Chapter VI: Pronouns

PERSONALS

(See Exercise XV, page 135)

=65.= There are the usual three personal pronouns, but in Portuguese the third person is generally used in place of the second in direct address, with the exceptions noted below. Strictly speaking there is no declension in Portuguese; the personal pronouns, however, retain, in all persons, so many traces of their Latin declensions that they have the appearance of being declined, and are so given by some grammarians. The objective forms vary according as they are used with or without prepositions.

+Subject Forms+
{ =eu= I
1st per. { =nós= we

2d per. { =tu= thou
{ =vós= you, ye

{ =elle=, =ella= he, she, it
3d per. { =elles=, =ellas= they
{ (_reflexive_)

+Objective Forms+
WITHOUT WITH
PREPOSITIONS PREPOSITIONS
{ =me= =mim= _or_ =me=, me
1st per. { =migo=
{ =nos= =nós=, =nosco= us

2d per. { =te= =ti= _or_ =te=, =tigo= thee
{ =vos= =vós=, =vosco= ye

{ =o=, =a=, =lo=, =la=,[32] =elle=, =ella= him, her,
{ =lhe= it
3d per. { =os=, =as=, =los=, =elles=, =ellas= them
{ =las=,[32] =lhes=
{ =se= =si= _or_ =se=, =sigo= themselves

_a._ =Lhe=, =lhes=, _to him_, _to her_, _to it_, _to them_ are always indirect or dative forms.

_b._ =O=, =a=, =lo=, =la=, =os=, =as=, =los=, and =las= are always direct objective or accusative forms.

_c._ Those used with prepositions admit of any preposition, except that when the preposition is =com=, _with_, the forms =migo=, =tigo=, =nosco=, =vosco=, and =sigo= only are used, as =commigo=, _with me_, =comtigo=, _with thee_, etc.

_d._ =Elle=, =ella=, etc., with the preposition =de=, _of_, are contracted to =delle=, =della=, etc.; with =em=, _in_, they are contracted to =nelle=, =nella=, etc.

=66.= =Use of the Third Person.=--In address, the third person is commonly used except to close friends, relatives, children, and domestics when =tu= may be employed. Persons may be addressed, according to circumstances, as =Vossa Excellencia=, _Your Excellency_, =Vossa Senhoria=, _Your lordship_, =Vossa mercê=, _Your mercy_, _your grace_, =Você=, a common abbreviation of =Vossa mercê=, but one to be used only in cases of extreme familiarity, or as =Senhor=, _Mr._, and =Senhora=, _madam_, or _Mrs._

_a._ Until one becomes familiar with the use of these terms the safest rule is to use =Senhor= and =Senhora=.

_b._ In writing, these words are abbreviated as indicated at § 147.

c. Ordinarily =eu=, _I_, is not used as in English, but is sometimes placed before or even after the verb for the sake of emphasis or clearness. The same is true of =tu=, _thou_, =elle=, _he_, =ella=, _she_, =nos=, _we_. =Para ti sonhava eu sonhos de gloria=, _for thee I dreamed dreams of glory_.

_d._ =Vos=, _you_, is only used in very formal discourses, and as a vocative in prayers, etc. It is not used colloquially as in English. (See § 66.) =Tu=, _thou_, is also used as a vocative.

+Reflexive Personal Pronouns+

=67.= =Reflexive.=--The reflexive forms of the personal pronouns are:

=me=, =a mim= me, to me =te=, =a ti= thee, to thee =se=, =a si= himself, to himself =nos=, =a nós= us, to us =vos=, =a vós= you, to you =se=, =a si= themselves, to themselves

+Third Person+

_Singular and Plural_

Direct object =se= himself, herself, itself, themselves.
Indirect object =si=, =se= to himself, herself, itself, or
themselves
=comsigo= with himself, herself, itself,
themselves

=68.= =Duplication.=--Duplication is common in classic Portuguese. By its use attention is redirected to an idea. =Que me importa a mim a gloria?= _In what does glory concern me?_ or _what is glory to me?_ =Aconteceu-me a mim=, _it happened to_ +ME+.

Such expressions do not admit of literal translations into English.

=69.= =Syntax of the Personal Pronouns.=[33]--The personal pronouns are used both as direct and indirect objects:

Direct: =elle me reprehendeu=, he reprehended me.

Indirect: =elle me deu o livro=, he gave me the book.

=70.= The same thing occurs with the other pronouns, except that in the third person the indirect object is expressed by =lhe=, while the direct is =o=, =a=, =os=, and =as=.

Direct: =reprehendeu-o=, he reprehended him.

Indirect: =deu-lhe o livro=, he gave him (_or_ her) the book.

=71.= The direct object is used after transitive verbs, the indirect after intransitives: =vi-o=, _I saw him_, =obedeci-lhe=, _I obeyed him_ (or _her_).

=72.= The pronouns =me=, =te=, =se=, =lhe=, =nos=, =vos=, and =o= are called _proclitic_, _mesoclitic_, or _enclitic_ according as they precede, are inserted within, or follow the verb.

_a._ They precede the verb (are proclitic):

1. In negative sentences: =não me fale=; =não o creio=.

2. In phrases depending upon =que=, =o qual=, =quem=, =cujo=: =quem o
chamou=; =a mulher que se ama=.

3. In certain popular expressions: =Deus me livre=; =o diabo te leve=.

4. When used with the conjunctions =que=, =porque=, and =pois que=,
the rule has many exceptions.

_b._ They are inserted in the verb between the stem and termination (are mesoclitic) in the future indicative and conditional: =dir-lhe-ei=, _I will tell him_, instead of =direi-lhe=; =dir-se-ia=, instead of =diria-se=, _it would be said_.

_c._ They always follow the verb (are enclitic) at the beginning of a phrase: =resta-me agradecer-lhe=; =diga-me=; =faça-me o favor=.

_d._ In the mesoclitics and enclitics the pronoun is separated from the verb by a hyphen or hyphens.

_e._ The enclitics do not affect the position of the accents of the verbs.

=73.= When two pronouns come before a verb, the subject precedes: =mandou que tu lhe entregasse o livro=, _he directed that you should give him the book_.

=74.= =Se= and =si= refer to the subject: =Pedro falou de si=, _Pedro spoke of himself_. =Você quer tudo para si=, _you want everything for yourself_. =Leve a espingarda comsigo=, _take the gun with you_. (For the use of the reflexive pronoun with verbs see § 126.)

=75.= =Comparison.=--After terms of comparison the nominative pronoun is used: =mais serio que eu=, _more serious than I_.

POSSESSIVES

(See Exercise XVI, page 136)

=76.= The possessive pronouns are inflected like adjectives and agree in gender and number with the object possessed. They all take =a= in the feminine and =s= in the plural.

+Possessive Pronouns+

_Singular_ _Plural_
MASCULINE FEMININE MASCULINE FEMININE ENGLISH
=meu= =minha= =meus= =minhas= my, mine
=teu= =tua= =teus= =tuas= thy, thine
{ his, her, hers
=seu= =sua= =seus= =suas= { its, their
{ theirs
=nosso= =nossa= =nossos= =nossas= our, ours
=vosso= =vossa= =vossos= =vossas= your, yours

=77.= Inasmuch as the third person is used in direct address, =seu=, =sua=, =seus=, and =suas= are generally used in place of =vosso=, etc., for _your_ and _yours_: =a casa é sua=, _the house is yours_.

=78.= Possession is also expressed by the use of a preposition as =a casa é d’elle=, _the house is his_; =a casa é d’elles=, _the house is theirs_.

=79.= The place of the possessive is before the noun as in English: =meu cavallo=, _my horse_.

=80.= In certain cases the possessive placed after the noun is equivalent to the personal pronoun with =de=: =noticias tuas= (=de ti=), _news of_ (_about_) _you_. Important distinctions of this kind are illustrated by the example: =saudades tuas= means =saudades= for you, while =tuas saudades= means the =saudades= you have for some one else.

=81.= Possessives are not used with parts of the body as in English: =cortou-me o braço=, _he cut my arm_, is used instead of =cortou meu braço=. In some cases the possessives are omitted as in English, as: =venho de casa= is used instead of =venho de minha casa=, _I come from home_; =vou para casa=, _I am going home_.

=82.= At the same time the bold use of the possessive is occasionally emphatic: =estou na minha casa=, _I am in my own house_; =deixa-me com a minha dôr=, _leave me with my grief_.

=83.= The possessive =seu=, =sua=, =seus=, =suas=, _his_, _her_ or _your_, is used also idiomatically and colloquially to express uncertain value or quantity: =tem seus vinte annos=, _he_ (or _she_) _is about twenty years old_.

The possessives may be replaced by various forms of the personal pronouns, and sometimes such expressions are considered more elegant.

(For the use of the article before possessives see § 16.)

DEMONSTRATIVES

(See Exercise XVII, page 137)

=84.= The demonstrative pronouns may be used either with or without their nouns. When used with them they precede the nouns, agreeing with them in gender and number.

_Singular_ _Plural_ MASCULINE FEMININE MASCULINE FEMININE ENGLISH =este= =esta= =estes= =estas= } { this =esse= =essa= =esses= =essas= } { these =aquelle= =aquella= =aquelles= =aquellas= that, those

=85.= =Isso=, =isto=, and =aquillo= are neutral forms of the demonstratives used to refer to a preceding idea, expression, or subject, and may be regarded as equivalents of =essa cousa= or =essas cousas=, =esta cousa=, =aquella cousa=. They have neither feminine nor plural forms, nor are they used to refer to persons or animals.

=86.= The difference between =este= and =esse= in their various forms is that the first is used to refer to that which is near the speaker, while the second refers to that which is near the person addressed.

=87.= The forms =o=, =a=, =os=, =as=, are identical with the definite articles in forms, sounds, and origins. They are used as the equivalents of =aquelle=, =aquella=, =aquelles=, =aquellas= when followed by a determining expression: =a provincia de Minho é a que tem mais vegetação entre as de Portugal=. Literally, _the province of Minho is that which has most vegetation among those of Portugal._

=88.= When these forms are preceded by the preposition =a= they combine with it forming =ao=, =aos=, =á=, and =ás= as do the definite articles. Preceded by =em= they similarly form =no=, =na=, =nos=, =nas=, and preceded by =per= they form =pelo=, =pela=, =pelos=, and =pelas=.

DETERMINATIVES

=89.= The determinatives have gender and number except tal which has no gender distinction:

_Singular_ _Plural_ MASCULINE FEMININE MASCULINE FEMININE ENGLISH =outro= =outra= =outros= =outras= other =mesmo= =mesma= =mesmos= =mesmas= same, self =tanto= =tanta= =tantos= =tantas= so many, as many =tal= =tal= =taes= =taes= such

=Outrem= is an invariable form meaning =outra pessoa= or =outras pessoas=.

=90.= The demonstrative pronouns =este=, =esse=, =aquelle=, etc., with =outro= form =est’outro=, =ess’outro=, =aquell’outro= with the corresponding feminine and plural forms.

=91.= =Um e outro= (literally _one and other_), means _both_.

=92.= =Mesmo= means _same_ and _self_ as here illustrated: =a mesma cousa=, _the same thing_; =o mesmo homem=, _the same man_. It is used in connection with the personal pronouns to mean _self_: =eu mesmo=, _I myself_, =ella mesma=, _she herself_; =elles mesmos=, _they themselves_, etc.

It is also used in such expressions as =é mesmo=, _that is true_, _it is just so_.

=93.= =Mesmissimo= is an augmentative form of =mesmo= meaning _precisely_ or _exactly the same_; =é a mesmissima cousa=, _it is precisely the same thing_.

=Um tal= means _such a one_. =Que tal?= _how is this?_ _what do you think of this?_ =Tal qual= means _just so_. =É tal qual=, _it is just so_, _it is just as you say_; =não ha tal=, _it is not true_, _it is no such thing_; =não ha tal lugar=, _there is no such place_.

=94.= =Fulano de tal= is a name used for any fictitious person; it is often equivalent to the English _John Doe_ or to _Mr. What’s-his-name_. =Fuão=, =Beltrano=, and =Sicrano= are similarly used.

INTERROGATIVES

(See Exercise XVIII, page 138)

=95.= The interrogatives are:

=que?= =o que?= what? =quem?= who? =qual?= which? =que homens?= what men? =quem é?= who is it? =qual d’elles?= which of them?

It is not considered elegant nowadays to begin an interrogation with =o que=. =Que tem?= _what have you?_ (Not _o que_ =tem=?)

RELATIVES

(See Exercise XIX, page 139)

=96.= Of the relative pronouns =quem= refers to persons only; the other forms refer to either persons or things. They are

=que=, who, what, that (_no gender_) =quem=, who, whom =qual=, _pl._ =quaes=, which =cujo=, _f._ =cuja=, _pl._ =cujos=, =cujas=, whose

=97.= =O que=, =o qual=, =a qual=, =os quaes=, and =as quaes=, literally, _the which_, mean _what_ or _that_. These latter forms are used when the antecedent needs to be made clear or prominent. =A gloria de Deus a qual não se póde escurecer=, _the glory of God which cannot_, etc. =O livro que está lendo=, _the book you are reading_; but =o livro da bibliotheca o qual está lendo=, _the book of the library (the) which you are reading_.

=98.= Where =quem= would follow =sem=, =o qual= is used instead for the sake of euphony: =sem o qual não deve=, _without which you should not_.

=99.= =Cujo= is equivalent to =do qual=, and is followed immediately by the object possessed: =O soldado cujo cavallo foi morto=, _the soldier whose horse was killed_.

_a._ =Cujo= without antecedent and the object possessed is a classic but archaic form of expression: =cujo é esta casa?= _whose house is this?_ Instead one would now say: =de quem é esta casa?= Literally, _of whom is this house?_

INDEFINITE

(See Exercise XX, page 140)

=100.= The indefinite pronouns may be classified as nouns or adjectives.

_a._ The _nouns_ are:

=al= (_invariable_), something else, the rest. (_But little used._) =alguem= (_invariable_), some one =algo=, something, anything =nada= (_invariable_), nothing =nenhum= (_f._ =nenhuma=, _pl._ =nenhuns=), neither =ninguem= (_invariable_), no one =qualquer=, _pl._ =quaes-quer=, either, whichever =quemquer=, anybody =tudo= (_invariable_), all =uns=, _f._ =umas=, some

_b._ =Algo= when used as a pronoun refers to things and means =alguma cousa=. It is sometimes used as an adverb meaning =algum tanto=: =elle está algo doente=, _he is somewhat ill_.

_c._ =Tudo= is a neutral form of =todo=. When followed by =que= it requires the definite article: =tudo o que elle disse=.

_d._ =Nenhum= may be used with an affirmative sense, and is equivalent to =qualquer= in the expression =mais que nenhum=, _more than any one_.

_e._ A negative is strengthened by doubling the negation: =não sei nada=, _I know nothing_; =não diz nada=, _he says nothing_.

_f._ The _adjectives_ are:

=algum= (_f._ =alguma=, _pl._ =alguns=, =algumas=), some, no

=cada= (=um=, =uma=); =cada qual= (_sing._ only), each, every

=certo= (_f._ =certa=, _pl._ =certos=, =-as=), certain

=muito= (_f._ =-a=, _pl._ =muitos=, =-as=), many

=outro= (_f._ =outra=, _pl._ =outros=, =-as=), other

=pouco= (_f._ =-a=, _pl._ =poucos=, =-as=), few, little

=*quanto= (_f._ =-a=, _pl._ =quantos=, =-as=), how much, how many, as
much as

=*tanto= (_f._ =-a=, _pl._ =tantos=, =-as=), so much

=todo= (_f._ =-a=, _pl._ =todos=, =-as=), all, every

_g._ =*Quanto= is used in correlation with =tanto= to mean _as much as_. =Faço tanto quanto qualquer outro=, _I do as much as any one else_. =Quanto pagou?= _how much did you pay?_ =Quantas vezes foi la?= _how often did you go there?_ =Quanto antes=, _as soon as possible_.

_h._ =Todo= with the article means _the whole_; without the article it means _every_; =toda cidade=, _every city_; =toda a cidade=, _all of the city_. It is sometimes used as an adverb but retains its gender for the sake of euphony: =ella está toda molhada=.

_i._ =Em quanto= means _while_. =Espera em quanto eu tiro uma vista=, _wait while I take a view_.

_j._ =Cada qual= and =cada um= have approximately the same meaning. =Cada qual= stands next to the verb, however, =cada um= does not: =cada um dos soldados andava= or =cada qual andava=, _each (of the soldiers) walked_.

=101.= When a proposition has a negative sense either =algum= may be placed after, or =nenhum= before the noun:

or { =homem algum poderá saber= } no man shall know
{ =nenhum homem poderá saber= }

The first sentence is more emphatic than the second.

=102.= Certain idiomatic expressions have meanings analogous to those of the indefinite pronouns:

=seja quem for= } =seja qual for= } be who it may

=fosse quem fosse= } =quem quer que fosse= } whoever it might be

=quem quer que seja= } =o que quer que é= } whoever it may be

_a._ =De= and =de que= are often used in the sense of _something_; =tenho de que comer e de beber=, _I have something to eat and to drink_.

_b._ The expression =não ha de que= used in reply to =obrigado=, =muito obrigado=, etc., is equivalent to the English _not at all_ or the French _pas de quoi._

FOOTNOTES:

[32] These are from the Latin pronoun _illo_ and are not to be confused with the definite article which has the same forms. There is a tendency to avoid the use of =o=, so that one often hears such expressions as =va chamar elle= instead of =va chama-lo=; or =visitar-lhe= instead of =visita-lo=. A Brazilian scholar observes: “=assim o pobre o vai perdendo terreno=.”

[33] Some grammarians make a sort of bugbear of the position of the pronouns. This is due in part, at least, to the somewhat different usages in Portugal and Brazil. In Portugal, for example, they would say: =espero que me faça o favor=, _I hope you can do me the favor_, and =não se lembrou do recado=, _he did not remember the message_; while in Brazil they might use these identical expressions or they might say =espero que faça me o favor= and =não lembrou-se do recado=. However, aside from the simple rules here given, the position of the pronoun is a matter of phonetics rather than of rules of grammar.