910 1900 1910 1900

_Continental United States_ 91,972,266 75,994,575 .... ....

GEOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS:
New England 6,552,681 5,592,017 VII VII
Middle Atlantic 19,315,892 15,454,678 I II
East North Central 18,250,621 15,985,581 II I
West North Central 11,637,921 10,347,423 IV IV
South Atlantic 12,194,895 10,443,480 III III
East South Central 8,409,901 7,547,757 VI V
West South Central 8,784,534 6,532,290 V VI
Mountain 2,633,517 1,674,657 IX IX
Pacific 4,192,304 2,416,692 VIII VIII
NEW ENGLAND:
Maine 742,371 694,466 34 31
New Hampshire 430,572 411,588 39 37
Vermont 355,956 343,641 42 39
Massachusetts 3,366,416 2,805,346 6 7
Rhode Island 542,610 428,556 38 35
Connecticut 1,114,756 908,420 31 29
MIDDLE ATLANTIC:
New York 9,113,614 7,268,894 1 1
New Jersey 2,537,167 1,883,669 11 16
Pennsylvania 7,665,111 6,302,115 2 2
EAST NORTH CENTRAL:
Ohio 4,767,121 4,157,545 4 4
Indiana 2,700,876 2,516,462 9 8
Illinois 5,638,591 4,821,550 3 3
Michigan 2,810,173 2,420,982 8 9
Wisconsin 2,333,860 2,069,042 13 13
WEST NORTH CENTRAL:
Minnesota 2,075,708 1,751,394 19 19
Iowa 2,224,771 2,231,853 15 10
Missouri 3,293,335 3,106,665 7 5
North Dakota 577,056 319,146 37 40
South Dakota 583,888 401,570 36 38
Nebraska 1,192,214 1,066,300 29 27
Kansas 1,690,949 1,470,495 22 22
SOUTH ATLANTIC:
Delaware 202,322 184,735 47 45
Maryland 1,295,346 1,188,044 27 26
District of Columbia 331,069 278,718 43 41
Virginia 2,061,612 1,854,184 20 17
West Virginia 1,221,119 958,800 28 28
North Carolina 2,206,287 1,893,810 16 15
South Carolina 1,515,400 1,340,316 26 24
Georgia 2,609,121 2,216,331 10 11
Florida 752,619 528,542 33 33
EAST SOUTH CENTRAL:
Kentucky 2,289,905 2,147,174 14 12
Tennessee 2,184,789 2,020,616 17 14
Alabama 2,138,093 1,828,697 18 18
Mississippi 1,797,114 1,551,270 21 20
WEST SOUTH CENTRAL:
Arkansas 1,574,449 1,311,564 25 25
Louisiana 1,656,388 1,381,625 24 23
Oklahoma 1,657,155 790,391 23 30
Texas 3,896,542 3,048,710 5 6
MOUNTAIN:
Montana 376,053 243,329 40 43
Idaho 325,594 161,772 45 46
Wyoming 145,965 92,531 48 48
Colorado 799,024 539,700 32 32
New Mexico 327,301 195,310 44 44
Arizona 204,354 122,931 46 47
Utah 373,351 276,749 41 42
Nevada 81,875 42,335 49 49
PACIFIC:
Washington 1,141,990 518,103 30 34
Oregon 672,765 413,536 35 36
California 2,377,549 1,485,053 12 21

Stature and Weights

There have appeared in public print, several tables, which, the compilers claim, are based upon Greek and other measurements. It is probable that few of these tables are authentic, and many of them are, undoubtedly, incorrect. The following table is compiled by Jay W. Seaver, M. D., for 20 years professor at Yale University, and is as nearly correct as possibility would admit. Dr. Seaver, however, does not claim absolute correctness. The second and third tables given are used quite generally in civil service examinations by local, state, and national governments, and apply largely to those seeking positions on the police force or the fire department

Height, Males--Weight, Females--Weight,
Feet Fat Normal Fat Normal

5 136 112 122 102
5.1 141 116 128 106
5.2 146 120 134 109
5.3 152 125 140 113
5.4 160 130 145 117
5.5 167 135 151 121
5.6 175 138 154 125
5.7 182 140 157 130
5.8 189 143 160 135
5.9 196 150 169 140
5.1O 203 155 173 145
5.11 210 160 179 150
6 216 165 185 155
6.1 221 170 187 160
6.2 226 175 196 166
6.3 231 180 205 171

Minimum circumference of the Chest tolerable in applicants.

Circumference Circumference
Height of Chest Height of Chest
Feet Inches Inches Feet Inches Inches
5 6 32-1/2 5 11 35-1/2
5 7 33 6 .. 36
5 7-1/2 33-1/2 6 1 36-1/2
5 8 34 6 2 37
5 9 34-1/2 6 3 37-1/4
5 10 35 6 4 38

The stature shall not be below 5 ft. 6 in., nor the weight below that marked as its minimum accompaniment in the subjoined table.

Height Min. Average Max. Weight
Feet Inches Pounds Pounds Pounds

5 6 136 143 180
5 7 138 146 187
5 8 140 148 195
5 9 145 155 202
5 10 150 160 210
5 11 155 165 217
6 .. 160 170 225
6 1 165 175 233
6 2 170 180 240
6 3 175 185 248

=Steam Engine.=--The principle of the steam engine is very simple. Stripped of all technicality, it may be described as follows: Take a can with a height somewhat longer than its width, and close up both ends. Make a hole in the center of one of the ends large enough for the insertion of a rod about the diameter of a small poker. Fasten one end of this rod to the center of a disc which will fit closely into the can. Insert this disc in the can with the poker passing through the hole. The whole apparatus will be similar to that of a churn. Bore two holes in the sides of the can, at top and bottom. Allow steam to pass into the can through the first hole, which will force the disc to the other end of the can, and draw the poker with it. Then, introduce steam through the other hole. This will drive the disc to the other end of the can, and at the same time the steam entering the first hole will pass out. This gives a motion to the poker rod, which continues so long as steam is forced in and out. The rod, is, of course, connected with a crank which works on a shaft, and from this shaft power is transmitted. The steam is let into the cylinder automatically. A fly wheel is maintained where there is not more than one cylinder, and even where there is more than one, so as to create momentum, which carries the crank beyond its dead center. The modern steam engine makes from 100 to even 1,000 revolutions a minute. Its power is measured by its capacity to equal that of one or several horses, and is known as horse-power. Steam engines are made with a capacity of only a small fraction of horse-power, and up to several thousand. But usually, where great power is required, more than one cylinder is used, all of them working upon the same shaft The so-called turbine steam engine is similar to the ordinary turbine water wheel, except that steam, instead of water, is forced against it. See "Turbines."

=Strikes.=--The strike is an agreement upon the part of workmen to refuse to work until their demands are accepted. The first strike in the United States took place in New York City, in 1803, and was confined to sailors. In 1888, there were 697 strikes, involving over 210,000 employees. In 1886, the number of strikes increased 52 per cent., and in 1888 the increase was 22 per cent. In the early days nearly half of the strikes were in Pennsylvania. The great coal strike of 1902 was probably the most disastrous and largest strike on record. It involved about 150,000 men, with a loss of wages of nearly $40,000,000.

=Sub Rosa.=--The term "under the rose" implies secrecy. It had its origin B. C. 477, when Pausanias, commander of the fleet of Spartans and Athenians, was intriguing with Xerxes for the subjugation of Greece to Persia and for the hand of the king's daughter in marriage. The business was transacted in the "Brazen House," the roof of which was a garden making a bower of roses. Hence the term Sub Rosa.

=Sugar Industry.=--The United States consumes each year nearly 3,500,000 tons of sugar, or about 80 pounds per capita.

=Sunday Schools.=--The Sunday Schools of the United States have a membership of about 15,500,000, including teachers. The Sunday School membership of England and Wales is over 7,000,000. Connected with the Sunday Schools of the world are about 2,650,000 teachers and 26,500,000 scholars.

=Talking Machines.=--The talking machine, known by several names, including the phonograph, was originally invented by Edison. Unscientifically speaking, it consists of a disc similar to that used in the telephone, with a needle or point attached to the center of the underside of it. This needle or point fits into circular or cylindrical grooves, which are covered with tin foil or other malleable substance.

The vibrations of the voice or of music, which reach the disc, cause this needle or point to rise or fall, producing impressions upon the tin foil or other substance. After the record has been made, duplicates are produced in a substance largely made of rubber, which is placed on a rotary disc or cylinder that is turned automatically, the needle or point attached to the disc working into the grooves and rising with or following the impressions, which cause the plate or disc to vibrate. The process is wholly mechanical, and electricity is not used.

=Tariff.=--This word, meaning a schedule of duties on merchandise, imported or exported, is said to come from Tarifa, a town in Southern Spain, on the Mediterranean Sea, where duties were once levied by the Moors on all ships passing in or out of the Straits of Gibraltar.

=Telegraph.=--The conception of the telegraph came to Professor Morse, in 1832, while he was making a voyage from Europe to America, and he at once began his experiments, which resulted in what may be considered one of the two greatest inventions or discoveries. After waiting about eight years, Congress reluctantly appropriated a sum sufficient to build a telegraph line between Washington and Baltimore. The original conception of telegraphy belongs wholly to Professor Morse, but since its invention other scientists have invented improvements, including an apparatus which allows the sending of two messages each way, or four messages in all, over the same wire at the same time. The telegraphic code or alphabet, originally invented by Morse, remains practically intact. It consists of dots and dashes, and may be learned in a few hours, although expertness requires a year or more of practice. Unscientifically speaking, the telegraphic apparatus is extremely simple: it consists primarily of a piece of soft iron around which is wound several strands of insulated wire. During the time that electricity is passing through this wire, the soft iron becomes a magnet, but returns to its nonmagnetic character when electricity is not passing around it. A battery is used for the generating of electricity. The operator turns electricity into the wire by pressing a key. When the key is down, the electricity passes around the piece of soft iron and makes of it a magnet, which will draw iron or steel to it, the same as does any ordinary permanent magnet. Just above the end of the soft iron is placed a piece of metal, and as the key is pressed letting in the electricity, the iron (then a magnet) draws this metal to it, producing a slight sound or click. This piece of iron is held by a spring, and springs back into place when electricity is let out of the insulated wire surrounding the soft iron. If a message is to be sent a long distance, a relay is used so as to turn into the wire additional currents of electricity, because electricity loses some of its strength if carried over a very long wire, and a relay adds new or fresh currents from separate batteries. In this way, a message can be sent continuously for several thousand miles, which would be impossible without the use of relays. The process of sending several messages at the same time over the same wire is somewhat complicated. The result is obtained by using currents of electricity of different intensity, the currents not interfering with each other. The ocean cables are described under another heading.

=Telephone.=--The telephone is supposed to have been invented by Professor A. G. Bell, in 1875, but scientists recognize the probable invention of it, largely in theory, by the eminent scientists Dolbear, Gray, Edison, and possibly others. It is exceedingly difficult to describe, other than scientifically, the working of the telephone; and it cannot be done perfectly until electricity is fully understood. We know the result, but are not able to locate all of the causes. The original telephone consisted of a bar of magnetized steel of about the circumference of an ordinary poker, a few inches in length, around which was wound insulated wire. At one end of the magnet, and close to it, was placed a metallic disc about twice the circumference of a silver dollar and of the thickness of thin tin. Originally the same instrument was used both for sending and for receiving. Any sound, including the human voice, brought in direct contact with the disc, caused it to vibrate, and for some unknown reason these vibrations were transmitted through the magnet, and by the wires carried to another similar instrument. The sounds and voice were carried a short distance without the use of a battery, and the early telephones had ground circuits; that is, there was only one wire between the stations, the other wire being grounded by being attached to gas or other pipes, the electricity making half the circuit through the earth. Later on a battery was used, which increased the sending distances, but the ground wire remained for some time. The present telephone consists of the original telephone as a receiver, but with a transmitter into which the sender speaks his words. The mechanism of the transmitter is complicated and cannot be described except scientifically. Its use allows one to talk long distances, even to the extent of 2,000 miles. Non-technically speaking, then, the telephone consists of a magnet, insulated wire, and a disc, the vibration upon the disc being transmitted over the wire from the sending to the receiving station, electricity being used for conveying the vibrations or sound.

Eight billion, four hundred thousand and twenty-seven million conversations were held in this country last year over the wires of the American Telephone and Telegraph Co., according to its annual report. The daily average was 26,310,000. The company now has telephone stations in 70,000 cities, towns, and hamlets, which is 5,000 more than the number of postoffices in the country, and 10,000 more than the number of railroad stations. Altogether there were 7,456,074 telephone stations of the company at the end of 1912.

=Ten Great Religions.=--James Freeman Clarke, in his book "Ten Great Religions," gives the following as the ten most important faiths of ancient and modern times:

(1) Confucianism.
(2) Brahmanism.
(3) Buddhism.
(4) Zoroastrianism.
(5) Religion of Egypt.
(6) Religion of Greece and Rome.
(7) Teutonic and Scandinavian Religion.
(8) Judaism.
(9) Christianity.
(10) Islâm.

=Théâtre Français.=--The most famous theatre in Paris, and, perhaps, in the world. It is situated in the Place du Palais Royal, and is the home of the Comédie Française. In 1900 it was destroyed by fire, but immediately rebuilt. The original building was erected in 1782, but was later much altered.

=Thunder.=--The sound of thunder is produced by the sudden rush of the air into the vacuum caused by the rapid passage of lightning through the air.

=Ticket-of-Leave.=--The English Government in 1854 issued a permit which allowed a convict his liberty before the expiration of his term. It was necessary for him to report to the police at stated times, and, if he committed any crime, his ticket-of-leave was recalled. The ticket-of-leave is similar to probation granted in the United States.

=Time Difference.=--When it is 12 o'clock noon in New York City, it is 5:13 in Antwerp; about 5:49 in Berlin; about 5:13 in Brussels; about 1:02 in Buenos Ayres; about 10:49 in Calcutta; about 6:53 in Constantinople; about 4:30 in Dublin; about 4:34 in Liverpool; about 4:56 in London; about 5:05 in Paris; about 5:46 in Rome; about 6:57 in St. Petersburg. When it is 12 o'clock noon in New York City, it is 33-1/2 minutes earlier in Havana; about 11 hours and 28 minutes earlier in Hong Kong; about 9 hours and 24 minutes earlier in Melbourne; about 9 hours and 45-1/2 minutes earlier in Yokohama.

=Tobacco Industry.=--The United States grows about 905,000,000 pounds of tobacco a year, and over a million acres are used for growing tobacco. The value of the tobacco grown each year is about $85,000,000.

=To Estimate the Weight of Hay.=--Find the length, breadth, and depth of the hay, in feet, and multiply these three dimensions together; if the hay is on the wagon or newly stored, divide the product by 540; but if it is well settled in the mow or stack, divide by 512. If the hay is baled, 270 cubic feet will weigh a ton. The number of cubic feet in a circular stack is found by multiplying the average circumference in yards by itself and this product by four times the height of the stack in yards; then point off the two right-hand figures and multiply the result by 27.

=To Find Length of Day or Night.=--At any time of the year add 12 hours to the time of the sun's setting, and from the sum subtract the time of rising for the length of the day. Subtract the time of setting from 12 hours, and to the remainder add the time of rising next morning for the length of the night. These rules are equally true for apparent time.

=To Measure Corn in the Crib.=--Find the length, breadth, and depth of the corn, in feet, and multiply these three dimensions together; this product multiplied by .63 will give the number of heaped bushels in the ear. Sometimes one and one-half bushels of ears make a bushel of shelled corn, and sometimes it requires two bushels, the amount required depending upon the size of the cob, shape of the ear, etc.

=Tom Thumb.=--Tom Thumb was probably the most famous dwarf in the world, not because of the absence of others of the same height, or less, but because he was exploited by the late P. T. Barnum. Tom Thumb, whose real name was Charles S. Stratton, was born in 1838, and died in 1883. In 1842 he was two feet in height and weighed sixteen pounds. In 1863 his height increased to thirty-one inches, and later to forty inches.

=To Produce Different Colors.=--The color printed in _italics_ may be made by mixing the other two colors. _Purple_, red with light blue. _Brown_, red with black. _Rose_, lake with white. _Drab_, umber with white. _Chestnut_, white with brown. _Chocolate_, yellow with brown. _Flesh Color_, carmine with straw. _Pearl_, blue with lead color. _Pink_, carmine with white. _Silver Gray_, lamp black with indigo. _Lead Color_, lamp black with white. _Bright Green_, Paris green with white. _Buff_, yellow ochre with white. _French White_, white tinted with purple. _Dark Green_, black with chrome green. _Brilliant Green_, emerald green with white. _Pea Green_, chrome green with white. _Orange_, vermillion with chrome yellow. _Straw Color_, chrome yellow with white lead. _Cream Color_, white tinted with red and yellow. _Ashes of Roses_, white with tints of black and purple. _French Gray_, white tinted with black and purple. _Olive_, chrome yellow, blue, and black with red.

=Trade Unions.=--The trade union, although supposed to be of modern origin, was established as early as 1548. Mythical history which, of course, cannot be authenticated, indicates the possibility of an organization of working men at the time of the building of Solomon's temple. During the last several years, trade unionism has grown to enormous proportions, and practically every vocation has its union or organization. The right to organize is self-evident, so long as it does not restrain trade or interfere with personal rights. The employee and employer certainly have legal and moral rights to do as they please, provided they do not interfere with legal or moral law, and do not use coercion. Moral influence, however, cannot be criticised. The maintenance of a well-organized labor union is to the advantage of both capital and labor, and should be encouraged. Naturally, the binding together of laborers or workmen, and that of capital, causes some abuses, for humanity, as it runs, is not always fair; but one should not criticise either side without criticising the other. Both have their advantages and disadvantages, both are fair and unfair. As civilization progresses, the mistakes and abuses will be corrected, and organized labor and capital will work in harmony.

=Trusts.=--A trust is an association of capitalists, organized for the purpose of controlling any one trade or trades. It is illegal and may be punished by imprisonment or fine. It is exceedingly difficult, however, to discover whether or not an organization is in actual restraint of trade, and to prosecute a combination. Undoubtedly trusts exist in America, and all over the world for that matter, and are illegal. Great effort is being made to disband them, but so far has very little real effect, for most of the trusts which are disorganized by law continue in some other form.

=Turbines.=--The turbine has largely taken the place of the water wheel, because it is more compact, produces greater energy, and is more powerful. It is, untechnically speaking, a box containing a series of fanlike blades set at an angle, so that water or steam brought against them will make them turn.

=Type.=--Movable metallic type was invented by Gutenberg, of Germany, about 1450. Before this time, all books and papers were either hand-written or printed from engraved wooden blocks. To-day there are over 50,000 faces and sizes of type. Type is divided into three great classes: (1) Roman or body type, which is used for the reading matter in newspapers, magazines, and books; (2) display type, which appears in headings, and is used for circulars and the like; and (3) ornamental type, which has a fancy face. The different sizes of type formerly bore arbitrary names, like Nonpareil, Pica, etc., but now all type is under the point system, Nonpareil being known as 6 Point and Pica as 12 Point. The reading matter in all large daily newspapers is set in 6 Point, but most books are printed from either 10, 11, or 12 Point. Twelve Point type has twice the depth of 6 Point type. Type to be set is placed in two cases, one known as upper case and the other as lower case, the former holding capitals and small capitals; the latter small letters and figures, both cases containing boxes for spaces and other characters. The compositor holds in his left hand what is known as a composing stick, or stick. It is made of metal, with a bottom and three sides, the left side being movable and adjustable. The compositor places one piece of type at a time in the stick, setting the type from left to right and upside down. He places metal spaces between each word. When a line is completed, he sets another, with or without a piece of thin metal between the lines, known as a lead. When the stick is full, he dumps his type into a galley, which is a receptacle made of wood or metal, from one to three feet long, framed at the bottom and at the sides, but open at the other end. The type is then locked up in a steel frame or chase, and is ready to be stereotyped, electrotyped, or to be printed from.

=United States Flag.=--On June 14, 1777, the United States Congress declared "that the flag of the thirteen United States be thirteen stripes, alternate red and white; that the Union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field, representing the new constellation." In 1794 Congress decreed that after May 1st, 1795, "The flag of the United States be fifteen stripes, alternate red and white, and that the Union be fifteen stars, white in a blue field." At that time the stars and stripes were of equal number, and it was the intention to add both a star and stripe with the addition of each new State. Subsequently, it was found that the addition of a stripe for each new State would produce a flag altogether too large. Accordingly, Congress, on April 4th, 1818, reduced the number of stripes to thirteen and made the number of stars twenty, that being the number of States at that time. It was further enacted that a new star should be added as each new State was admitted into the Union. By act of Congress, the flag has become a sacred emblem, and cannot be used for other than decorative or patriotic purposes, and cannot serve as a part of an advertisement or other announcement.

United States History in Brief

1492, August 3, Columbus sailed from Palos, Spain.

1492, October 12, Columbus discovered America.

1607, May 13, the English made first permanent settlement at Jamestown, Virginia.

1609, September 11, Henry Hudson, commanding the "Half Moon," sailed into New York Harbor.

1620, November 11, the "Mayflower," containing the Pilgrims, arrived at Provincetown, Massachusetts.

1620, December 22, the "Mayflower" landed at Plymouth Rock, Plymouth, Massachusetts.

1690, September 25, the first American newspaper was published at Boston, Massachusetts.

1732, February 22, George Washington, first President of the Republic, was born.

1743, April 13, Thomas Jefferson was born.

1765, March 22, Passage of the Stamp Act.

1767, March 15, Andrew Jackson born.

1770, March 5, massacre and riot in the streets of Boston, Massachusetts.

1773, December 16, the famous Boston Tea party was organized.

1775, April 18, the ride of Paul Revere, warning inhabitants of the coming battles of Lexington and Concord, Massachusetts.

1775, April 19, the battle of Lexington and Concord, Massachusetts.

1775, May 20, the first Declaration of Independence was signed at Mecklenburg, North Carolina.

1775, June 17, Battle of Bunker Hill, at Charlestown, Massachusetts.

1776, March 17, the British evacuated Boston.

1776, June 17, George Washington was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the American forces.

1776, July 4, The Declaration of Independence was formally signed at Philadelphia.

1776, August 27, Battle of Long Island.

1776, December 26, Battle of Trenton.

1781, October 19, Cornwallis surrendered his army, at Yorktown, Virginia.

1783, January 20, the United States and Great Britain agreed upon secession of hostilities.

1783, November 25, New York was evacuated by the British.

1789, April 30, George Washington was inaugurated first President of the United States.

1790, June 28, Washington, District of Columbia, was made the Capital of the United States.

1791, August 30, Issue of the first United States patent.

1792, April 2, United States Mint established at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

1793, September 18, Laying of the corner stone of the capitol, at Washington, District of Columbia.

1784, May 8, Congress established the Post-Office Department.

1796, September 17, President Washington issued his Farewell Address.

1799, December 14, death of President Washington.

1807, January 19, birth of General Robert E. Lee.

1807, August 11, first trial trip of a steamboat, by Robert Fulton, its inventor, on the Hudson River.

1809, February 12, birth of Abraham Lincoln.

1813, September 10, Perry's victory on Lake Erie.

1815, January 8, Battle of New Orleans.

1816, December 13, establishment, at Boston, Massachusetts, of the first Savings Bank in the United States.

1819, May 22, the first steam vessel to cross the Atlantic Ocean sailed from Atlanta, Georgia.

1844, May 27, first telegraph message sent by Professor Morse, the inventor of telegraphy.

1846, April 23, beginning of the Mexican War.

1847, February 22, Battle of Buena Vista.

1847, September 14, capture of the city of Mexico by the United States Army.

1851, August 27, the Yacht "America" won the international cup race, at Cowes, England.

1858, August 16, the Old World and the New World connected by telegraphic cable.

1859, October 18, capture of John Brown, at Harper's Ferry, Virginia.

1860, December 20, South Carolina seceded from the Union.

1861, April 12, Fort Sumter, South Carolina, bombarded.

1861, April 15, President Lincoln issued his first call for volunteers.

1861, July 21, Battle of Bull Run.

1862, March 9, Fight in Hampton Roads, Virginia, between the "Monitor" and the "Merrimac."

1862, April 28, New Orleans evacuated.

1862, June 6, capture of Memphis, Tennessee.

1862, September 15, General Stonewall Jackson captured Harper's Ferry.

1862, September 17, Battle of Antietam.

1863, January 1, President Lincoln issued the Proclamation of Emancipation.

1863, February 25, passage of the National Bank Act.

1863, July 1 to 3, Battle of Gettysburg.

1863, September 19, Battle of Chickmauga.

1864, March 6 to 8, Battle of the Wilderness.

1864, June 19, the Warship "Kearsarge" sank the "Alabama."

1864, September 2, General Sherman captured Atlanta, Georgia.

1865, April 9, General Lee surrendered at Appomattox.

1865, April 14, John Wilkes Booth assassinated President Lincoln.

1867, March 30, Treaty for the purchase of Alaska signed.

1869, May 10, completion of the Union Pacific Railroad.

1871, October 8, great fire at Chicago.

1881, July 2, President Garfield shot by Charles J. Guiteau.

1886, May 4, Haymarket riot at Chicago.

1889, May 31, great flood at Johnstown, Pennsylvania.

1893, February 14, the Hawaiian Islands annexed to the United States.

1897, June 14, Venezuela boundary line treaty ratified by Congress.

1898, February 15, United States Battleship "Maine" blown up in Havana Harbor.

1898, April 21, Severance of diplomatic relations between Spain and the United States.

1898, April 27, Matanzas, Cuba, fired upon by American warships.

1898, May 1, Admiral Dewey destroyed the Spanish fleet at Manila.

1898, May 6, United States fleet bombarded Santiago, Cuba.

1898, May 12, Admiral Sampson fired upon San Juan, Porto Rico.

1898, June 3, Hobson sank the Merrimac in the harbor of Santiago, that he might block the channel.

1898, June 22, first landing of the United States troops in Cuba.

1898, July 3, the Spanish fleet destroyed at Santiago.

1898, July 16, Santiago surrendered.

1898, August 13, Manila surrendered.

1898, November 28, end of the Spanish-American War.

1901, September 6, President McKinley killed by Leon Czolgolz.

1901, September 16, Hay-Pauncefote Canal Treaty ratified by Congress.

1902, July 4, Declaration of Peace with Philippine Islands, and amnesty granted to all insurgents.

1904, May 4, the United States took control of the Panama Canal.

=University Extension.=--A scheme for extending to people at large the advantages of a university education, by means of courses of lectures and classes in various important cities. The scheme originated at the University of Cambridge, England, in 1872, and was introduced into the United States in 1890.

=University Settlements.=--Homes established in the poorer parts of cities, where educated and cultured people may live and try to improve the lives of their neighbors. Lectures, studies, and various other devices are resorted to. The movement started in England in 1867, and appeared in New York in 1887, as a "Neighborhood Guild." University settlements are now found in all the chief cities of the United States.

=Utopia.=--An imaginary island, with an ideal commonwealth, the inhabitants of which enjoy perfect laws and institutions. It is described in Sir Thomas More's political romance, "De Optimo Reipublicae Statu, deque Nova Insula Utopia," published in Latin in 1516, and translated into English in 1551. His purpose was to describe his idea of social arrangements by which the people's most absolute happiness and improvement might be secured.

=Vaccination.=--Vaccination, a preventive of smallpox, was discovered by Dr. Edward Jenner of England. It consists of injecting into the blood a virus made from the sores or scabs of cows suffering from cowpox, or the virus may be taken from the sore coming from vaccination itself. Comparatively few people, properly vaccinated, can have the smallpox, and are largely exempt from any disease resembling it, except that which is known as varioloid, which is a mild form of smallpox. It is not known how long vaccination remains a preventive, but probably for seven years, when one should be vaccinated again. The prejudice against vaccination, which was very intense at its discovery, no longer exists except among a few. Practically every physician advocates it, and it is compulsory in some towns and cities. Deaths have occurred from it, but they are very infrequent.

=Vacuum.=--The perfect vacuum, which it is impossible to produce, is space without air or atmosphere. Vacuums are made by pumping all the air out of a receptacle or chamber. In a vacuum, everything falls at the same rapidity, as there is nothing to buoy it up, a feather descending as rapidly as lead shot.

=Vedas.=--Sacred writings of the Hindus, hymns, prayers, and liturgies, said to have been compiled by Vyasa about 1200 B. C. They are written in Sanskrit, and divided into four parts.

=Voodooism.=--A degraded form of religion prevalent among the negroes of Hayti and the Southern States of America. Supposed to be a relic of the religion of equatorial Africa.

=Watered Stock.=--It is said that the late Commodore Vanderbilt originated what is known as watered stock. Watered stock is capitalizing an industry at a figure in advance of its real value. For example: a railroad has tangible assets of $10,000,000, and an earning capacity sufficient to pay a 6 per cent. dividend on its capitalization; financial giants manipulate the stock and increase it to, say, $20,000,000, watering it to the extent of 100 per cent. In other words, the real value of the stock then is one-half of what it was in the first place. Stock watering has become epidemic, and is the cause of hundreds of thousands of financial failures. The stock waterers, however, as a rule, win, the public being the victims.

=Wealth of the Nations.=--The estimated wealth of the principal nations of the earth is given in billions: United States, 130; Great Britain and Ireland, 80; France, 65; Germany, 60-1/2; Russia, 40; Austria-Hungary, 25; Italy, 20; Belgium, 9; Spain, 5.4; Netherlands, 5; Portugal, 2.5; Switzerland, 2.4.

Weather Flags

The Weather Bureau maintained by the United States Department of Agriculture displays at its stations flags which indicate probable changes in the weather.

A white flag indicates clear or fair weather.

A blue flag, rain or snow.

A flag with the upper half white and the lower half blue, local rain or snow.

A black triangular flag indicates temperature.

A white flag with black square in center, a cold wave.

When the black triangular flag is placed above the white flag, the black flag or the white and blue flag, it indicates warmer weather; when below, colder.

When the black triangular flag is not displayed at all, the temperature is likely to remain stationary.

Flags are displayed by the Weather Bureau as storm warnings in the following manner:

Small Craft Warning: A red pennant indicates that moderately strong winds are expected.

Storm Warning: A red flag with a black center indicates that a storm of marked violence is expected.

The pennants displayed with the flags indicate the direction of the wind--white, westerly (from southwest to north); red, easterly (from northeast to south). The pennant above the flag indicates that the wind is expected to blow from the northerly quadrants; below, from the southerly quadrants.

By night a red light indicates easterly winds, and a white light below a red light, westerly winds.

Hurricane Warning: Two red flags with black centers, displayed one above the other, indicate the expected approach of a tropical hurricane, or one of those extremely severe and dangerous storms which occasionally move across the Lakes and Northern Atlantic coast.

No night small craft or hurricane warnings are displayed.

=Wedding Anniversaries.=--First, cotton; Second, paper; Third, leather; Fourth, fruit and flowers; Fifth, wooden; Sixth, sugar; Seventh, woolen; Eighth, India rubber; Ninth, willow; Tenth, tin; Eleventh, steel; Twelfth, silk and fine linen; Thirteenth, lace; Fourteenth, ivory; Fifteenth, crystal; Twentieth, china; Twenty-fifth, silver; Thirtieth, pearl; Fortieth, ruby; Fiftieth, golden; Seventy-fifth, diamond.

Weights and Measures

LONG MEASURE

12 inches 1 foot
3 feet 1 yard
2 yards 1 fathom
16-1/2 feet 1 rod
4 rods 1 chain
10 chains 1 furlong
8 furlongs 1 mile
3 miles 1 league

SQUARE MEASURE

9 square feet 1 square yard
30-1/4 square yards 1 square rod
40 square rods 1 rood
4 roods 1 acre
640 acres 1 square mile

An acre is 43,560 square feet.

DRY MEASURE

2 pints 1 quart
8 quarts 1 peck
4 pecks 1 bushel

LIQUID MEASURE

4 gills 1 pint
2 pints 1 quart
4 quarts 1 gallon

TROY WEIGHT

24 grains 1 pennyweight
20 pennyweights 1 ounce
12 ounces 1 pound

AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT

16 drams 1 ounce
16 ounces 1 pound
25 pounds 1 quarter
4 quarters 1 hundred
20 hundreds 1 ton

APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT

20 grains 1 scruple
3 scruples 1 dram
8 drams 1 ounce
12 ounces 1 pound

CUBIC MEASURE

1728 cubic inches 1 cubic foot
27 cubic feet 1 cubic yard
16 cubic feet 1 cord foot
8 cord feet 1 cord
128 cubic feet 1 cord

LAND MEASURE

7.92 inches 1 link
25 links 1 rod
4 rods 1 chain
80 chains 1 mile

CIRCULAR MEASURE

60 seconds 1 minute
60 minutes 1 degree
30 degrees 1 sign
60 degrees 1 sextant
90 degrees 1 quadrant
360 degrees 1 circle

METRIC SYSTEM

MEASURES OF WEIGHT

(Unit Gramme)

Oz. Lbs.
Grains Troy Avoir. Cwt.

Centigramme 0.15432 ..... ..... .....
Decigramme 1.54323 0.003 ..... .....
Gramme 15.43235 0.032 0.002 .....
Decagramme 154.32349 0.321 0.022 .....
Hectogramme 1543.23488 3.215 0.220 0.001
Kilogramme 15432.34880 32.150 2.204 0.019

MEASURES OF LENGTH

(Unit Metre)

Inches Feet Yards Miles

Millimetre 0.03937 0.003 0.001 .....
Centimetre 0.39371 0.032 0.010 .....
Decametre 393.70790 32.808 10.936 0.006
Metre 39.37079 3.280 1.093 .....
Decimetre 3.93708 0.328 0.109 .....
Hectometre 3937.07900 328.089 109.363 0.062
Kilometre 39370.79000 3280.899 1093.633 0.621

BOARD AND TIMBER MEASURE

BOARD MEASURE

In board measure boards are assumed to be one inch in thickness.

To compute the measure of surface in square feet--

When all dimensions are in feet, multiply the length by the breadth, and the product will give the surface required.

When either of the dimensions are in inches, multiply as above and divide by 12.

When all dimensions are in inches, multiply as before and divide product by 144.

TIMBER MEASURE

To compute the volume of round timber--

When all dimensions are in feet, multiply the length by the square of one-quarter of the main girt, and the product will give the measurement in cubic feet.

When length is given in feet and girt in inches, multiply as before and divide by 144.

When all the dimensions are in inches, multiply as before and divide by 1,728.

Sawed or hewed timber is measured by the cubic foot.

To compute the volume of square timber--

When all dimensions are in feet, multiply the product of the breadth by the depth by the length, and the product will give the volume in cubic feet.

When either of the dimensions are in inches, multiply as above and divide the product by 12.

When any two of the dimensions are in inches, multiply as before and divide the product by 144.

WHAT TO DO IN EMERGENCIES

Many books and pamphlets have been written advising the layman what to do in a case of emergency, and in the absence of a physician or surgeon.

Much of the information presented is altogether too technical, and is not likely to be understood by the public at large.

The author has attempted to cover, in a few pages, the fundamentals of first aid to the injured, and has carefully avoided technical and medicinal terms. No amount of information, no matter how carefully or plainly written, can take the place of the physician or surgeon. Self-doctoring and -dosing is, or should be, considered a crime, and no one is justified in attempting to relieve any one suffering from accident or any other ailment, if it is of possible seriousness, unless a good physician or surgeon cannot be procured.

First and always, keep your head, and keep cool. Don't get excited. Work rapidly, but deliberately. If the injury or trouble is at all serious, summon a surgeon or physician immediately. If you are alone with the sufferer, it may not be safe for you to leave him, but unless he is in immediate danger, it is better to call a competent physician, even though you have to absent yourself from him for a few moments. If the accident occurs in a crowd, solicit some one who looks trustworthy, and request him to telephone or otherwise communicate with a doctor.

If you know the cause of the accident or trouble inform the physician in advance, so that he may be better prepared to meet it and bring with him instruments and remedies.

The patient or sufferer should be placed in a comfortable position, a doctor or surgeon summoned, and in the interval the layman may follow the instructions presented here. If he does so, no harm will be done, and in many cases suffering will be relieved, and death or serious illness prevented. But the author again, and most emphatically, urges the layman to send for a physician or surgeon, and to follow the instructions or information given in this chapter only as preliminary to the arrival of the doctor or surgeon, unless the injury be of slight consequence.

If possible, remove the patient to a quiet place, where there is plenty of air, and where the temperature is normal.

If there are many people about, request them to keep away.

Place the injured person in a comfortable position, usually upon his back, and straighten out his legs and arms. If the head is injured, better lift it above the level of the body; but if it is not, allow the body to lie on a level.

If the patient is breathing hard, it may be well to lift him into a sitting position. Loosen his collar, waist-band, and clothing. If he faints, his head should be slightly lower than his feet. If an arm or leg is injured, lift it slightly and place it upon a cushion, pillow, or other support.

If the one injured is unconscious, watch him very carefully. If he is vomiting, or that tendency is apparent, turn him over on one side so that the discharge will run out easily and not go into the lungs.

If he is wounded, cut away the clothing covering the wound, but don't remove any more than is necessary. If he has been burned, pour lukewarm water, containing a little saleratus or bicarbonate of soda, over the clothing before you remove it. If he is bleeding severely, stop the bleeding before dressing the wound. After the wound is dressed there is nothing for the novice to do, except bring the patient to consciousness, if unconscious, and remove him to a place of safety and comfort.

If the accident or injury be serious, or the patient is unconscious, it is well to request more than one bystander to summon a physician, because the first one sent may fail, or the physician he telephones to or calls upon may be unavailable.

Use the telephone, if there is one at hand or nearby, and tell the physician what you think is the matter with the sufferer or what caused the accident, that he may be better prepared to bring with him the instruments necessary.

If you are alone with the patient, and cannot notify a physician or surgeon without leaving the patient, you must use your best judgment; but you should make every possible effort to reach a physician at the earliest possible moment. Remain with the patient long enough to place him in a comfortable position, and to stop the flow of blood, if bleeding; then make all haste to notify a physician or surgeon.

The author acknowledges his indebtedness to Johnson's First Aid Manual, published by Johnson & Johnson of New Brunswick, N. J., and to Jay W. Seaver, M. D., of New Haven, Conn., and recently of Yale University.

=Accidents.=--Convey the sufferer to a place of safety, and give him plenty of air. If a shock follows, follow instructions given for shock. Do not touch the wound with the bare hand. Wear absolutely clean gloves or wrap the fingers in clean cloth or gauze. Do not attempt to cleanse the wound. Summon a surgeon immediately.

=Apparent Death.=--Never assume that a person is dead because he appears to be. Summon a physician. A fairly good test of death is to hold the hand of the person apparently dead before a candle or other light, with the fingers stretched out, each touching the other. Gaze intently between the fingers, and if the person is alive, a red or pink color will undoubtedly be seen where the fingers touch each other. Another method is to take a cold piece of polished steel, like a razor blade or table knife, and hold before the mouth or nose of the person apparently dead. If moisture does not gather on it, it may be safe to assume that breathing has stopped; but these tests are not infallible.

=Bandaging.=--There are two kinds of bandages,--the roller bandage or the triangular or handkerchief bandage. They may be purchased at any drug store or be made on the spot in an emergency. The purchased bandages are made of gauze, or muslin, crinolin, elastic webbing, rubber, or other material. The roller bandages are absorbent, and are very thin and pliable. They should be placed next to the wound and hold the fluids. Muslin bandages are stronger than those made of gauze, and should be used for pressure and outside bandages. Bandages should be kept in a perfectly clean place, and always covered, either by being enclosed in a box or wrapped in paper. If an improvised bandage is used, care should be taken to use a clean cloth. The triangular bandage is made by cutting a piece of cloth about 36 inches square into two pieces diagonally. It can be purchased at a drug store, or any clean cloth can be used if it is of firm texture.

=Baths.=--Cold baths may be taken to reduce fever and in sunstroke and other cases when the temperature is high. It is well to have the temperature in the bath at 70° or 80° Fahrenheit, and to reduce the water until it reaches 60° or 65°. Tepid baths have a temperature of 80° or 90°, and warm baths are of a temperature from 90° to a little less than 100°. Hot baths may be used in case of shock, apparent drowning, depression, and similar troubles. The temperature of the water should vary from 98° to 110°. When the patient leaves the bath, he should be dried quickly and put to bed. Hot baths may produce fainting, and should be taken in the presence of an attendant. Do not guess at the temperature of the water; use a thermometer.

=Bleeding.=--Arterial blood, or blood coming from the arteries, is bright red, and is discharged in spurts or jets. Such bleeding is very dangerous, and unless a physician arrives almost immediately the patient is not likely to survive.

Venous blood, which comes from the veins, is of dark purple color and flows freely and steadily.

Capillary bleeding comes from injured small veins. It flows slowly, and such bleeding is dangerous only if it continues. Always summon a surgeon or physician, and put in a hurry call for him. Force the patient to lie down in a level position, preferably upon his back.

If the leg or arm is wounded, elevate it. Cut away the clothing quickly, so that it may be exposed. Press the bleeding places, but cover your finger with gauze or a clean handkerchief, or compress the part by using a strong cloth bandage.

If the bleeding comes from an artery, cover your finger with a few thicknesses of gauze or clean cloth, and press hard upon the wound and maintain the pressure, which may stop the bleeding. If the wound is large, crowd a lot of gauze into it, and push it in, then press on the flesh a little distance above the wound, that is, between the wound and the heart. This can be done by winding a bandage, a piece of rubber tubing, string, or rope, or a pair of suspenders may be used, above the wound.

If the arm or leg is crushed, do not press on the wound, but bring pressure to bear above it.

=Bleeding from the Veins.=--Lay a piece of gauze over the wound and bind it on with a firm bandage. Be very careful not to apply your naked fingers or hand to the wound unless you have washed them in some antiseptic, but even then it is better to cover your fingers with clean gauze or cloth. If the bleeding is very severe, apply cracked ice wrapped in gauze, and hard pressure below the wound. Varicose veins occasionally bleed. Elevate the arm or leg and bandage it very tightly, the bandage to be placed directly over the bleeding spot.

=Bleeding from Capillary Veins.=--As the blood oozes, and does not flow rapidly, expose the wound to the air for a short time, which will usually check it. The application of hot water is advisable, but warm water should not be used. Extremely cold water or cracked ice will stop some bleeding. If copious bleeding occurs around a tooth, it may be stopped by packing the place with plaster of Paris, or absorbent cotton may be used. In every case, keep the places warm. After the bleeding is stopped, give hot drinks, like hot tea, coffee, or milk, if much blood has been lost.

=Broken Bones.=--Do not attempt to set the break. Handle the patient carefully. Place him in a comfortable position and undress him, removing the clothing by cutting it to save time. If it is necessary to carry him a distance, improvise a splint made of wood or heavy pasteboard and fasten it around the broken part with bandages. Carry him to a physician or summon one at once, but let him lie quietly if a physician can reach him. It is well to have two splints, one on each side, to be held in place by the same bandages. If the arm is broken, bandage it and place it in a sling. In every case, summon a physician or carry the patient to one.

=Chilblains.=--Keep the feet warm and dry. Don't warm them at a fire or place them in hot water, but bathe them in cold water and rub with a dry towel. Apply turpentine, camphorated spirits, or oil of wintergreen.

Cleanliness

It is said that cleanliness is next to godliness. Good health is dependent upon the care of the body, and the body will not remain in a healthful state unless frequently bathed.

The fact that thousands of persons enjoy good health without even taking an infrequent bath, must not be used as an argument against regular bathing. These persons, if in health, live out of doors, and Nature seems to take care of them; but it is obvious that they would be healthier and stronger if they gave proper attention to bodily cleanliness.

The majority of city dwellers, and a large proportion of those living in the country, work indoors, and their health is dependent upon their personal cleanliness.

Opinions differ, and some hygienists do not consider the daily bath essential, but the majority of those who have studied the subject maintain that perfect health requires the daily bathing of the entire body.

Without the daily bath one does not begin his work refreshed or with exhilaration.

A scrub is not to be recommended more than once a week, but a bath should be taken daily, and the entire body rubbed with a dry towel, a bath towel to be preferred. Emersion in a tub of water is not necessary, although it is the best and easiest way of taking a bath, next to a shower bath. A sponge bath answers all purposes.

A cold plunge should not be taken without the advice of a physician. The shower bath is very refreshing. A hot bath is seldom advisable. It is better to have the water of a temperature not much higher than that of summer heat. A pure soap should be used, and care should be taken to rinse it from the body. The daily bath is the best preventive of colds. Comparatively few people who bathe daily suffer from more than transient colds.